11-Explain what is meant by the terms stem cell, pluripotency and totipotency and discuss the way

society uses scientific knowledge to make decisions about the use of stem cells in medical therapies
(e.g. regulatory authorities relating to human embryo research, ability of stem cells to develop into
specialised tissues, potential sources of stem cells, who could benefit from the therapies, procedures to
obtain stem cells and their risks).

-Stem cells= are unspecialised cells that can develop into any type of cell. They divide by mitosis to become
new cells which then become specialised.

-Pluripotency = the ability of a stem cell to produce all the specialised cells in an organism but not
extraembryonic cells.

-Totipotency= the ability to produce all cell types, including all specialised cells in an organism and
extraembryonic cells (cells of the placenta and umbilical cord)

-Stem cells could be used to treat some diseases.

1-Stem cells can develop into any specialised cell type, so scientist think they could be sued to replace
damaged tissues in a range of diseases.
2-There are stem cell therapies for leukaemia.
3-There is research to use them as treatment for many conditions, including Spinal cord injuries and heart
disease and damage caused by heart attacks.
4-Those who make decisions about their use & research have to consider all potential benefits:
-They could save many lives (growing new organs).
-Improve the quality of life for many ( replaced damaged cells in eyes of blind people)

Human stem cells can come from adult tissue or Embryos.

1-Adult stem cells=
1-They are obtained from the body tissues of an adult. Found in bone marrow.
2-It’s a simple operation- very little risk involved, but quite a lot of discomfort. A needle is inserted into the
centre of a bone (hip) and a small quantity of bone marrow is removed.
3-They aren’t as flexible as embryonic stem cells; they can only develop into a limited range of cells.

2-Embryonic stem cells=

1-They are obtained from early embryos.
2-Embryos are created in a lab using in vitro fertilisation (IVF) (egg cells are fertilised by sperm outside the
womb)
3-Once embryos are 4-5 days old, stem cells are removed from them and the rest of the embryo is destroyed.
4-Embryonic stem cells can develop into all types of specialised cells.

Making decisions=
-Obtaining stem cells from embryos created by IVF raises ethical issues, because of the destruction of an
embryo that is viable.
-Many believe that at fertilisation a genetically unique individual is formed that has a right to life. Therefore
its wrong to destroy embryos.
-Some have fewer objections to stem cells being obtained from unfertilised embryos. Because these aren’t
viable.
-Some think scientist should only use adult stem cells because their production doesn’t destroy an embryo.
But adult stem cells can’t develop into all the specialised cell types that embryonic stem cells can.
-Decision-makers in society must take into account everyone’s views when making decisions about
important scientific work.
-Embryonic stem cells could be really useful in medicine, but research into their use raises many ethical
issues.
-Regulatory authorities have been established to consider benefits and ethical issues. They=
-Look at proposals of research to decide if they should be allowed. So research are done for good reasons
and research isn’t repeated.
-Licensing and monitoring centres, therefore only fully trained staff carry out research. The staff will
understand the implications of the research and won’t waste precious resources. Helps avoid unregulated
research.
-Producing guidelines and codes of practice, so all scientist work in a similar manner. So methods of
extraction are controlled.
-Monitoring developments in research, so all guidelines are up to date with the latest scientific
understanding.
-Providing info and advice to governments and professionals. Helps to promote the science and helps society
to understand it.

12- Describe how totipotency can be demonstrated practically using plant tissue culture techniques.
1-A single cell is taken from a growing are on a plant (e.g. a shoot or a root).
2-The cell is placed in some growth medium (agar) that contains nutrients and growth hormones. The growth
medium is sterile, so microorganisms can’t grow and compete with the plant cells.
3-The plant cell will grow and divide into a mass of unspecialised cells. If the conditions are suitable (right
growth hormones are given) the unspecialised cells will differentiate into specialised cells.
4-Eventually, the cells will grow and differentiate into an entire plant.
-Tissue culture shows totipotency because a single stem cell can produce all the specialised cells to make a
whole plant.

13- Explain how cells become specialised through differential gene expression, producing active
mRNA leading to synthesis of proteins, which in turn control cell processes or determine cell structure
in animals and plants (details of transcription are not required)
-Genotype: the alleles a person has.
-Phenotype: the characteristics the alleles produce.
-Stem cells are specialised because different genes in their DNA become active; they express different gene
to make different proteins.
1-Stem cells all contain the same genes, but not all of them are expressed because not all of them are active.
2-Under the right conditions, some genes are activated and some are inactivated.
3-mRNA is only transcribed from the active genes.
4-The mRNA from the active genes is then translated into proteins.
5-These proteins modify the cell- they determine the cell structure and control cell processes (including the
activation of more genes, which produces more proteins).
6-Changes to the cell produced by these proteins cause the cell to become specialised (differentiate). These
changes are difficult to reverse, so once a cell has differentiated, it stays specialised.

14- Explain how phenotype is the result of an interaction between genotype and the environment (e.g.
animal hair colour, human height, monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and cancers), but the data on the
relative contributions of genes and environment is often difficult to interpret.

-Genetic factors=
1-Different species have different genes.
2-Individuals of the same species have the same genes but different alleles.
3-Different alleles of the same genes are found in the same position on both chromosomes. This position=
locus.
4-The genes and alleles an organism has, make up its genotype.
5-The differences in genotype result in variation in phenotype (characteristics displayed).
6-Characteristics controlled by only 1 gene = monogenic. They tend to show continuous variation.
7-Characteristics controlled by a number of genes at different loci are said to be polygenic. They usually
show continuous variation.
8-Examples of variation caused only by genetic factors include blood group in human and antibiotic
resistance in bacteria.
9-You inherited your genes from your parents. This means variation caused by genetic factors is inherited.

Environmental factors=
1-Variation can also be caused by differences in the environment, e.g. climate, food, lifestyle.
2-Characteristics controlled by environmental factors can change over an organism’s life.
3-Examples include accents and pierced ears.

Both=
Genetic factors determine the characteristics an organism’s born with, but environmental factors can
influence how some characteristics develop. E.G:
1-Skin colour= the amount of melanin (pigment) people have in their skin is partially controlled by genes,
but skin colour is influenced by the amount of sunlight a person is exposed to.
2-Flagellum= genes determine if a microorganism can grow a flagellum, but some will only start to grow
them in certain environments, e.g. if metal ions are present.

1-Height= Is polygenic and affected by environmental factors, especially nutrition. E.g. tall parents usually
have tall children, but if the children are undernourished, they won’t have enough food and nutrients to grow
to their maximum height.

2-Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) = is an enzyme that breaks down monoamines (a type of chemicals) in
humans. Low levels of MAOA have been linked to mental health problems. MAOA production is controlled
by a single gene (monogenic), but taking anti-depressants and smoking tobacco can reduce the amount
produced.

3-Cancer= is the uncontrolled division of cells that leads to lumps of cells (tumours) forming. The risk of
developing some cancers is affected by genes, but environmental factors such as diet can also influence the
risk.

4-Animal hair colour= is polygenic, but the environment also plays a part in some animals. E.g. some arctic
animals have dark hair in summer but white hair in winter. Environmental factors like decreasing
temperature trigger this change but it couldn’t happen if the animal didn’t have the genes for it.

-Data on variation can be very tricky to interpret because some characteristics can be affected by many
different genes (polygenic) and many environmental factors.
-It’s difficult to know which factors are having the greatest effect.
-This makes it hard to draw conclusions about the causes of variation.