Experimental and numerical assessment of the dynamic

behaviour of a stress-ribbon footbridge

E. Caetano and A. Cunha

This paper describes the experimental and numerical study of the dynamic behaviour of a stress-ribbon footbridge
constructed at the campus of the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto, Portugal. This bridge has not
displayed any vibration problem, as yet, but significant levels of vertical oscillation have been observed under
pedestrian use. Therefore, a site observation programme was developed in order to assess the main dynamic
characteristics and levels of vibration of the bridge, to compare them with limit values recommended by structural
codes, and to validate a numerical model to be used in predicting the bridge response under extreme loadings.

Elsa Caetano
Faculty of Engineering
of the University of
Porto, Portugal
Álvaro Cunha
Faculty of Engineering
of the University of
Porto, Portugal
Introduction
This paper addresses the dynamic study devel-
oped on a stress-ribbon footbridge that was
recently constructed at the new campus of
the Faculty of Engineering of the University
of Porto, Portugal.
The bridge provides a pedestrian link
between the main buildings and the students’
canteen and parking areas, as shown in
Figure 1. It has been in use for about two
years. To the best of the authors’ knowledge,
no extreme vibration was ever reported, but
vertical oscillations are clearly perceptible
under pedestrian use. This fact prompted the
development of a numerical and experimental
study to assess the current levels of vibration
and to provide a comparison with limit values
specified by structural codes. The study led
to the development of a finite-element
model of the bridge, which was checked and
re-evaluated following an ambient vibration
survey performed using piezoelectric1 and
force–balance accelerometers. The finite-
element model was then used to simulate
the dynamic effects induced by the walking
of a pedestrian. The calculated response was
compared with the response measured on the
bridge and with limit values defined by accept-
ability criteria indicated by structural engineer-
ing codes.
This investigation has shown that the
dynamic behaviour of the bridge is rather com-
plex, with a significant degree of non-linearity,
a high dependence on the construction proce-
dure and a great variability of the dynamic
response with the characteristics of the
human excitation in the vicinity of the funda-
mental frequencies. These facts led to some
difficulty in the calibration of the numerical
model and to the need to develop several
iterations in the numerical analysis. Clearly,
experimental testing was essential for the cor-
rect assessment of the dynamic behaviour of
the bridge. In effect, the identification of nat-
ural frequencies and vibration modes based
on site measurements was determinant for
the calibration of the finite-element model.
Furthermore, the measurement of damping
coefficients under service loads was para-
mount for the calculation of the bridge
response.
It is concluded that, under service loads,
the footbridge vibrates within acceptable tol-
erance limits. However, it can undergo large
vibrations if there is a high density of pedes-
trian use with a matching pacing rate of 2 Hz.
However, this possibility is attenuated by the
~ Figure 1 View of footbridge
small length of the bridge and by the expected
increase of damping with the increase of oscil-
lation.
Description of the bridge
Structural characteristics
The bridge was designed by ENCIL2 and its
deck is a very slender stress-ribbon concrete
slab, continuous over two spans. The slab
embeds all four prestressing cables and it
takes a catenary shape over the two spans,
with a circular curve over the intermediate
support.
Figure 2 presents the elevation and cross-
section of the deck. The two spans 28 and
30 m long and the 2 m rise from the abut-
ments to the intermediate pier were the start-
ing-points for the definition of the bridge
structural geometry. The constant cross-sec-
tion is approximately rectangular with external
design dimensions of 3.80 m
0.15 m.
The construction method suggested by the
bridge designer sets the following steps: (a)
installation and progressive prestressing of all
cables to about 750 kN each; (b) hanging of
1 m long precast segments from the cables,
starting from the abutments and ending at

1464^4177
2004 Thomas Telford and fib

30 Caetano and Cunha

Z = 125.00
ments. Fourth, the beam elements were acti-
Z = 124.50 Z = 124.50 vated by connecting the truss element nodes.

10.40
Z = 120.50 Finally, the load associated with the bitumi-
Z = 119.00 Z = 1119.00
nous layer was introduced. Figure 3 shows
7.50 10.00 10.00 .
3 00 28.00 the finite-element mesh before and after
61.00
Z = 126.65 dead loads were applied.
1.00

Z = 124.50 _ 126.65
The calculated final geometry of the deck
1% 1%
matches the geometry specified by the design,
0.15

0.40 3.00 0.40
3.80
~ Figure 2 Elevation and cross-section of the footbridge
the external limits of the deviating saddle over
the intermediate support; (c) casting of the
concrete slab, with formwork provided by
the precast segments (casting should be
made continuously in an approximately sym-
metric fashion with respect to the intermediate
support, and it should be followed by an injec-
tion of the joints between precast segments);
(d) eventual modification of final prestressing
in all cables, for correction of geometry; and
(e) injection of all prestressing ducts with
cement grout.
The intermediate support is made of four
steel pipes forming an inverted pyramid
hinged at the base, with horizontal resistance
provided only by the prestressing cables.
Therefore, the structure was supported long-
itudinally during the construction phase.
6.15
1.00
numerical analysis performed featuring all con-
struction phases. This analysis was performed
by developing a two-dimensional model based
on beam and truss finite elements. First, the
entire set of four prestressing cables was mod-
elled by a series of 59 truss elements, hanging
between the abutments and the intermediate
support, with the initial design force of
3000 kN. Second, these elements were pro-
gressively loaded with the weight of the pre-
cast segments, from abutments to central pier.
The structural response was calculated
accounting for the geometric non-linear beha-
viour of the system. Third, the weight of cast
concrete was added to the same truss ele-
as shown in Figure 4 (calculated/design versus
design). However, the geometry of the bridge
obtained from topographical measurements
(Figure 4: measured) displays a maximum
deviation of about 22 cm near the centre of
the largest span. Beyond that, the site mea-
surement of the external dimensions of the
concrete slab shows that the actual thickness
is about 20% higher than the design value.
The numerical simulation of the real geometry
of the bridge was then performed by increas-
ing the dead load by 20%, and by modifying
the initial force in the cables in order to fit
the measured geometry (Figure 4: calculated/
corrected). The initial force installed in the
cables was changed to 2034 kN, replacing
the design value of 3000 kN.
Table 1 summarises the design and calcu-
lated values of the maximum axial force in the
cables before (initial) and after (final) applica-
tion of the permanent loads. These values
show, in particular, that the real (sagged)

Static behaviour
One particular feature of stress-ribbon bridges
is that their stability and stiffness are deter- ~ Figure 3 Initial configuration (dashed line) and dead load configuration (solid line)
mined by the axial forces in the tensioned
longitudinal cables, the corresponding geo-
metric configuration being defined by the
2.5
equilibrium conditions of these elements Measured
2.0
under dead loads. The use of slender decks Design
1.5
Height: m

Calculated/design
allows low curvatures. It is worth noting, how- Calculated/corrected
1.0
ever, that low curvatures are associated with
0.5
high cable forces and, on the other hand, small
modifications of the geometric structural con- 0.0

figuration lead to significant changes of the !0.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
axial forces. The structural behaviour of the Length: m
bridge shows therefore a great dependence
upon the construction procedure followed.
This characteristic is demonstrated by the ~ Figure 4 Profile of bridge deck: measured, design and calculated

 
Structural Concrete 2004 5 No 1
 Dynamic behaviour of a stress-ribbon footbridge 31

1 kN/mm, calculated as the ratio between

Table 1 Initial and final cable tensions
point force and point deflection at the centre
Cable tension: kN Initial Final Variation span, is however rather small.

Design 3000 3560 560

Calculated (1.2
mass) 2034 3062 1028
Dynamic behaviour: modal analysis
Ambient vibration test. The tests were per-
formed based on a wireless solution,4 using
(a)
0 1 2 3 4 5 four seismographs including force–balance
0.07 120
accelerometers duly synchronised by a lap-
Increment of displacement

Displacement
0.06

Bending moment inc: kN.m

100 top. Two of the seismographs were used

Cable force increment: kN

Bending moment
at mid-span: m

0.05 Cable force as references and were constantly located

80
0.04 at one-third of each of the two spans for
60
0.03
different measurement sequences, while the
40 other two seismographs were located pro-
0.02
gressively at all the other 18 measurement
0.01 20
sections (Figure 6) in such a way that each
0 0 set-up allowed the recording of time series
0 1 2 3 4 5
at both reference stations Ref 1 and Ref 2,
and at two other measurement stations.
(b)
0 2 4 6 8 10 Figure 7 shows some details of the test.
0.009 6
Increment of displacement

Displacement The ambient vibration response of the

0.008
Bending moment inc: kN.m
Axial force increment: kN

Bending moment 5 bridge was measured under pedestrian excita-

0.007
at mid-span: m

Cable force
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0 0
0 2
Concentrated load at the middle of the largest span: kN
~ Figure 5 Variation of displacement, force and bending moment with intensity of (a)
uniformly distributed load; (b) concentrated load at mid-span
geometry of the bridge leads to a more flexible
structure than was initially predicted, and so
the application of transverse loads will result
in higher fluctuations of axial force.
Once the real configuration of the bridge
profile was determined, bridge behaviour
under service loads could be studied appropri-
ately. Figure 5 summarises the main results
obtained in terms of displacement, force and
bending moments referred to the application
of an uniformly distributed load or a concen-
trated load at the middle of the largest span,
for different levels of intensity. Inspection of
this figure shows that the bridge seems to
4
tion. For each pair of measurement points,
acceleration–time series with 6 min of duration
3 were acquired and subsequently processed in
2 order to obtain estimates of power spectral
density functions (PSD) and frequency re-
1
sponse functions (FRF) relating the response
at each section with the reference section.
4 6 8 10
Figure 8 shows two average power spectral
density estimates obtained at the two refer-
ence sections, from which the main natural
frequencies can be identified.
Based on the conventional peak peaking
method applied to the set of FRFs, natural fre-
quencies and modal shapes were identified,
behave almost linearly under service loads, some of which are represented in Figure 9.
despite its geometric non-linear behaviour dur- Table 2 lists the identified natural frequencies,
ing construction. Compared with the real stiff- as well as the characteristics of the corre-
ness range of 2 kN/mm  30kN/mm defined sponding vibration modes. The classification
for concrete, steel or composite footbridges,3 of vibration modes as symmetric and anti-
the actual stiffness of this footbridge of about symmetric is employed for easier understand-
10 11 Measurement
Ref 1 Ref 2 stations
8 9 12 13
7 14 15 16 17
1 2 3 4 5 6 18 19 20 Reference
stations
~ Figure 6 Measurement stations and references

Structural Concrete 2004 5 No 1  

32 Caetano and Cunha

mental frequency was registered, which

could be due to some temperature effects, or
else reflect some degradation, in particular
related to the handrails, that were not consid-
ered in the model. Another point to be empha-
sised concerns the vibration modes 2 and 3
(Table 2), which present a very similar natural
frequency, around 2 Hz. The high modal inter-
action made the separation of these modes
rather difficult, when using the peak peaking
~ Figure 7 Ambient vibration test: seismographs at Ref 1 for initial recording; view of
method.
operations

Numerical modelling. The evaluation of the

0 Ref 1
ing of the structural behaviour. In practice, as dynamic behaviour of the bridge was per-
Ref 2 the structure is not exactly symmetric, this formed, in the first instance, by modelling
Average PSD

10!1
10!3 characterisation is only approximate. Table 2 the bridge deck as a series of continuous
10!4 includes also a comparison with results from beam elements with the initial geometry cor-
10!5 the calibrated numerical model, which will be responding to the dead load configuration
10!6 discussed later. It is worth noting that the defined by the prestressing cables at the
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
modal parameters identified in the present design stage. Table 3 summarises the values
Frequency: Hz
measurement series are rather close to the of the natural frequencies obtained (model
results obtained with the ambient vibration 1), which can be compared with the corre-
~ Figure 8 Average normalised auto- test developed one year ago using two piezo- sponding identified values. This table shows
power spectral estimates at the two electric accelerometers and a Fourier analyser,1 not only that the calculated frequencies
reference sections although some slight decrease of the funda- differ significantly from the measured values,

Exp: 0.990 Hz
Num: 0.949 Hz 3 Exp: 2.083 Hz
2
2 Num: 1.990 Hz
1
0 1
!1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0
!2 !1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
!3 !2
!3
Exp: 2.178 Hz Exp: 2.423 Hz
3 Num: 2.143 Hz 2 Num: 2.417 Hz
2 1.5
1
1 .
05
0 0
!0 50
. 10 20 30 40 50 60
!10 10 20 30 40 50 60 !1
!2 !1.5
!2
!3 !2.5

Exp: 3.753 Hz Exp: 3.857 Hz

2 Num: 3.334 Hz 3 Num: 3.869 Hz

1 2
0 1
0
!1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
!1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
!2 !2
!3 !3
Exp: 4.229 Hz
Num: 4.381 Hz Freq:=5.726 Hz
2
1.5 10 Num: 6.820 Hz
1
0.5 5
0 0
!0.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
!1 !1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
!1.5
!2 !5
!2.5 !10

~ Figure 9 Identified and calculated vibration modes


Structural Concrete 2004 5 No 1
 Dynamic behaviour of a stress-ribbon footbridge 33

stiffness, but also axial stiffness, although the

Table 2 Identified and calculated natural frequencies
Order Measured Calculated Type of mode
frequency: frequency:
Hz Hz
1 0.990 0.949 First antisymmetric (two spans, opposite phase)
2 2.083 1.990 First symmetric (two spans, in-phase)
3 2.178 2.143 Second antisymmetric (L = 30 m)
4 2.423 2.417 Second antisymmetric (L = 28 m)
5 3.753 3.334 Second symmetric (two spans, opposite phase)
6 3.857 3.869 Second symmetric (L = 30 m)
7 4.229 4.381 Second symmetric (L = 28 m)
8 5.726 5.915 Third antisymmetric (L = 30 m)
9 6.517 6.820 Third antisymmetric (L = 28 m)
10 8.262 8.271 Fourth symmetric (two spans, opposite phase)
but also that the mode shapes present a cies obtained (Table 3) are clearly inferior to
different order, which means that this the measured values. However, the order of
numerical model is not able to reproduce the mode shapes in terms of stiffness is in
the dynamic characteristics of the bridge. agreement with the order of the identified
In an attempt to improve the numerical vibration modes.
modelling, a correction of the initial dead By using the numerical modelling of the
load configuration to the real profile was intro- static behaviour, based on the discretisation
duced. The corresponding natural frequencies in truss and beam elements successively acti-
(see Table 3, model 2), associated with the vated so as to reproduce the construction pro-
modes of vibration with similar configuration cess and, considering the tangent stiffness
to the previous ones, present however still matrix after application of the permanent
greater differences in relation to the measured loads and the activation of the beam elements
values. (with the design inertia), new natural frequen-
Trying to frame the characteristics of cies and mode shapes were evaluated. This
dynamic behaviour of the bridge, the bending model (model 4) attempted to combine the
stiffness of the deck was neglected in a second bending stiffness with the geometric stiffness
evaluation. Then, a third numerical model associated with the equilibrium configuration.
(model 3) was obtained, based on a discretisa- Comparing these calculated frequencies with
tion in beam elements with the geometric con- the experimental values, one can see that this
figuration of the measured longitudinal profile, model is significantly stiffer than the real struc-
with the cross-sectional area of the prestressed ture.
cables and negligible inertia, submitted to an The results previously obtained show that
initial force of 2034 kN. The natural frequen- the bridge vibration mobilises not only bending
former is only partially mobilised.
The results of the numerical modelling
which are presented in Table 3 (final model)
and in Figure 9 were obtained after several
modifications introduced in model 4, concern-
ing the measured thickness of the concrete
slab instead of the design value, and also
that rotations between adjacent elements are
partially allowed. Beyond that, the cross-sec-
tional area and the bending stiffness of those
elements was reduced to 50% and 60% of
the design value respectively. These hypoth-
eses may reflect a deficient adherence
between the precast and the cast-in-situ con-
crete, and the lack of sealing between the pre-
cast segments, contrary to the definitions of
the design. Although the first of these hypoth-
eses cannot be easily confirmed, the second
one can be clearly seen.
Inspection of Table 3 and Figure 9 shows
the quite satisfactory degree of correlation
achieved between experimental and numerical
results.
Dynamic behaviour: damping
Damping is a key factor in the characterisation
of vibration of structural systems that can be
excited near resonance under service loads, as
in the case of the present footbridge.
Specific ranges of damping are recom-
mended in the technical literature for design
purposes, considering different types of bridge
projects. In the case of concrete bridges, it is
usual to assume damping coefficients not
higher than 1%.3 In the case of stress-ribbon
bridges, Block and Schlaich5 refer to the mea-
sured value of 2% in a German bridge. It is

Table 3 Identified and calculated natural frequencies using different numerical models

Mode Identified Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Final model

No. frequency: Hz frequency: Hz frequency: Hz frequency: Hz frequency: Hz frequency: Hz

1 0.990 0.849 0.794 0.724 1.096 0.949

2 2.083 2.448 2.654 0.937 2.442 1.990
3 2.178 1.902 1.822 1.446 3.813 2.143
4 2.423 2.096 2.002 1.547 3.895 2.417
5 3.753 — — 2.217 7.496 3.334
6 3.857 3.415 3.401 3.376 7.569 3.869
7 4.229 3.782 3.630 3.034 12.4 4.381

 
Structural Concrete 2004 5 No 1
34 Caetano and Cunha
0.015
Displacement: m
0.01
Stat. 3
Stat. 5
0.005
0 0
!0.005
!0.01
!0.015
20 25
Time: s
~ Figure 10 Free vibration response: skipping at 1 Hz, station 3 and 5; skipping at 2 Hz,
station 3
worth noting, however, that for this type of
bridges a considerable oscillation of damping
estimates can be expected, not only due to the
construction process, but also to the possibility
of existence of some energy-dissipating zones
in the connections of the several structural ele-
ments.
In the present investigation, dynamic tests
were performed in order to identify modal
damping factors associated with the most rele-
vant mode shapes in terms of human-induced
vibrations. The procedure adopted consisted
of exciting the structure with a frequency
close to the corresponding natural frequency,
using a pedestrian skipping in a fixed position.
After some cycles of oscillation, the structure
falls in resonance. By sudden interruption of
the motion, the free vibration response could
be recorded, providing information to the
application of the logarithmic decrement
method. Figure 10 shows the measured
response concerning the two first modes of
vibration, at frequencies of about 1 and 2 Hz.
The measured damping factors were of 1.7
and 2.6% for each one of these modes,
respectively. It is worth noting, however, that
this damping increases with the amplitude of
oscillation. In fact, by introducing a high level
of oscillation (4 m/s2) at 2 Hz, it was possible to
identify a damping factor of 4.8%.
Human-induced vibrations
The existence of two vibration modes at a cri-
tical frequency of about 2 Hz evidences the
proneness of this bridge to vibrations induced
by pedestrians. This fact is consistent with the
general indication given in Bachmann et al.,3
according to which the likelihood of occur-
rence of vibration problems is increased for
1.5
Acceleration: m/s2
1 Stat. 3
0.5
!0.5
!1
~ 1.7%
ξ=
ξ~
!1.5
30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time: s
concrete spans greater than 25 m, or for
steel spans greater than 35 m. In the following
investigations existent vibration limit criteria
were applied in order to assess the condition
of the current footbridge and compare that
information with the observed levels of vibra-
tion.
Design rules and acceptability limits
for vertical vibrations
Vertical vibrations in footbridges are usually
limited according to human comfort criteria,
structures with a fundamental frequency
lower than 5 Hz being considered as critical.
The limit values of vertical vibrations are then
established based on the maximum vertical
acceleration induced by a single pedestrian
weighting of 700 N, moving with a pacing
rate coincident with the fundamental fre-
quency of the bridge or one of the correspond-
ing harmonic frequencies. Common limit
values mentioned in the literature are in the
range 0.5–1.0 m/s2 for a frequency of 2 Hz.
In terms of codes, both BS 54006 and the
Ontario Bridge Code7 define acceptability
vibration criteria associated with pedestrian
response. Respectively, they state 05f 05 1 and
025f 078
1 as serviceability acceleration limits for
the bridge excitation by one pedestrian, where
f1 is the fundamental frequency (in Hz) (here
taken as the matching frequency). For this
footbridge, the application of these criteria,
considering a natural frequency of 2 Hz,
would give an acceleration limit of 0.70 m/s2
(BS 5400) or 0.43 m/s2 (Ontario Bridge
Code).
For the evaluation of the maximum vertical
acceleration associated with the walking of a
pedestrian at the resonance pacing rate, a sim-
plified expression given in Bachmann et al.3
can be applied
a ¼ 4p2
f12
y
a
F ðm=s2 Þ ð1Þ
where y is the static deflection produced at
= 2.6%
mid-span by a force of 700 N, a is the Fourier
coefficient of the relevant harmonic of the
walking rate, and F is a dynamic amplification
factor defined in that reference.
For this footbridge, using the damping
coefficient calculated above, equation (1)
gives an acceleration estimate of 0.63 m/s2.
This value verifies the limit acceleration defined
by BS 5400, but not the limit established by
the Ontario Bridge Code.
These Codes present no criteria in respect
to effects associated with several pedestrians
simultaneously walking on the bridge. How-
ever, an enhancement factor m derived by
Matsumoto can be calculated,3 based on a
Poisson distribution of the arrivals, given by
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
m ¼ k
T0 ð2Þ
where k is the mean flow rate for a certain
period of time and T0 is the time necessary
to cross the bridge. For this footbridge,
assuming a flow rate of 1.5 persons/m.s, an
enhancement factor of 13.0 is obtained.
Therefore, the maximum acceleration ex-
pected for this bridge would be 7.9 m/s2. Con-
sidering the threshold acceleration limits that
are referred to in the literature3 for vibrations
in the frequency range 1 Hz  10 Hz
(perception: 0.1 m/s2; disturbant/unpleasant:
0.55 m/s2; intolerable: 1.8 m/s2), it is under-
stood that this amplitude of vibration would
not be acceptable. It should be noted however
that for large levels of oscillation the damping
increases and consequently leads to a smaller
response.
Observed vibrations
The acceptability criteria defined above were
checked against the measured vibrations.
One person weighting 835 N passed over the
bridge at different walking rates, trying to
excite the bridge at the main frequencies.
The response was measured at the most sig-
nificant locations, namely at one-third and
at the centre of the largest span (stations 3
and 5, respectively), and at one-third of the
 
Structural Concrete 2004 5 No 1
 Dynamic behaviour of a stress-ribbon footbridge 35

2.5 2.5
Max.: 0.53 m/s2 Max.: 1.97 m/s2
2 2
Acceleration: m/s2

1.5 1.5

Acceleration: m/s2
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
!0.5 !0.5
!1 !1
!1.5 !1.5
!2 !2
!2.5 !2.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time: s Time: s

(a) (b)

~ Figure 11 Walking of pedestrians at a pacing rate of 2 Hz, measured acceleration at one-third the largest span: (a) one pedestrian;
(b) 22 pedestrians in ‘synchronised’ motion

smallest span (station 18) for the two-way leads to a maximum acceleration of 5.72 m/s2, quencies and the exciting frequencies.
crossing (across the bridge and back). which is clearly an unacceptable value, accord- Although the shifting from resonant frequen-
Figure 11(a) shows the acceleration–time ing to the above-mentioned criteria. However, cies is rather small, it may result in an under-
series obtained at one-third of the largest it was possible to observe that the ‘synchro- evaluation of the resonant response. In effect,
span for a pacing rate of 2 Hz. For the purpose nised’ motion of 22 pedestrians with a pacing for a single degree system with a natural fre-
of comparison with the above-estimated rate of about 2 Hz did not cause accelerations quency of 2 Hz and a damping coefficient of
response, a correction factor of 700/835 was superior to 2 m/s2 (Figure 11(b)). 2.6%, an oscillation with a frequency shifting
applied to these measurements, giving a max- It is important therefore to question of 0.05 Hz from resonance leads to a decrease
imum acceleration of 0.44 m/s2, which means whether the bridge has really been excited at of the resonant response by more than 50%.
that equation (1) provides an overestimation resonance or not. This fact is even more rele- The difficulty for a pedestrian or a group of
by 40% of the maximum acceleration and vant as two very close modes exist at 2 Hz. The pedestrians walking across the bridge to excite
that the bridge exhibits levels of vibration analysis of the spectra of the response records the bridge at resonance results from the small
that are situated within the acceptability limit (Figure 12) shows in effect the presence of bridge length and from the variation in the
defined by the Ontario Bridge Code. various very close peaks around 2 Hz These slope of the deck. In effect, skipping by one
The application of the corrective factor 13 peaks represent the two adjacent natural fre- person at 2 Hz at a fixed location was shown

0.025 0.25
2.09

2.05 2.23
0.02 0.2
2.17 2.18
Amplitude FFT: m/s2

Amplitude FFT: m/s2

0.015 0.15

2.08

0.01 0.1

1.86
0.005 0.05

1.02
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency: Hz Frequency: Hz

(a) (b)

~ Figure 12 Fourier spectra of response records, walking of pedestrians at a pacing rate of 2 Hz, measured acceleration at one-third
the largest span: (a) one pedestrian; (b) 22 pedestrians in ‘synchronised’ motion

Structural Concrete 2004 5 No 1  

36 Caetano and Cunha

1.4
7
1.2
5 Max.: 6.61 m/s2 2.17

Amplitude FFT: m/s2

1.0
Acceleration: m/s2

1 0.8

!1
0.6
2.07
!3
0.4
!5
0.2
!7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0
Time: s 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency: Hz
(a) (b)

~ Figure 13 Skipping of group of 22 pedestrians at fixed position at a rate of 2 Hz, measured acceleration at one-third the largest
span: (a) time response; (b) Fourier spectrum

to induce a resonant response of more than
1 m/s2 (Figure 10), whereas only 0.53 m/s2
were measured on a two-way crossing of the
bridge (Figure 11(a)). Furthermore, the group
of 22 persons skipping at 2 Hz at the same
position in the vicinity of one-third the largest
span produced in a short period of less than
10 s an oscillation with an amplitude of almost
7 m/s2 (Figure 13).
Numerical simulations
In an attempt to complement the experimental
tests performed on the footbridge, a set of
numerical simulations were developed. The
action of a pedestrian walking was simulated,
considering the load function defined in Bach-
mann et al.,3 a weight of 835 N and a forward measured and calculated response shows a
speed of 1.6 m/s. A step-by-step integration significant difference, which is consistent
was performed, using the measured damp- with the fact that resonance was not actually
ing coefficients. The pacing rates of 1.990 attained on the prototype. Moreover, the pat-
and 2.143 Hz (frequencies of the second and tern of the measured acceleration (Figures
third modes of vibration) were used. Figure 14 11(a) and 16) indicates that the pedestrian
shows the responses at one-third of the largest excitation has mobilised essentially the third
span, with maximum values of 0.778 and vibration mode of the bridge.
1.338 m/s2, respectively, both considerably A final numerical study was developed
higher than the measured value. The which consisted of the simulation of the skip-
responses at the middle of the largest span ping of a pedestrian at one-third the largest
are also represented in Figure 15 for the two span at a rate of 2.143 Hz. The time function
walking rates of 1.990 and 2.143 Hz. Maxi- was generated according to Bachmann et al.3
mum accelerations of 0.834 and 0.593 m/s2 as a half sine with a duration of about half the
were calculated at this location, whereas the skipping period, and an impact factor of 3. The
maximum measured acceleration was 0.35 calculated acceleration, represented in Figure
m/s2 (Figure 16). The comparison between 17, exhibits a maximum of 1.117 m/s2, which

1.5 Max.: 0.778 m/s2 1.5 Max.: 1.388 m/s2

1 1
Acceleration: m/s2

Acceleration: m/s2

0.5 0.5

0 0

!0.5 !0.5

!1 !1

!1.5 !1.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time: s Time: s
(a) (b)

~ Figure 14 Numerical response at one-third largest span for pacing rates of: (a) 1.990 Hz; and (b) 2.143 Hz

Structural Concrete 2004 5 No 1 

 Dynamic behaviour of a stress-ribbon footbridge 37

1.5 1.5
Max.: 0.834 m/s2 Max.: 0.593 m/s2
1 1
Acceleration: m/s2

Acceleration: m/s2
0.5 0.5

0 0

!0.5 !0.5

!1 !1

!1.5 !1.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time: s Time: s
(a) (b)

~ Figure 15 Numerical response at middle of largest span for pacing rates of: (a) 1.990 Hz; and (b) 2.143 Hz

also be concluded that the maximum resonant pedestrians on the bridge leads to the conclu-
1.5
Acceleration: m/s2

Max.: 0.35 m/s2 response calculated on the basis of a numerical sion that the bridge can suffer large vibrations
1
0.5 analysis can be taken conservatively as the for a high density of pedestrians, provided that
0 maximum expected acceleration of the foot- a matching pacing rate of 2 Hz occurs, the
!0.5
bridge. measured values show that the bridge
!1
!1.5 response is significantly lower than the numer-
0 20 40 60 80 100
ical estimate. This is to a great extent moti-
Time: s
Conclusions vated by the difficulty in inducing motion at
resonance, as a consequence of both the
~ Figure 16 Measured response at middle This study focused on the analysis of the small length of the bridge and the variation
of largest span for a pacing rate of 2 Hz dynamic behaviour of a stress-ribbon foot- in the slope of the walking deck. However, it
bridge, using both experimental and numerical may also be due to the increase of damping
tools. with the amplitude of oscillation.
The investigation has demonstrated the
1.5 Max.: 1.117 m/s2
Acceleration: m/s2

complex behaviour of a simple footbridge,

1
0.5
0 in the characterisation of the corresponding
!0.5
!1
!1.5
0 5
~ Figure 17 Skipping of a pedestrian at
fixed position at a rate of 2.143 Hz,
calculated acceleration at one-third the
largest span
is very close to the measured maximum accel-
eration of 1.23 m/s2 (see Figure 10), consider-
ing in particular the uncertainty in the
definition of the impact factor of the pedes-
trian load.
These results provide therefore a validation
of the developed numerical modelling. It can
and the important role of experimental testing
structural behaviour and in the tuning of a
finite-element model. On the other hand, the
10 15 20 25 30 significant variability of the structural response
Time: s for frequencies of excitation close to natural
frequencies and the difficulty in inducing reso-
nance in the prototype, show the advantages
of using numerical methods to complement
field measurements, in order to extrapolate
the most extreme structural response.
In terms of the dynamic behaviour of the
studied stress-ribbon footbridge, the levels of
vibration associated with the walking of a
pedestrian were measured and compared
with limit criteria, showing values within the
acceptability tolerance, although relatively
high. With regard to the response induced by
synchronised human motion, although the
application of an enhancing factor associated
with the simultaneous presence of various
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the collaboration
of their colleague António Vasconcelos, who
performed the topographical measurements
of the bridge, and for the fruitful comments
from Professor António Adão da Fonseca. The
authors also acknowledge the collaboration
provided by the MSc students in the perfor-
mance of the dynamic tests.
References
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‘lively’ footbridge. Proceedings of an International
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3. Bachmann, H., Ammann, W. J. and Deischl, F.,
Vibration Problems in Structures: Practical
Guidelines. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 1995.

Structural Concrete 2004 5 No 1  

38 Caetano and Cunha
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Structural Concrete 2004 5 No 1