DWDM Introduction

Wavelength Division
Multiplexing
Introduction
www .marconi.com Unpublished : Copyright Marconi Communications Limited. All Rights Reserved. 4on-ac000001 -e-A1
OUTLINE
Propagation in optical fibres
WDM Systems
DWDM Challenge
Optical fibre
Protective coating
~2.5mm
Secondary coating
~1mm
Possible air
Primary coating
Cladding SiO2
~125µm
Core SiO2 + Doping (GeO2)

S.M.~7 to10µm
M.M.~50µm
Propagation: Wave theory approach
l MODES are the solutions of Maxwell’s equations in a
dielectric medium, with the appropriate border
conditions.
l Each mode is associated with a propagation constant

2π
β= neff = k ⋅ neff
λ
l In a multi-mode fibre each mode has a different group
velocity, but in order to avoid modal dispersion only
one mode can be allowed to propagate
λ > λc λc = cut-off wavelength
l Cut-off condition can be easily achieved by reducing

core’s radius. A single-mode fibre has a core with a
small diameter ≈ 8 µm
Attenuation of Fibre (1 of 2)
l Light needs to spend energy to propagate
l The attenuation of a section of fibre can be

easily expressed by an exponential decay
relation:
Pout = Pine −α L
Pout
α
z
Pin
L
α attenuation constant
L length of the fibre
Pin / Pout optical input/output power
Attenuation of Fibre (2 of 2)
l The attenuation constant α is usually given in
dB/Km
 Pout 
αdB = −10 log10  
 Pin 
l The relation between α and αdB

αdB = α ⋅ 10 log10 e ≈ 4.343 ⋅ α
Material dispersion is one

of the causes of power
attenuation of a fiber
Attenuation Loss
Window Band [nm] α [dB/km]

I 800÷950 2
Attenuation II 1280 ÷ 1350 0.5
[dB/km] III 1510 ÷ 1600 0.2
10
I
Ra
ylei
gh
ion
1 Sca II
rpt
tter
so
Ultra ing III
Ab
viole
ed
t Ab
sorp
rar
0.1 tion
Inf
Fibre impurities
850 1300 1550 λ [nm]
Linear effects on propagation
l Chromatic dispersion (or group velocity

dispersion GVD)
l Polarisation Mode dispersion (PMD)

(Polarisation dependent Loss and Gain PDL & PDG)
Chromatic Dispersion (1 of 4)
l Chromatic dispersion is the phenomenon by

which different spectral components of a
pulse travel at different velocities into the
fibre.
l This causes a temporal broadening of the

transmitted pulse.
Chromatic Dispersion (2 of 4)
Chromatic dispersion (3 of 4)
Laser line width
Frequency THz
196.0 195.5 195.0 194.5 194.0 193.5 193.0 192.5 192.0 191.5 191.0
1530 1535 1540 1545 1550 1555 1560 1565

Wavelength nm
Single -
Single-
wavelength Received pulses
transmitted spreads in time
pulses
The energy of a narrow pulse is spread out over a larger time

interval → Inter Symbolic Interference (ISI)
Chromatic dispersion (4 of 4)
l Chromatic dispersion is due to:
l the dependence of the refractive index on

wavelength (material dispersion)
n = n(λ)
l the distribution of the energy between core and
cladding depends on the “mode” (waveguide
dispersion).
l The differential delay of spectral components

can be evaluated by means the dispersion
coefficient of the fibre.
D [ps/(nm km)]
Single-Mode Fibres
l Three kinds of single-mode fibre have been
developed with different dispersion profiles.
In chronological order:
l Standard Single-mode Fibre (SMF): designed to
provide zero dispersion at 1310 nm to support
early long-haul transmission (ITU G.652-G.654)
l Dispersion-shifted Fibre (DSF): designed to
provide zero dispersion at 1550 nm (ITU G.653)
l Non-zero Dispersion-shifted Fibre (NZDSF):
designed to provide small dispersion at 1550 nm
in order to reduce non-linear effects on WDM
systems (ITU G.655)
Optical Fibre Dispersion
D
[ps/(nm km)]
20 atic dispersion SMF

chrom
18 2nd order G.652
16
6
4
SF
NZ D
5 DSF
2 G.65
G.653
0 1530 1540 1550 1560 λ [nm]
-2 EDFA
PASSBAND
Limits of Chromatic Dispersion
1000
1000
900 2.5
2.5 Gb/s
Gb/s
900
800
800 10
10 Gb/s
Gb/s
[km]
Distances [km] 700
700 40
40 Gb/s
Gb/s
600
600
G.652
G.652
Distances
500
500
400
400
G.655
G.655
300
300
200
200
100
100
00
22 44 66 88 10
10 15
15 17
17 20
20
Dispersion
Dispersion coefficient
coefficient [ps/(nm
[ps/(nm km)]
km)]
Dispersion Compensation
l DCF = Dispersion Compensating Fibre
(with negative dispersion coefficient)
D ≅ -85 [ps/(nm km)]
100 km G.652 DCF-100 (20 km)

TX
D = 17 D = -85
Double stage Amplifier
lDCF modules are usually expressed in equivalent

length of SMF - G.652.
In PLX DCF-120 module compensates 120 km of SMF
Dispersion Compensation Fibre
D
[ps/(nm km)]
20 SMF - G.652
18
16 2nd order CD
often cannot be
2 compensated
SMF + DCF
0
1530 1540 1550 1560 λ [nm]
-2
-75
-85 DCF
-95
C - BAND
Dispersion Compensation Fibre
lResults:
l Mean total dispersion can be compensated
l Span per span compensation for minimising non-

linear effects
lDrawbacks:
l high attenuation than additional amplifier required
l DCF is expensive
l Many channels → 2nd order residual dispersion
Light Polarisation
Wave Electrical
Vertical x field
Polarisation (Vector sum of
Mode Polarisation Modes)
x z
z
Propagation axis
Horizontal
y Polarisation Mode
z
y
l In a homogenous medium, the two polarisation
modes have the same propagation constant β .
l Ideally they don’t give rise to any spreading of
the pulse.
Polarisation Mode Dispersion (PMD)
Ideal situation Polarised Optical
x Signal
z
Propagation
axis
x
“Faster”
PSP ”Dispersed”
Optical Signal
Real situation
z
Differential group
delay (DGD)
y “Slower” PSP
PMD coefficient
Probability density
l DGD is a time-variant
random variable. Its
distribution can be assumed
to be maxwellian.
DGD
<DGD> 3<DGD>
lA PMD coefficient in a fibre can be defined as the

mean value of DGD per square root of fibre length.
PMD coefficient = <DGD> / L1/2
NOMINAL TYPICAL Main source
G.652 0.5 0.02-0.5 external stresses
internal stresses;
G.653 0.5 0.3-1.0 elliptical core
G.655 0.5 < 0.2 internal stresses
elliptical core;
DCF 0.5 0.2-0.5 internal stresses
Limits of Polarisation Mode Dispersion
1000
1000
900 2.5
2.5 Gb/s
Gb/s
900
800
800 10
10 Gb/s
Gb/s
[km]
Distances [km]
Standard
ITU Standard
700
700 40
40 Gb/s
Gb/s
600
600
Distances
500
500
400
400
ITU
300
300
200
200
100
100
00
0.1
0.1 0.2
0.2 0.5
0.5 11 1.5
1.5 22 2.5
2.5 33
1/2
PMD
PMD coefficient [ps/km1/2]]
coefficient [ps/km
PMD real measurements
WATFORD 28 1,32 0,25
WATFORD 29Distribution
2,32
of PMD, 0,44
Watford to Amersham
WATFORD 30 2,76 0,53
WATFORD 31 0 0
WATFORD
1,2 32 2,27 0,43
WATFORD 33 3,57 0,68
WATFORD 34 2,28 0,44
1
WATFORD 35 2,29 0,44
WATFORD 36 2,09 0,4
0,8
PMD (ps/km1/2)
WATFORD 37 1,79 0,34

WATFORD 38 2,09 0,4
WATFORD
0,6 39 3,47 0,66
WATFORD 40 3,32 0,63
WATFORD 41 3,72 0,71
0,4
WATFORD 42 1,65 0,32
WATFORD 43 2,37 0,45
0,2
WATFORD 44 2,7 0,52
WATFORD 45 1,95 0,37
WATFORD
0 46 1,93 0,37
0 10 20 30 40 50
Fiber Number (3-46)
PMD overnight long-term measurements
6.27.47 0,27 6.27.47 1,95
Amersham to Watford Overnight DGD
6.30.47 0,27 6.30.47 1,96
6.33.47 0,27 6.33.47 1,95
6.36.47 0,27 6.36.47 1,95
2,15
6.39.48 0,27 6.39.48 1,94
6.42.49 0,27 6.42.49 1,94
6.45.49 0,27 6.45.49 1,95
2,1
6.48.49 0,27 6.48.49 1,94
6.51.49 0,27 6.51.49 1,94
6.54.50
2,05 0,27 6.54.50 1,94
6.57.51 0,27 6.57.51 1,94
7.00.51 0,27 7.00.51 1,94
7.03.52 0,27 7.03.52 1,94
DGD (ps)
2
7.06.53 0,27 7.06.53 1,94
7.09.53 0,27 7.09.53 1,94
7.12.53
1,95 0,27 7.12.53 1,94
7.15.53 0,26 7.15.53 1,93
7.18.54 0,27 7.18.54 1,93
1,9
7.21.54 0,26 7.21.54 1,93
7.24.54 0,26 7.24.54 1,93
1,85
1,8
0.11.48
0.35.51
0.59.55
1.24.00
1.48.05
2.12.12
2.36.17
3.00.20
3.24.25
3.48.29
4.12.31
4.36.30
5.00.32
5.24.35
5.48.41
6.12.46
6.36.47
7.00.51
7.24.54
21.08.32
21.16.34
21.47.30
22.11.34
22.35.39
22.59.42
23.23.44
23.47.45
Real Time (hh:mm:ss)
Second order PMD
l Second order PMD arises from the

dependence on wavelength of DGD and PSPs
r
Ω = ∆τ q̂
r
à where Ω is the dispersion vector and q̂ the versor of
PSP
r r r
∆Ω ∂Ω ∂∆τ ∂q
= = qˆ + ∆τ
∆ω ∂ω ω ∂ω ∂ω
0
Dependence Dependence of PSPs

of DGD upon wavelength
upon wavelength (PSP rotation)
Second order PMD vectors
l Second order PMD is the result of the sum of

two orthogonal vectors
r r
Ω (ω 0 + ∆ ω ) ∂q
∆τ
r ∂ω
∆Ω PSP rotation
r ∂ ∆τ
Ω(ω0 ) PCD
∂ω
q̂
r
Ω (ω 0 ) = ∆ τ
Effects of PSP rotation
l Such a term is responsible for pulse
deformation, and cannot always be treated as
chromatic dispersion
l Its effect is dominant over PCD’s
l Its effect emphasises PCD’s, thus making
things much more complicated
pulse
deformation
Non Linear effects on propagation
In amplified optical systems with high power density in
the fibre non-linear effects become relevant.
l Kerr effect
Dependence of refractive index from field intensity.
Signals experience distortion and cross-talk.
l Self Phase Modulation (SPM)
l Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)
l Four Wave Mixing (FWM)
l Stimulated Scattering:
Photons interact with the medium and new photons with
lower energy (and thus lower frequencies) are emitted.
l Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
l Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
Self-Phase Modulation
For a given λ, a different power distribution of the
mode results in a different speed of the pulse.
(Different parts of the lightwave experience a different neff)
l D < 0 pulse broadening (SPM and CD add)
l D > 0 pulse compression (SPM can compensate chromatic
dispersion)
Usual case D>0 → Pulse compression

P peak
red shift blue shift
leading edge trailing edge

dP/dt<0 dP/dt >0
Self-Phase Modulation
1540
λ
wavelength time time wavelength
Spectral bandwidth increases during propagation

SPM with Chromatic Dispersion may cause a
broadening/narrowing of the pulse
Multiwavelength systems
Multi-
Multi-
wavelength Received pulses
transmitted are shifted in time
pulses
Single Mode Fiber
Multi-
Multi-
wavelength
Received pulse
transmitted match in phase
pulses
Dispersion Shifted Fiber
In phase matching condition, energy is exchanged between modes

and some non-linear effects (XPM, FWM) are strongly enhanced
Cross-Phase Modulation
l Physically equivalent to the SPM. The effective index

of one wavelength depends on the total power of the
aggregate stream.
l Power fluctuations in one channel give rise to cross-

talk into other channels
DCF modules help minimising XPM effects
Four-Wave Mixing (1 of 2)
l FWM is analogous to intermodulation distortion

in electrical systems
l New frequencies (i j k) are generated by any
combination of 3 frequencies
fijk = fi + f j − fk k ≠ i,j
f123,213 f132,312 f231,321

f113 f112 f223 f221 f332 f331
f1 f2 f3 Frequency
Four-Wave Mixing (2 of 2)
It is impossible to avoid all FWM products when

N > 10 channels are present
lG.652 and G.655 are practically slightly

affected by FWM
lFWM is the major issue for DSF fibre G.653

with zero dispersion in the band of use
G.653 D≅0 λ ≅ 1550 nm
Unequal Channel spacing (ITU-T G692)
l“triplets” channel allocation (100 GHz grid)
avoids the FWM products due to the nearest
channels. This means that can be allocated :
l 8 channels need 34 slots
l 10 channels 56 slots
l 12 channels much more than 72 slots
192.9
193.3
193.6
193.8
193.9
192.5
192.6
192.7
192.8
193.0
193.1
193.2
193.4
193.5
193.7
194.0
EDFA Red band
Stimulated scattering
l Photons interact with molecular oscillations of the

medium and new photons with lower energy (and
thus lower frequencies) are emitted. The emission
can propagate in the same direction (Stoke’s wave)
or in the opposite one (anti-Stoke’s wave)
l The energy difference is dissipated in the form of a
phonon
incident light phonon

E1 f1f2>>ff21
E2
Anti-Stoke’s wave scattered light

(Stoke’s wave)
SBS Suppression
l Since the interaction bandwidth is very small,
BSBS = 20 MHz @1500nm ~ 0.16 nm
there is no WDM channel coupling. The only relevant
effect can be depletion of the single channel.
l Suppressed by broadening the source

linewidth:
l Dithering of the laser source frequency
(200 MHz). Approach commonly used in high
bit rate systems transmitting at high power.
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
l SRS effect is not relevant in systems with few
channels
l Serious penalties can occur in Dense WDM systems,
where powers at shorter wavelengths are
transferred at longer wavelengths.
λ1 λ2 λ 3 λn λ1 λ2 λ 3 λn
Raman amplification
Raman Scattering affects signal propagation

but it may be used for light AMPLIFICATION!
l a Raman Pump emitting a high intensity

counter-propagating lightwave is placed at
the end of a span
l the fibre itself is used as gain medium
l an effective gain of more than 10 dB can be

achieved increasing span length (~ 40 km)
Raman Amplification
TX RX
1550 nm 1450 nm
RAMAN
PUMP
SIGNAL
POWER
RAMAN
POWER
RAMAN
TRANFER
AMPLIFIED
SIGNAL
Main issues for WDM systems
l The feasibility of a single channel link is evaluated
taking into account few parameters:
l Attenuation
l OSNR requirements (amplified system)
l Chromatic dispersion
l In WDM systems, respect to a single channel link,

other effects must be taken into account.
l Non linear effects (not negligible when increasing
number of spans) and among them Cross-talk effects
l 2nd order Chromatic Dispersion
l Amplifier gain tilt and gain variation
OUTLINE
Propagation in optical fibres
WDM Systems
DWDM Challenge
WDM basics
Features :
q different laser sources at different
wavelengths electrically modulated
q each wavelength propagates inside
the fiber with its own mode
q all channels are amplified at once by
Optical Amplifiers (EDFA).
λ1 λ1
1
λ2 λ2 1
2
λ3 λ3 2
3 3
NxB Gbit/s
N λN λN N
B Gbit/s each B Gbit/s each
WDM channels generation
• Different “colors” need to be

generated by nearly-
monochromatic optical sources
(CWL + MZM).
• The signals can then be combined
or split by passive elements.
λ1
λ1 + λ 2
λ2 1:2
λ1 + λ 2 + λ 3 + λ 4
1:2
λ3
λ3 + λ4
λ4 1:2
An example of WDM demultiplexing
(thin-film multilayer filters)
Filter for λ 1
Aggregate
stream Channel 1
Lens Lens
Channel 3
nnel 2 Lens Lens
Cha
Filter for λ 3
nnel 4 Lens
Cha
channel spacing
l The relationship between frequency bandwidth
and wavelength bandwidth is:
c ∂ν c
ν = =− 2
λ ∂λ λ
l ITU G.692 recommendation defines a standard
grid equally spaced in frequency
l ∂ν = 100 GHz
l with central frequency = 193.1 THz (1552.5 nm)

this corresponds to a wavelength bandwidth :
l ∂λ ≅ 0.8 nm
channel spacing
Nyquist: bandwidth = 2*bit/rate
Shannon:
Shannon bandwidth = 2*(bit/rate+log 2S/N )
Self Phase Modulation causes spectral broadening
1 dB BW adiacent channel
Filters bandwidth
0
Thermal
and stability are
Fibre transmission [dB]
-10
variations the real limits in
channel spacing !
-20
25 dB BW 25GHz @ 2.5Gb/s
Cross-talk
-30
energy 50GHz @ 10Gb/s
-40 100 GHz @ 40Gb/s ?
1-∆λ⁄λ0 1 1+∆λ⁄λ 0
Optical Amplifiers
EDFA Gain
Loss
Window #
1 2 5 3 4 L-band amp.
C band L band
850 1300 1530 1550 1565 nm

Wavelength
196.0 THz 195.0 194.0 193.0 192.0 191.0
1530 nm 1540 1550 1560
Wavelength channel allocations

1THz = 1,000,000 MHz
Example of OA architecture (EDFA)
Single stage EDFA
Isolator Isolator
Erbium Doped
Silica Fibre
Pump
Laser
Double stage EDFA

Isolator Isolator Isolator Isolator
Erbium Doped Erbium Doped

Silica Fibre Silica Fibre
InterStage Pump
Pump
Laser Access Laser
Amplifier noise and OSNR
l The main source of noise is Amplified
Spontaneous Emission (ASE) produced
during amplification.
l OSNR is the main parameter that identifies

the “quality” of the optical signal respect to
the noise generated in the transmission.
OSNRASE = Pchannel / ASE
l Amplifiers noise definitely limits the link

distance before electrical regeneration.
Amplifier gain tilt and gain variation
Gain variation (GV) = max gain diff. between chs.

Gain tilt = ∂(GV) / ∂Pin
G
GV
Pin
C - band λ [nm]
C - band GV
~ 6 dB no filter
~ 0.7 dB Gain Flatting Filter GVmin
(the GFF is optimised for a Pin)
Pin [dB]
Amplifier gain tilt and gain variation
l Gain variation (gain tilt) is the second

limiting factor in DWDM multi-span links
n. of spans >≈ 5
n. of chs. (100 GHz) > 32 (C-band)
l Solutions to avoid channels unequalisation

may limit channels OSNR and thus the link
achievable distance.
l Gain Flattening Filters (GFF)
l (Variable) Optical Attenuators
OOB & IB FEC performances
l Bit rate 10 Gb/s
l IB FEC ≡ proprietary MARCONI FEC
OOB FEC ≡ ITU- T G.975 (10.67 Gb/s)
l Error distribution is not modified by
concatenating OOB + IB FEC
l Longer distances can be achieved before
regeneration
l Target BER = 10-15 can be achieved with lower
Input BER
Input BER
IB F E C 1 0 -9
⇒
Target BER
OOB FEC 1 0 -4
IB + O O B F E C 1 0 -3.4 10-15
OOB & IB FEC structure (G957)
subframe length = 255 bits
MSB subframe 1
subframe 2
subframe 3
Data byte
subframe 4
from FEC encoder #1
subframe 5
subframe 6
subframe 7
LSB subframe 8
subframe 9
COLUMN 1
COLUMN 255
COLUMN 240
MSB
Data byte
from FEC encoder #n
LSB subframe 8 × n
FEC
1 8 × n 8 ×n + 1 16 × n 1912 × n 1920 × n 2040 × n
frame
column 1 column 2 column 239 column 240 column 255
FRAMING
STRUCTURE STM-16 DATA REDUNDANT DATA
T1520680-96
n Number of interleaved codecs
OOB & IB FEC BER improvement
40
38
36 No FEC
34 IB FEC
32
OOB FEC G.975
Output BER (-Log BER)

30
28 OOB FEC + IB FEC
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
Input BER (-Log BER)
ITU-T G709 & G957 FEC
l Based on the Reed-Solomon algorithm
l This FEC is a consolidated standard for

submarine systems. Its implementation in
terrestrial OTN is fully defined by ITU-T G709.
l Small amount of Bit rate increase (10.67 Gb/s)
l Ready-solutions for hardware implementation

and available components suitable for such a
rate. Single chip feasibility.
l Intrinsic capability to correct burst errors
l Other kind of FECs ? (Turbo FEC)
Frames: SDH and Digital Wrapper
270 × N columns (bytes)
9× N 261 × N
1
Section overhead
SOH
3
4 Administrative unit pointer(s)
STM-N payload
9 rows ITU-T G707
5
Section overhead
SOH
9
T1518000-95
Column
Row 1 14 1516 17 3824
1
Overhead
OD
PM and TCMi (i=1..6)

Uk
OPUk
2
OPUk Payload 1 2
Ov
erh
(4 x 3808 bytes)
3 TTI BIP-8
ea
d
4
0 1 2 3
1
BIP8 Parity Block 2 BEI
For Further Study

Column #
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
ITU-T G709
1 FAS MFAS FRA OTUk overhead
TCM OPUk OPUk OH
TCM
MS PM RES TCM1 TCM2
Row#
2 FTFL overhead
TOS ACT 15
3 TCM3 TCM4 TCM5 TCM6 MaS 1

62
63
4 GCC1 GCC2 APS/PCC RES 2 Mapping
specific
3
FAS: Frame Alignment Signal RES: Reserved for future international standardisation TTI: Trail Trace Identifier
MFAS: MultiFrame Alignment Signal ACT: Activation/deactivation control channel BIP8: Bit Interleaved Parity - level 8
FRA: Fast ReAlign
4 PT
FTFL: Fault Type & Fault Location reporting channel BEI: Backward Error Indication
MS: Maintenance Signal MaS: Manufacturer Specific BDI: Backward Defect Indication
PM: Path Monitoring GCC: General Communication Channel PT: Payload Type
TCM: Tandem Connection Monitoring APS: Automatic Protection Swiching coordination channel
TOS: Top Of Stack PCC: Protection Communication Control channel
Digital Wrapper Generation Scheme
1 1
PAYLOAD
PAYLOAD +
WRAPPER
IN CMOS OUT
ASIC/FPGA
N N+1
Φ
OVERHEAD IN
/K ~
CONTROL
/N Φ
/ N+1 /K ~
CONTROL
Digital Wrapper Extraction Scheme
1 1
PAYLOAD
+
WRAPPER
PAYLOAD
IN
CMOS OUT
ASIC/FPGA
N+1 N
Φ
OVERHEAD OUT
/K ~
CONTROL
/ N+1 Φ
/N /K ~
CONTROL
Network Design system parameters
Amplification Attenuation
FEC TX
(optional)
ASE Propagation
impairments
Optical Receiver Electrical Receiver

p-i-n
FEC
(optional)
E(t) I(t) sampling threshold
OSNR Q BER
factor
“Improved” BER

DWDM Introduction

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DWDM Introduction

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Wavelength Division

Propagation in optical fibres

Core SiO2 + Doping (GeO2)

l Each mode is associated with a propagation constant

l Cut-off condition can be easily achieved by reducing

l The attenuation of a section of fibre can be

l The relation between α and αdB

Material dispersion is one

Window Band [nm] α [dB/km]

850 1300 1550 λ [nm]

l Chromatic dispersion (or group velocity

l Polarisation Mode dispersion (PMD)

l Chromatic dispersion is the phenomenon by

l This causes a temporal broadening of the

1530 1535 1540 1545 1550 1555 1560 1565

The energy of a narrow pulse is spread out over a larger time

l the dependence of the refractive index on

l The differential delay of spectral components

20 atic dispersion SMF

100 km G.652 DCF-100 (20 km)

lDCF modules are usually expressed in equivalent

l Span per span compensation for minimising non-

l Many channels → 2nd order residual dispersion

lA PMD coefficient in a fibre can be defined as the

WATFORD 37 1,79 0,34

Real Time (hh:mm:ss)

l Second order PMD arises from the

Dependence Dependence of PSPs

l Second order PMD is the result of the sum of

l Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)

l Four Wave Mixing (FWM)

Usual case D>0 → Pulse compression

red shift blue shift

leading edge trailing edge

wavelength time time wavelength

Spectral bandwidth increases during propagation

Single Mode Fiber

Dispersion Shifted Fiber

In phase matching condition, energy is exchanged between modes

l Physically equivalent to the SPM. The effective index

l Power fluctuations in one channel give rise to cross-

DCF modules help minimising XPM effects

l FWM is analogous to intermodulation distortion

f123,213 f132,312 f231,321

It is impossible to avoid all FWM products when

lG.652 and G.655 are practically slightly

lFWM is the major issue for DSF fibre G.653

l 12 channels much more than 72 slots

l Photons interact with molecular oscillations of the

incident light phonon

Anti-Stoke’s wave scattered light

l Suppressed by broadening the source

Raman Scattering affects signal propagation

l a Raman Pump emitting a high intensity

l an effective gain of more than 10 dB can be

l In WDM systems, respect to a single channel link,

Propagation in optical fibres

B Gbit/s each B Gbit/s each

• Different “colors” need to be

l with central frequency = 193.1 THz (1552.5 nm)

Self Phase Modulation causes spectral broadening

850 1300 1530 1550 1565 nm

196.0 THz 195.0 194.0 193.0 192.0 191.0