Health Sciences 3910G:

Academic Health Communication

Science & the Scientific

Approach: Outline
The Nature of Research
Definition of Scientific Research
The Scientific Method of Problem Solving
Generating a Research Question
In-Class Warm-Up Activity (Partners)
Ethical Issues in Research and Writing: APA
Guidelines and Considerations
Tutorial #1 (Partners)

Introduction: The Importance of (and

Need for) Research
Not everyone will be a researcher
Researchers are sometimes viewed as strange
people who deal with insignificant problems
HOWEVER…the need for research in any
health profession cannot be denied
Even though most people in a discipline or
profession recognize the need for research,
most people do not read research results
1% of chemists read research publications
< 7% of psychologists read psychological journals

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 Why Do So Few Professionals Read
Research Articles?
Many believe it is not necessary
Time constraints
May not be practical enough or directly relate
to their work
Many cannot understand research
publications
Language too technical
Terminology unfamiliar and confusing, etc.

*NEED FOR KNOWLEDGE TRANSLATION!!

The Nature of Research

General purposes of research exploration,
description (what, when, where, how),
explanation (why)
Research implies a careful and systematic
means of solving problems and involves
several characteristics:
1) Systematic identification and labeling of
variables, followed by the design of research that
tests relationships among these variables. Data are
then collected that, when related to the variables,
allow the evaluation of the problem and hypotheses.

The Nature of Research

2) Logical Examination of the procedures used
in the research process allows researchers to
evaluate the conclusions drawn.

3) Empirical The researcher collects data on

which to base decisions.

4) Replicable The research process is recorded,

enabling others to test the findings by repeating the
research (or to build future research on previous
results).

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 Definition: Scientific Research

Scientific research is a systematic, controlled

empirical, and critical investigation of
natural phenomenon guided by theory and
hypotheses about presumed relations
among such phenomena
(Kerlinger, 1986, p. 10)

Meanings of ….

“Systematic” and “controlled”?

Accomplished through identification and

labeling of variables and followed by design of
research that tests relationships among these
variables
Alternate explanations are ruled out

•Example of “confounded research design”

Effect of age and gender on medication

compliance?
Sample = 100 women and 100 men
Women: Average age = 70 yrs
Men: Average age = 40 yrs

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What do we mean by “empirical?”
Researcher collects data on which to base
decisions
Usually implies “numbers”

Its universal meaning is “observations”

Examples:

• Questionnaires
• Physical measures
(RT, Max VO2 )
• Interviews

Meanings of ….

What is meant by
“critical”?

• Research is not about

“proving something”
• The essence of science is objectivity

Science versus Common Sense

1. Building of theories
Common Sense
Biased, sometimes
illogical explanations
2. Testing of theories
Common Sense
Often tested in a selective
fashion
Science
Systematically developed
on basis of repeated
observations
Science
Tested in a systematic
empirical fashion

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 Science versus Common Sense (cont.)
3. Concept of control
Common Sense Science
Often confuse correlates Research design leads to
with causes confidence about test
results

4. Search for relationships

Common Sense Science
Generally satisfied with Preoccupied with search
simple explanations for complex
interrelationships

Science versus Common Sense (cont.)

5. Explanations used
Common Sense Science
Tendency to use Interest is solely in
metaphysical testable propositions
explanations

How Do we KNOW Something?

The Scientific Method of Problem Solving

Involves several steps whereby:

1) The problem is developed, defined, and
delimited
2) Hypotheses are formulated
3) Data are gathered and analyzed
4) Results are interpreted with regard to the
acceptance or rejection of the hypotheses

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 Step 1: Developing the Problem
(Defining and Delimiting It)

Assumes researcher has already selected a topic

To design and execute a sound investigation, the
researcher must be very specific about what is to
be studied
An important part of this step is the identification of
the independent and dependent variables (IV and
DV)
IV (experimental, treatment variable) what the
researcher is manipulating
DV the effect of the IV (what is being measured)

Step 2: Formulating the Hypothesis

Hypothesis = the expected result
Based on theoretical construct(s), previous
study results, etc.
Research should have some experimental
hypotheses about each subproblem in
study
*Essential feature of hypothesis = it is
testable!
Study must be designed in such a way that
the hypothesis can be supported or refuted

Step 3: Gathering the Data

Gathering data = not typically the difficult part!
Planning method for data collection = quite
difficult!
Good methods attempt to maximize both
internal validity and external validity
Internal validity extent to which results
can be attributed to treatments used in
study
External validity generalizability of
results (to what extent can results apply to
‘real world’?)

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 Step 4: Analyzing and Interpreting Results
*Most challenging step
Typically involves some statistical analysis
Requires considerable knowledge, experience,
insight
Researcher must provide evidence for support or
rejection of research hypothesis
Researcher also compares results with related
literature and attempts to relate and integrate the
results into a theoretical model
Researcher attempts to synthesize data with results
of other studies to advance field and/or contribute
to development of a theory

Generating a Research Question:

Identifying the Research Problem
Basic requirement = knowledge about a
certain area of interest

HOWEVER…as one becomes more

knowledgeable about an
area, everything seems
to be known!

Guidelines for Finding a Topic

1) Interest are you interested in the area? Will
you learn useful information?
2) Be alert for any controversial issues in some
area of interest
3) **Read a review paper look for outline of
gaps, read reference list and find articles
4) Critical mass Is there enough/too much
information? Is there enough to write about?
5) Theoretical value Does the problem fill a
gap in the literature?
6) Practical value Will the solution to the
problem improve practice?

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 Generating a Research Question: Steps
1. Problem-Obstacle-Idea
Scientist encounters a problem or obstacle to
understanding about a phenomenon of interest
Example:
Does increased cohesiveness lead to increased exercise
adherence?

What is the difference between Dependent

versus Independent Variables?
Cause/determinant = independent variable
(cohesion)
Effect/resultant = dependent variable
(exercise adherence)

Generating a Research Question: Steps

2. Hypothesis Generation
Scientist formulates a tentative proposition, a conjectural
statement (a HYPOTHESIS!) about the relationship
between two or more phenomena
Examples?
What is the difference between a hypothesis and a
prediction?

3. Operationalizing the Variables

Scientist develops a way to measure the constructs of
interest (OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS!)
Examples?

Three Criteria Used to Assess the

“Goodness” of Research Ideas:

1. Correspondence with reality usually better

than those that are completely “off the wall”

2. Ideas should demonstrate coherence and

parsimony a research idea should not be
any more complicated than necessary

OCCAM’S RAZOR:
“What can be explained on fewer principles is
explained needlessly by more”

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 Three Criteria Used to Assess the
“Goodness” of Research Ideas (cont’d):
3. A research idea, if incorrect, must be falsifiable
by some finite set of objective observations

scientific theories must always

be considered incomplete and
subject to modification based on
new data

A Question is Important if Answering it

Will…

Clarify relationships among variables known

to affect the behaviour under study
Support only one of several competing
hypotheses or theories
**Lead to practical applications KT!

A Question is Probably Not Important if…

The answer is already firmly established

The variables under study are known to have
little impact on the behaviour or to be of no
theoretical interest
There is no a priori reason to believe that the
variables are related

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 Acivity: Nature of Research

1. Problem-Obstacle-Idea
Using the following list of variables, develop a research
question

Medication Type II Diabetes Motor Skills

Healthy Eating Smoking Behaviour Stress
Social support Age Physical Activity
Instruction Gender Learning

2. Identify the dependent and independent

variables

Activity: Nature of Research (cont’d)

3. Hypothesis Generation
Develop a hypothesis pertinent to your question and
provide a brief rationale for why it is tenable

4. Operational Definitions
Indicate how you would operationally define
your dependent and independent variables
Note. Do not say you are going to use a
standardized questionnaire to answer this
question.

Ethical Issues in Research and

Writing: APA Guidelines and
Considerations

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 Overview

1. Ethical and legal standards in publishing

2. Ensuring the accuracy of scientific knowledge
3. Protecting the rights and welfare of research
participants
4. Protecting intellectual property rights
5. Planning for ethical compliance

1. Ethical and legal standards in publishing

Basic ethical, legal, and long-standing principles underlie all
scholarly research and writing

Main goals are to:

(1) ensure the accuracy of scientific knowledge;

(2) protect the rights and welfare of research

participants; and

(3) protect intellectual property rights

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

2. Ensuring the accuracy of scientific

knowledge
ETHICAL REPORTING OF RESEARCH RESULTS
The essence of the scientific method involves observations that
can be repeated and verified by others
Scientists do not falsify or fabricate data modifying results or
omitting conflicting observations to present a more convincing
story is prohibited
When errors occur after publication, authors are responsible for
making them public informing the editor and publisher so a
correction notice can be published (appended to original article
in online databases)

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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2. Ensuring the accuracy of scientific
knowledge
DATA RETENTION AND SHARING
Researchers must make data available during and after the review
and publication process if questions arise or others wish to confirm
the analyses and results
Authors are expected to retain raw data (and other relevant
materials) for a minimum of 5 years after publication
Before sharing data, ensure that any personally identifiable
information is deleted

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

2. Ensuring the accuracy of scientific

knowledge
PREVIOUSLY PUBLISHED RESEARCH
Authors should not submit manuscripts that have been published
elsewhere in “substantially similar form or with substantially similar
content”
Authors in doubt about what constitutes prior publication should
contact the editor of the journal in question

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

2. Ensuring the accuracy of scientific

knowledge
PLAGIARISM
“Researchers do not claim the words and ideas of another as their
own; they give credit where credit is due”
Quotation marks should be used to indicate exact words of another
Each time you paraphrase another author, the source must be
credited in the text
Same principle applies to ideas; if authors model a study after one
conducted by someone else, he or she should be given credit

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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2. Ensuring the accuracy of scientific
knowledge
SELF-PLAGIARISM
Researchers should not present their own previously published
work as new scholarship
When duplication is extensive, citation of the duplicated material
is the norm
Where possible, all of the author’s own words that are cited should
be in a single paragraph or few paragraphs, with a citation at the
end of each

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

3. Protecting the rights and welfare of research

participants
RIGHTS AND CONFIDENTIALITY OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
APA Ethics Code specifies the principles psychologists are to follow
in conducting research with humans and animals
Authors, regardless of field, are required to certify that they have
followed these standards as a precondition of publishing their
articles in APA journals
Failure to follow these standards can be grounds for rejecting a
manuscript for publication or for retraction of a published article

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

3. Protecting the rights and welfare of research

participants
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
Professional communications are presumed to be based on objective
interpretations of evidence and unbiased interpretation of fact
An author’s economic and commercial interests in products or
services used or discussed in a paper may colour such objectivity
The safest and most open course of action is to disclose in an author
note activities and relationships that if known to others might be
viewed as a conflict of interest, even if you do not believe any
conflict or bias exists
Also relevant for biases against a product, service, facility, or person
(e.g., competing assessment protocol or psychological test)
Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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4. Protecting intellectual property rights
DEFINING AUTHORSHIP
Reserved for those who make a substantial contribution and who
accept responsibility for a published work
Encompasses not only those who do the actual writing but also those
who have made substantial scientific contributions to a study
Lesser contributions (e.g., advising re: analyses, colleting/entering
data, recruiting participants) may be acknowledged in a note

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

4. Protecting intellectual property rights

DETERMINING AUTHORSHIP

Authors are responsible for determining authorship order general

rule is that name of the principal contributor should appear first (or
last), with subsequent names in order of decreasing contribution
(varies from field to field)

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

4. Protecting intellectual property rights

DETERMINING AUTHORSHIP (CONT’D)
Doctoral work is expected to represent an independent and original
contribution devised by students; as such, students are typically
listed as the principal author of any multi-authored papers
substantially based on their dissertation

When master’s students make primary contributions to the study,

they should be listed as the first author; whey they are beginning to
acquire such skills, they may conduct theses that involve
opportunities to learn through collaboration on a faculty-originated
project in such cases, authorship is determined by the relative
contributions of student and faculty member to the project

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics); Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (2010). In Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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5. Planning for
ethical
compliance

(*UPDATE on p. 26
in 7th ed.)

Ethical Principles of Psychologists

and Code of Conduct (referred to
as the APA Ethics Code; APA, 2002;
http://www.apa.org/ethics);
Writing for the Behavioral and
Social Sciences (2010). In
Publication Manual of the
American Psychological
Association (6th Edition, pp. 9-20).
Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.

Tutorial #1: Dissemination Plan Topic

(2.5%; Due Jan 21, 2020)
1. Brainstorm and list at least 5 health-related
topics of interest with your partner
2. Locate and select a recent systematic review
and/or meta-analysis related to your health-
related topic of choice as a foundation
3. Provide a brief overview of the review (e.g.,
year published, # of studies included, main
findings and gaps, etc.), and a rationale for
your topic selection
*should be no more than two pages in length, submitted
in APA format

Reading(s) for next week…

1. Preparing manuscripts for publication in

psychology journals: A guide for new
authors (2010). American Psychological
Association, Washington, DC.

2. Optional Text Reading: Paper elements

and format (2019, pp.29-67). In
Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (7th Edition).
American Psychological Association.

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