Earth Science

Pedosphere pp. 1

The Components of Soil

Soil is made from portions of the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. It is generally

composed of 45% mineral (gravel, sand, silt, and clay),

25% air, 25% water, and 5% organic matter (humus,

roots, and dead and decaying organisms). These

components reflect the processes that formed the soil.

Soil Formation

Soil forms when rock weathers. Weathering, or the breakdown of rocks, may result from a physical or

chemical change. Soil formation may be a slow or a rapid process, depending on the factors at play.

There are tive tactors that affect soil formation: composition of the parent material, climate,
topography, biological factors, and timne.

1. Parent material-The parent or source material is important in soil formation because its chemistry and
type will determine the kind ot soil that will be formed along with the eftects ot the other factors. Soils
formed on site through the weathering of the underlying rock are called residual soils, However, most
soils are transported from their source to another area by agentS of erosion and transportation such as
water, wind, and ice.

2. Climate - Temperature, raintall, and moisture affects the pattern and intensity of soil-forming

processes such as weathering, leaching, transportation, and distribution. Climate also affects

the type of organisms, biological activity, and rates of chemical reactions. Thus, soil types vary
depending on climate.

3.Topography- The gradient of the slope affects water flow and erosion. Soils that form in steep slopes
tend to be thinner because of the higher rates of erosion. Slope aspect, which is the direction of the
slope face, affects temperature and moisture as slopes facing the sun are warmer. As a result, different
types of soil form in different landforms.

4. Biological factors - Organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms, and humans affect soil
formation. Animals and microorganisms mix the soil through burrowing, while plant roots aid in the
weathering process as they grow. Microorganisms also affect nutrient and chemical exchang

between roots and soil. Human activities such as agriculture and urbanization have positive and

negative eftects on the quantity and quality of soil.

5. Time-The formation of soil is a long and continuous proces which may take hundreds to thousands, of
years depending on the climate and environment. In moderate climates , it takes 200 to 400, years to
develop 1 cm of soil. The rate is faster in tropical climates and much longer in dry and cold climates.

Soil Texture

Soil texture is defined as the relative proportion of the particle sizes in the soil-sand, silt, and clay. Soil is
naturally composed of a mixture of these particles and proportion of which affects other soil properties
such as soil porosity and water retention. The smallest of these particles is clay (<0.002 mm), followed
by silt (0.002-0.005 mm), and sand of varying sizes (0.005-2.00 mm). Particles larger than coarse-grained
sand are called gravel and rock if they are >75.00 mm.

The proportions ot clay, silt, and sand are plotted in the soil textural triangle to determine its soil type
based on particle size. The ideal soil for agricultural use is loam. Loam provides good aeration and
drainage properties of large particles with nutrient-retention and water-holding abilities of clay
particles.

Soil Protile
Soil formation is a gradual process which involves the development of a succession of zones or soil
horizons. Each horizon has a distinct set of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. The
sequence of soil horizons form the surface down to the underlying bedrock is called a soil profile. Soil
profiles vary depending on climate, topography, rock type or parent materials, biological activity, and
time.

Soil scientists use the capital letters O, A, B, C, and E to identify the soil horizons. Most soils have three
major horizons: A, B, andC horizons.

The surface horizon (A) is composed of mineral matter mixed with some dark organic humus. The
subsoil (B) is the accumulated clay and other nutrients from the layers above it. The substratum(C) is
composed of partialy altered parent material. Some soils have an organic borizon (O) on the surface,
composed of loose or

partly decayed organic matter. Some have horizon (E) that 15 characterized by a significant loss of
minerals (eluviation) and leaching. The hard bedrock, which is not soil, uses the letter (R) while the layer
of loose, heterogeneous, superficial material covering the bedrock is collectively called regolith.

Soil Orders

Soil scientists also developed a soil classification system to identify, understand, and manage soils. The
most general level of classification is the soil order consisting of 12 types.

1. Gelisols - Frozen soils found in the coldest regions on Earth

2. Histosols - High organic content and wet

3. Spondosols - Sandy and acidic soils found in moist climates that often support dense forests

4 Andisols-Composed of volcanic ash

5. Oxisols- Very weathered and common in tropical climates

6. Vertisols- Claylike soils that shrink and swell

7. Aridisols- Very dry soils in arid regions

8. Ultisols- Weathered soils

9. Mollisols- Deep and fertile soils

10. Alfisols - Moderately weathered productive soils tound in temperate and humid regions

11. Inceptisols - Slightly developed, young soils tound on steep slopes and mountain ranges

12. Entisols - Newly-formed soils found in steep rocky lands

Fig. 5-6. Global soil regions showing the distribution of the 12 soil orders

In the Philippines, the Bureau of Soils and Water Management (BSWM) recognizes nine soil orders
which include alfisol, andisol, entisol, histosol, inceptisol, mollisol, oxisol, ultisol, and vertisols.

Earth Science

Pedosphere pp. 2

Soil and Soil Quality

Soil is not dirt-it is a resource. It is a main component of land resources, agriculture, and ecological
sustainability. It also provides food and foundation for shelter. Soil is important in sustaining man's
existence and provides humans with the following services:

1. Arable land for agriculture - The word "arable comes from the Latin arabilis, which means "able to be
plowed. Thus, arable lands are plowable lands which could be used to grow crops. An important
component of arable lands is soil that can sustain plant and animal life. According to statistics from the
World Bank, the agricultural land in the Philippines from 2011-2015 is 41.7% of its total land area.

2. Regulating water and filtering potential pollutants- In the water cycle, soil plays an important part in
absorbing water and storing it as groundwater. Water and dissolved solutes also flow over the land or
into and through the soil. The minerals and microbes in soil are also responsible for filtering, degrading,
immobilizing, and detoxifying organic and inorganic materials.
3. Nutrient cycling - Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other essential nutrients are stored,
transformed, and cycled in the soil. Nitrogen in the atmosphere, for example, cannot be readily used by
organisms. It must first be converted into ammonium by nitrogen-fixing bacteria and then into nitrates
by nitrifying bacteria before it can be assimilated by plants and transferred into the food chain. All of
these processes occur within the soil.

4. Foundation and support - Soil structure provides a base for plant roots. Soils along the bedrock also
provide foundation and support for human shelter and structures such as houses and roads.

5. Mineral deposits Soils are mined for their mineral content-whether it be iron, nickel, or aluminum.
These soils are called laterites. They are commonly formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Laterites are
mostly rusty-red in color because of its high iron oxide content.

They develop through an intensive and extended chemical weathering of the underlying parent rock,
resulting in a thick accumulation of metals in the soil.

How Human Activities Degrade Soil Quality

Soil is a nonrenewable, finite resource which is generally not recoverable within a human lifespan. lt is
an important natural resource, but often overlooked. The increasing demands of an ever-growing
population is putting pressure on the world's soil resources through intensive agriculture and tertilizer
use, land conversions, and rapid urbanization.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (UN FAO) define soil degradation as a
change in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and
services for its beneticiaries. Degraded soils cannot provide the goods and services required by it
ecosystem.

1. Soil erosion refers to absolute soil losses in terms of topsoil and nutrients. It is indeed the most visible
effect of soil degradation. Soil erosion is a natural process but is often made much worse by poor
management practices.
2. Soil compaction reduces the amount of air, water, and space available to roots and soil organisms. An
example of compaction is caused by repeated traffic or traveling on wet

soil.

3. Desertification is the irreversible change of the land to such a state where it can no longer be
recovered for its original use. It is characterized by droughts and arid conditions as a result of human
activities and exploitation. Desertification is a major threat to world soils and currently affects about
one-sixth of the world's population and a quarter of the world's land.

4. Intensive agriculture has been increasing since the 1960s in an effort to feed the world population
more efficiently. However, this intensification of agriculture has led to the use of more and heavier
machinery, deforestation, and clearing of landfor use in cultivation. As a consequence, these activities
led to the loss of organic matter, soil compaction, and damage to soil physical properties. The over-
application of nutrients with fertilizers and pesticides led to contaminated soil and water suPplies
leading to the further loss of soil fauna and flora which are an essential parts of a healthy soil.

5. Urbanization or the increasing population has led to the conversion of land to urban centers which
are generally characterized by concrete structures, roads, and pavements. These concrete structures
represent a significant loss of soil, particularly because this loss becomes more or less permanent as soil
1s sealed with concrete. Such sealing hinders the soil's interaction with the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
and biosphere which afftects nutrient cycling and other soil services.

According to the UN FAO, 33% of global soil is moderately to highly degraded through erosion,
salinization, compaction,acidification, chemical pollution, and nutrient depletion which hamper soil
functions and limit food production.

Conservation of Soil Resource

The effects of human activities on soil can be mitigated through sustainable soil management such as
increasing soil organic matter content, keeping the soil surface vegetated, avoiding excessive tillage,
using nutrients wisely, promoting crop rotations, reducing erosion, and preventing soil compaction.

1. Increasing soil organic matter-The addition of new organic matter is important in improving and
maintaining soil quality. It also improves soil structure and enhances water and nutrient-holding
capacity.

2. Keeping the soil covered and vegetated-Ground cover and vegetation protects the soil. lt also
provides habitats tor larger soil organisms and can improve water availability. The soil can be covered by

leaving crop residue on the surface or by planting cover crops.

3. Avoiding exessive tillage- Tillage is done to loosen surface soil and break up soil structure. Reducing it
minimizes the loss of organic matter and protects the soil surtace from further erosion.

4. Manage pests and nutrient efficiently- Efficient pest and nutrient management requires regular

testing and monitoring soil conditions and pests, along with the application of only the necessary
chemicals at the right time and place.

5. Promoting crop rotation - Changing vegetation across the landscape over time allows the soil to
recover, as different plants contribute in a unique way to soil structure and composition. It also
increases the diversity of plants as well as other organisms in the area.

6. Reducing erosion and preventing soil compaction- Erosion can be prevented by keeping the ground

covered and vegetated and by channeling excess surtace water runott. Soil compaction can be

prevented by restricting human activities to designated areas and pathways.