Golf coaches’ receptivity to sport psychology

Eamonn O’Flanagan, Gavin Breslin & Lee-Ann Sharp

Golf coaches play a vital role in preparing golfers for tournaments yet no academic peer reviewed research
has been conducted on the receptivity to sport psychology support with this population. We investigated the
receptivity of professional golf coaches towards sport psychology and sport psychology services. All 24 Provincial
golf coaches from within the Golfing Union of Ireland (GUI) participated. Coaches completed an adapted Sport
Psychology Services at National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Institutions questionnaire,
and a subsample (N=6) took part in an interview. Findings showed a high level of receptivity of provincial
golf coaches towards sport psychology. The main type of support preferred was performance orientated, with
higher ranked services of interest reported as improving focus (91.7 per cent) and managing emotions during
competition (87.5 per cent). Coaches’ indicated specific requirements for education on sport psychology whilst
also identifying the potential role of the sport psychologist. In addition, coaches’ responses outlined different
circumstances which sport psychologists should expect to encounter and navigate through within the golf
coaching population. Based on these findings we propose the first model providing guidance on potential
barriers and opportunities for sport psychologists in advance of consulting with golf coaches.
Keywords: golf coaches; sport psychology; receptivity.

Introduction

I
RISH GOLF has enjoyed unprecedented
success on both the Professional Golfers
Association (PGA) and European Golf
Tours since 2008, achieving in excess of
30 tournament wins accompanied by eight
Major Championships wins (United States
Open, British Open and United States PGA).
The professional golfers who achieved this
success, have previously been supported in
their amateur careers by the Golfing Union
of Ireland (GUI). This support included the
provision of golf instruction during forma-
tive years, helping advance their talent
prior to embarking on their professional
golf careers. The golf coaches involved in
assisting that success have played a pivotal
role in imparting their knowledge and skills
to support the achievements. With the grad-
uates of the coaching programmes achieving
these successes, it is regrettable that no dedi-
cated sport psychology support has been
integrated within the coaching programmes
to support provincial golf coaches. Yet Irish
golf professionals, Padraig Harrington,
Graeme McDowell and Darren Clarke have
acknowledged the benefits of receiving sport
psychology support in their professional
achievements (Rotella, 2012).
Recognising the multidimensional and
transitional elements of developing elite
talent and the complexities involved within
talent identification and development
programmes, it is recommended that to
meet the needs of junior athletes in devel-
opment, sports psychology support should
be offered (Abbott & Collins, 2004; Cote,
1999). Furthermore, if youth athletes are
exposed to stressful situations such as organ-
ised competitive sport, then there is a respon-
sibility to teach them strategies to cope with
that stress (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012). To
enable players integrate effective coping and
emotional regulation strategies, the recep-
tivity of golf coaches is paramount as they
can facilitate the appropriate support and
training, allowing talented underage athletes
to reach their full potential (Abraham, Muir
& Morgan, 2010). It is important to remember
that coaches are predominately the first point
of contact for athletes within talent devel-
opment programmes with the coach-athlete
relationship embedded within the dynamic

20 Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1


and complex coaching process (Jowett &
Cockerill, 2002). The importance of this rela-
tionship between coach and athlete has been
highlighted, with Jowett (2000) stressing the
building of effective coach-athlete relation-
ships due to the influence it can have on an
athletes’ satisfaction, motivation and perfor-
mances. Not only does this relationship play
a critical role on athletes’ motivation and
subsequent performances but it is also likely
one of the most important relationships
in an athletes’ life (Jowett & Meek, 2000;
Mageau & Vallerand, 2003).
To date though little is known about
golf coaches’ receptivity to sport psychology.
Understanding more about coaches is
crucial as not only are they the gatekeepers
of golfers, facilitating the appropriate
support and training, but they are also the
gatekeepers for sport psychologists (Pain
& Harwood, 2004). With sports psychology
emerging as central to the coaching process
perhaps participants might benefit from
having greater access to this form of support.
Extensive research on athletes as
consumers of sport psychology services
has been conducted (Kornspan & Duve,
2006; Martin et al., 2004; Wrisberg et al.,
2009). Researchers have indicated areas
where mental skills training techniques
have been employed to successfully improve
focus (Orlick & Partington, 1988), manage
emotions (Lazarus, 2000) and build
confidence (Myers, Wolfe & Feltz, 2004).
Although encouraging as this may seem,
Wrisberg et al., (2009) indicated athletes’
receptivity to receiving support may be influ-
enced by other factors (e.g. gender, sport
type, previous consulting experience).
With a large body of research predomi-
nately focused on athletes, few researchers
have turned their attention to the topic of
coaches’ receptivity. This is now an under
explored area. An exception to this, is a study
of NCAA Division 1 coaches support for sport
psychology services (Wrisberg et al., 2010).
The results provided insight for sport psychol-
ogists, revealing coaches’ positivity towards
sport psychology, the type of services required
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1 21
Golf coaches’ receptivity to sport psychology
(i.e. enhancing performance, building confi-
dence, managing anxiety) and their support
for consultancy roles (i.e. services of a sport
psychologist available for athletes and teams,
employing a consultant as a full-time member
of the athletic staff) at their institution. Addi-
tionally, research indicates that coaches may
help create, develop and influence the opin-
ions of athletes towards mental skills training
(Anderson et al., 2004). Recent investigations
with rugby coaches outlined the positive opin-
ions and performance benefits associated with
psychology support for their players (Sharp
et al., 2013). Sharp et al., (2013) reported
coaches’ positive perceptions of a mental
skills training programme as ‘a valuable addi-
tion to the [rugby development programme]
(p.224), with the associated benefits of the
programme aiding team cohesion as voiced
by one coach ‘they’re now a team if you
like rather than a bunch of guys just thrown
together at the beginning’ (p.226).
However, this openness towards sport
psychology cannot be viewed as universal.
With coaches’ perceptions of sport
psychology reported as both positive (Wris-
berg et al., 2010) and negative (Pain &
Harwood, 2004). These negative perceptions
have included coaches’ impressions of sport
psychology consultants as undermining their
authority through consultant-athlete interac-
tions (Pain & Harwood, 2004; Ravizza, 1988).
Additionally, male orientated stigmatisation
has been alluded to as a gender role in sport
which encourages competition, projection
of a tough image, acceptance of pain and
an aversion to help seeking support (Stein-
feldt & Steinfeldt, 2010). The promotion of
a macho image and strong athletic identity
within certain sports (rugby, American foot-
ball) may impact on stigma tolerance. These
situational barriers have been reported, with
coaches from American football (Anshel,
1989) and rugby (Green, Morgan & Manley,
2012) more likely to deem recipients of sport
psychology support as weak. Further obsta-
cles to sport psychology support include
the perceived role/effectiveness of the
consultant (Pain & Harwood, 2004; Zakra-
 Appendix F. (Page 7)
Eamonn O’Flanagan, Gavin Breslin & Lee-Ann Sharp
Figure 1. Model ofFigure
Theory
1: Development. Identified
Model of theory
development
psychologists’ entry.
jsek et al., 2013). This reported hesitancy to
engage in sport psychology support has been
recognised in soccer and American football
coaches (Johnson, Anderrson & Fallby,
2011; Martin, 2005; Pain & Harwood, 2004).
With research reporting that the type of
sport may impact on engagement, a recent
study indicated that coaches in non-contact
sports such as golf may be more receptive to
sport psychology support (Smedley, 2013).
NCAA golf coach engagement figures of 76
per cent have been reported, clearly demon-
strating these coaches have recognised the
stated benefits of sports psychology for elite
amateur and professional golfers (Beau-
champ, Bray & Albinson, 2002; Pates, Cowen
& Karageorghis, 2012; Smedley, 2013).
Furthermore, calls by researchers for the
integration of sport psychology within tech-
nical and tactical coaching programmes
(Cassidy, Potrac & McKenzie, 2006) is
contributing to a growing interest into the
receptivity of sport coaches towards sport
psychology services (Wrisberg et al., 2010;
Zakrajsek, Martin & Zizzi, 2011).
Recognising the gaps in research, the
urpose of the current study was to explore the
The views and responses of the golf coaches should not be interpreted in anyway as the views of their respective
1
provincial branch or the views of the GUI in respect of sport psychology or sport psychology consultants.
22 Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1
barriers–and
golfopportunities
coaches for sport
receptivity to sport psychology of all provin-
cial golf coaches delivering the coaching
programmes to elite junior golfers within
the GUI. To achieve this a mixed methods
approach was adopted. The quantitative
aims of the study were to determine coaches’
willingness to seek sport psychology support
across a range of specific topics such as confi-
dence, preventing burnout and increasing
enjoyment, as well as identifying levels of
support for sport psychology services or roles
within provincial branches. The qualitative
aims were to gain a deeper understanding
of coaches’ perceptions of sport psychology,
their knowledge and use of sport psychology
techniques when coaching. Our final aim
was to propose the first model providing
guidance on potential barriers and oppor-
tunities for sport psychologists in advance of
consulting with golf coaches (see Figure 1).
Methods
Participants
A total population of 24 provincial GUI
coaches (23 male, 1 female, Mage=40.92
years; SD=6.27 years) were purposively
sampled1. Full membership of the Profes-

sional Golfers Association (PGA) of Great
Britain and Ireland (GB&I) along with
provincial coach status with respective
provincial golf branches were inclusion
requirements. Additionally, six participants
were randomly selected to participate in
follow-up interviews, with representatives of
each of the four provinces of Ireland (i.e.
Ulster, Leinster, Munster and Connacht)
providing a perspective. Coaches’ demo-
graphics for both phases of investigation are
displayed (see Tables 1 and 2). Twenty-three
male and one female coaches were included
within the study, with representatives from
Connacht (five), Leinster (five), Munster
(eight) and Ulster (five) provincial golf
branches. Coaching experience included
eight coaches (33 per cent) having worked
with players who had competed on the main
professional golf tours (PGA Tour and Euro-
pean Tour). Additionally, 20 coaches (83 per
cent) had previous experience of working
with a sport psychologist. Positive opinions
on their previous experiences of working
with a sport psychologist consultant (SPC)
and the effectiveness of the support deliv-
ered to their pupils were reported.
Instruments
The Sport Psychology Services at NCAA Divi-
sion I Institutions Questionnaire was selected
as it had been previously used to identify
NCAA Division-I coaches’ support for sport
psychologists and services (Wrisberg et al.,
2010). Wrisberg et al., (2010) reported
acceptable reliability estimates for coaches’
willingness to encourage their athletes to see
a SPC for either personal concerns or perfor-
mance-related issues (2 items, Cronbach’s
α=.64) and coaches’ support for various roles
for a consultant at their institution (3 items,
Cronbach’s α=.83). The reliability estimate
for the subsample of coaches who rated their
willingness to seek mental training assistance
for various purposes was high as well (14
items, Cronbach’s α=.95). Wrisberg et al.
(2010) granted permission for use and modi-
fications to the instrument. To reflect golf
coaches and the organisational structures of
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1 23
Golf coaches’ receptivity to sport psychology
golf within the Golfing Union of Ireland, the
questionnaire required minor amendments
(for example, institution was replaced with
provincial branch and province replaced confer-
ence). Questions were assessed on a 5-point
Likert scale with response scores ranging
from 1 (never or not at all) to 5 (definitely or
extremely) to ascertain coaches’ willingness to
encourage golfers to see a sport psycholo-
gist for specific concerns. Questions relating
to coaches previous engagement with sport
psychologists and support for consultants
at provincial branches were included. This
question was dichotomised for analysis.
Interview guide
This investigation followed previous research
involving coaches in employing an interview
guide to facilitate the delivery, organisation
of questions and bring uniformity to the inter-
view to help gain a comprehensive under-
standing of coaches’ position in relation to
sport psychology (Pain & Harwood, 2004;
Zakrajsek et al., 2013). The interview intro-
duction outlined the purpose of the investi-
gation and potential use of the information
gathered. Initial questions sought to evaluate:
(1) the coaches’ previous competitive expe-
riences, how they handled pressure and
how these experiences may influence their
coaching (e.g. ‘tell me about your experiences
as a player and the effects of competition?’
and ‘how did you handle the pressure?’);
(2) their experiences as a coach, their use or
promotion of mental skills techniques and
did they receive any training on employing
these techniques? (e.g. ‘what are your experi-
ences of using mental techniques for perfor-
mance? and ‘have you had any training with
developing these techniques?’); (3) the
coaches’ perceptions of sport psychology,
previous engagement and employment of
sport psychologists, (e.g. ‘Could you provide
an insight into your thoughts on sport
psychology?’ and ‘what role could a sport
psychologist work with your golfers?’); and
(4) the coaches’ evaluations on the effective-
ness of previous engagements and instances
support may be required by pupils (e.g. ‘How
Eamonn O’Flanagan, Gavin Breslin & Lee-Ann Sharp

Table 1: Demographics of survey participants

Gender
Male (N=23) Female (N=1)
Coaches’ provincial branch
Connacht (N=5) Leinster (N=5)
Munster (N=8) Ulster (N=6)
Experience of coaching players competing on or/at
Main Golf Second Satellite Tour International International Provincial
Tour (N=8) Ranked Tour (N=3) Senior Junior (N=5)
(N=4) Amateur (N=2) Amateur (N=2)
Coaches’ previous experience of SPC
Yes (N=20) No (N=4)
Coaches’ perceived overall effectiveness of SPC by those with experience
Not at all (N=0) Slightly (N=1) Moderately (N=2) Highly (N=14) Extremely (N=3)
Coaches’ referral of golfers to SPC
Yes (N=14) No (N=10)
Coaches’ opinion on effectiveness of SP Support for Golfer
Not at all (N=0) Slightly (N=0) Moderately (N=3) Highly (N=10) Extremely (N=1)

Table 2: Demographics of interview participants

Gender
Male (N=5) Female (N=1)
Coaches’ provincial branch
Connacht (N=1) Leinster (N=1)
Munster (N=2) Ulster (N=2)
Experience of coaching players competing on or/at
Main Golf Tour International Junior Amateur Provincial
(N=4) (N=1) (N=1)
Coaches’ previous experience of SPC
Yes (N=6) No (N=0)
Coaches’ perceived overall effectiveness of SPC by those with experience
Not at all (N=0) Slightly (N=1) Moderately (N=0) Highly (N=3) Extremely (N=2)
Coaches’ referral of golfers to SPC
Yes (N=3) No (N=3)
Coaches’ opinion on effectiveness of SP Support for Golfer
Not at all (N=0) Slightly (N=0) Moderately (N=0) Highly (N=3) Extremely (N=0)

24 Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1

 Golf coaches’ receptivity to sport psychology

Table 3: Coaches responses (percentages/counts) for sport psychology services

Willingness to seek sport psychology support for various services (N=24)

Purpose High Moderate Low
Dealing with pressure 75% (18) 12.5% (3) 12.5% (3)
Dealing with injury/ Rehabilitation 20.8% (5) 45.8% (11) 33.3% (8)
Building confidence 75% (18) 25% (6) 0% (0)
Improving focus* 91.7% (22) 8.3% (2) 0% (0)
Preventing burnout 37.5% (9) 29.2% (7) 33.3% (8)
Communicating with coaches 33.3% (8) 33.3% (8) 33.3% (8)
Communicating with teammates 25% (6) 25% (6) 50% (12)
Dealing with personal issues 41.7% (10) 33.3% (8) 25% (6)
Managing anxiety 75% (18) 16.7% (4) 8.3% (2)
Increasing enjoyment of sport 54.2% (13) 33.3% (8) 12.5% (3)
Enhancing performance* 87.5% (21) 12.5% (3) 0% (0)
Performing as well in competition as in practice* 87.5% (21) 12.5% (3) 0% (0)
Managing emotions during competition* 87.5% (21) 12.5% (3) 0% (0)
Building team cohesion 29.2% (7) 41.7% (10) 29.3% (7)
* Highest ranked services

Table 4: Coaches willingness to seek sport psychology assistance and associations with
effectiveness of previous experiences

Effectiveness of sport psychology services (N=20)

Purpose High Moderate Low
Dealing with pressure 75% (15) 15% (3) 10% (2)
Dealing with injury/ 20.8% (5) 45.8% (11) 33.3% (8)
Rehabilitation 25% (5) 40% (8) 35% (7)
Building confidence* 75% (15) 25% (5) 0% (0)
Improving focus* 95% (19) 5% (1) 0% (0)
Preventing burnout 40% (8) 20% (4) 40% (8)
Communicating with coaches 30% (6) 35% (7) 35% (7)
Communicating with teammates 25% (5) 20% (4) 55% (11)
Dealing with personal issues 40% (8) 30% (6) 30% (6)
Managing anxiety 75% (15) 15% (3) 10% (2)
Increasing enjoyment of sport 50% (10) 35% (7) 15% (3)
Enhancing performance 90% (18) 10% (2) 0% (0)
Performing as well in competition as in practice* 85% (17) 15% (3) 0% (0)
Managing emotions during competition 90% (18) 10% (2) 0% (0)
Building team cohesion 25% (5) 40% (8) 35% (7)
*p <.05.

Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1 25

Eamonn O’Flanagan, Gavin Breslin & Lee-Ann Sharp
effective do you think sports psychology could
be to your players?’ and ‘could you outline
instances that sport psychology support could
be utilised in golf?’). This aimed to provide
a deeper understanding of coaches’ percep-
tions, knowledge and use of sport psychology
techniques.
Procedure
Following approval from Ulster University’s
School of Sport Research Ethics Committee,
a pilot questionnaire was administered to
two experienced coaches who fell outside the
inclusion criteria. Ease of response, clarity
of questions and survey accessibility were
achieved with no amendments necessary.
Permission to contact the coaches and their
respective email addresses were received
from each provincial office. Coaches were
emailed an invitation to participate outlining
the study along with consent form and a
link to the online questionnaire. A second
email was forwarded to each coach with their
unique ID number further protecting their
identity. The questionnaire design required
respondents to confirm their consent and
reminded them participation was voluntary
and confidentiality assured.
Six participants were selected for follow-
up interviews with representatives from each
province offering a geographic perspec-
tive. As suggested by Kvale and Brinkmann
(2009), it is appropriate to randomly select
participants when conducting qualitative
analysis thus eliminating sampling bias and
increasing the generalisability of results.
Small sample sizes for interviews can be
sufficient to uncover accurate informa-
tion provided participants hold significant
expertise related to the domain of enquiry
(Romney, Batchelder & Weller, 1986).
Interviews were conducted both face to face
(N=3) and via Skype (N=3). All interviews
were audio-recorded through a digital voice
recorder lasting between 35 to 55 minutes
and subsequently transcribed verbatim
yielding a total of 56 pages of single spaced
data. Coaches were assigned codes C1–C6
for discussion purposes.
26 Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1
Analysis
Relevant descriptive statistics measuring
frequencies and percentages were calcu-
lated. Further analysis of ordinal-ranked
variables employed non-parametric chi-
square tests to assess associations between
variables. A full response rate of 100 per
cent was achieved with all data permissible
for inclusion. Inspection of the distribution
of responses on the 5-point scale, uncov-
ered a high number of responses favouring
higher scores (i.e. extremely and highly),
with infrequent responses in the lower two
categories. In an effort to provide a more
balanced cell size for analysis and accurate
interpretation of responses, Likert ratings
for both the higher and lower (i.e. not at
all and slightly) categories were combined.
Categories were relabelled ‘high,’ ‘moderate,’
and ‘low’ for analysis purposes. This was in
line with previous studies (refer to Wrisberg
et al. 2010). An alpha level of p <.05 was used
to determine statistical significance.
Interview analysis employed an abductive
content analysis approach to permit full immer-
sion with the transcripts. Abductive analysis
comprises a qualitative data analysis approach
aimed at theory construction (Timmermans
& Tavory, 2012). This approach places abduc-
tion as the ‘process of forming an explanatory
hypothesis’ (Peirce, 1934: p.171). Abduction
forms an integral process within scientific
research through which the explanation is
formulated, ‘Abduction seeks a theory. Induc-
tion seeks for facts’ (Peirce, 1958: pp.217–
218). Content analysis involved four steps
before data saturation occurred. This required
fracturing the data into meaningful units for
coding and labelling, with memoing guiding
the researcher’s insights and interpretations
(Tesch, 1990; Walker & Myrick, 2006). The
second stage of the coding process identified
sub-ordinate themes, which were subsequently
analysed for relationships connecting these
to produce super-ordinate themes. The use
of constant comparative methods searching
for commonalities through contrasting and
comparing these units permitted the organi-
sation and confirmation of super-ordinate

themes (Taylor & Bogdan, 1998). According
to Guest, Bunce and Johnson (2006), much
research suggests that sampling continue until
theoretical saturation occurs. Thematic satu-
ration of information and development of
high level overarching themes can occur from
as few as six interviews (Guest et al. 2006).
Theoretical saturation occurred when new
data failed to create new concepts and existed
within the emergent themes. Transcript
themes were referenced against question-
naire results providing depth to the analysis
(Bryman, 2006).
Trustworthiness
Establishing trustworthiness and retaining
the integrity of any investigation is a necessity
of good research (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992).
Triangulation of data from both methods of
enquiry was used to increase the fidelity of inter-
pretation. As recommended, transcripts were
checked by participants ensuring a satisfac-
tory representation of views (Creswell, 2007).
Cross-checking verbatims were incorporated to
challenge and elevate the study’s validity, with
extensive participant quotations included in the
results. Researcher discussion was utilised early
in the investigation to examine and substantiate
correct interpretation of the data. Researcher
reflexivity through self-awareness and self-
reflection remained central during the process
in an attempt to remove bias and reactivity to
the study (Bickman & Rog, 2008). This was
achieved through examining and exploring
researcher relationship and maintaining a
continuous awareness through all stages of the
research process (Conrad et al., 1993). Addi-
tionally, self-reflexion was employed prior to
data collection through introspection and
exploration of personal bias and motivations for
undertaking the study. Journaling helped guide
not only the role of the researcher but assisted
in the decision making process whereby a crit-
ical examination of the purposes of the study
and who the study might benefit were reflected
upon. Identifying researcher strengths/weak-
nesses and understanding investigator influ-
ence on participants has been identified as
facilitating self-reflexivity (Tracy, 2010). Finally,
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1 27
Golf coaches’ receptivity to sport psychology
periodic checking of researcher assumptions
and memos alongside an examination of their
relationship to the research investigation were
incorporated. Reflective journaling has been
recognised as helping illuminate unconscious
thoughts and bring them into consciousness for
examination (Ortlipp, 2008).
Results
Quantitative results. See Table 3 for coach
responses to questionnaire. Seventy-five per
cent of coaches responded as ‘high’ their
willingness to encourage their golfers to see
a sport psychologist for performance related
concerns in contrast to 37.5 per cent for
personal concerns. Chi-square tests revealed
no significant association between coaches’
previous use of sport psychology services or
the number of times they engaged with a
consultant and their willingness to encourage
their golfers. The majority of coaches (87.5
per cent) responded as ‘high’ their support
for sport psychology services within their
provincial golf branch with 66.7 per cent
offering support for including a consultant
among staff. A lower percentage of coaches
(37.5 per cent) responded positively to the
presence of a sport psychologist at practice
and competition. Analysis of association
revealed no significant effect on support
for services or consultant roles caused by
coaches’ ratings of the effectiveness of their
previous experience. Additionally, 100 per
cent of coaches reported support for the use
of a sport psychologist within their provin-
cial branch. Analysis indicated instances
relating to performance which coaches are
more willing to seek support services for
their golfers. The highest ranking services of
interest to coaches were: (a) improving focus
(91.7 per cent); (b) enhancing performance
(87.5); (c) performing as well in compe-
tition as in practice (87.5 per cent); and
(d) managing emotions during competition
(87.5 per cent). Lower frequencies were
returned for: (a) dealing with injury (20.8
per cent); (b) communicating with team-
mates (25 per cent); and (c) building team
cohesion (29.2 per cent). Acceptable reli-
Eamonn O’Flanagan, Gavin Breslin & Lee-Ann Sharp
ability estimates were obtained for coaches’
responses in seeking sport psychology
support (14 items, Cronbach’s α=.86).
Coaches (N=20) willingness to seek assis-
tance for their golfers for various mental
training purposes revealed an association
with their ratings of the effectiveness of their
previous experience. Chi-square analysis
identified effects (p<.05) for: (a) building
confidence, X2 (2, N=20)=6.82, p=.033; (b)
improving focus, X2 (2, N=20)=9.47, p=.009;
and (c) performing as well in competition
as in practice X2 (2, N=20)=12.62, p=.002,
were associated with coaches’ ratings of
previous experience (see Table 4).
Results and discussion
We investigated for the first time the views
of all 24 provincial golf coaches’ receptivity
to sport psychology and their support for
sport psychology consultant roles within
Ireland. Our findings (Table 5) show posi-
tive receptivity of provincial golf coaches to
sport psychology with a greater emphasis
on services which enhance performance
compared to services which are of personal
concern. Uncovering coaches’ willingness to
seek sport psychology support and the role
of the consultant, offers important insights
into how consultants can best meet the needs
of not only the coaches but also the junior
golfers in development. Additionally, it
provides a clearer picture of the perceptions,
knowledge and use of sport psychology within
this coaching community. Below we discuss
the findings in relation to applied practice.
The coaching psychology interface
(Figure 2)
Evident within the interviews were distinct
clusters relating to the coaching-psychology
interface. Emergent within this were clear
references to sub-categories, (a) the hierarchy
of the coaching process, (b) barriers/gate-
keepers, (c) practical use of sport psychology,
and (d) the coach as psychologist. Within
the coaching process there was a delineation
of the approach towards developing golfers’
performances with a prioritisation of tech-
28 Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1
nical coaching versus psychological support
reported. This however must be balanced
within the process of coaching novice and
elite golfers as referred to by coach C2:
If I had a beginner come in the door…
if they have poorer fundamentals…
grip, stance, posture, that’s where
you would start. And then maybe as
you’re going along…you would add
in a few nuggets (psychology advice)
that might help them mentally…but
that would definitely be a couple of
steps up the ladder.
This is not unusual as research reports that
coaches prefer to see tangible results and
evidence of change which is easier to iden-
tify (Gee, 2010). Ensuring coaches fully under-
stand the process and mechanisms within sport
psychology and the recognised benefits are lega-
cies which need to be addressed. This may help
advance the integration of sport psychology
within coaching programmes and bridge the
knowledge gap (Zakrajsek & Zizzi, 2007).
In contrast, when dealing with elite players,
C5 outlined the difficulties for coaches when
trying to implement sport psychology tech-
niques on their own, ‘I can stand all day
with a guy… and hit balls down the range,
visualise the holes… the wind… the crowd,
but then they get into competition and it’s
a deer in the headlights.’ This efficacy in
implementing sport psychology techniques
reflects the interest coaches have and aligns
with research suggesting that those in most
contact with the athlete, in this case the golf
coach, may be best placed to provide psycho-
logical skills and strategy training (Scherzer &
Williams, 2008). However, as reported in other
sports the coaches’ ability to integrate sport
psychology strategies is becoming a concern
(Wilding, 2009). Early research with coaches
reported encouraging findings on receptivity,
however beliefs in their ability to optimise the
delivery of techniques was lacking due to their
limited knowledge (Sullivan & Hodge, 1991).
Coaches were also cognisant of their bounda-
ries as balanced by comments from C6, ‘I think
 Appendix E

Table 5 (Page 13) Golf coaches’ receptivity to sport psychology

Receptivity
Table of Golf Coaches
5: Receptivity to Sport to
of golf coaches Psychology. Overview
sport psychology – of Themes.of themes
overview

Sub-Ordinate Themes Super-Ordinate Themes

•
Hierarchy of Coaching Process

•
Barriers/Gatekeepers Coaching-Psychology
Interface
•
Practical use of SP

•
Coach as Psychologist

•
Interest in SP
Confidence in SP
•
Change in Culture Towards SP

•
SP Services
The Role of the SP
•
Education of Coaches

to give him the real techniques you have got to
get him across to the expert.’ Consultants need
to remain aware of a hierarchy of coaching or
as C6 referred to, ‘there is a certain number of
steps that have to be gone through before you
would (seek support).’
Potential roadblocks for sport psycholo-
gists also emerged with C3 commenting,
‘I think sometimes the difficulty for sports
psychology as a subject is it’s not as easy to
see as a physical process like a golf swing
so it’s harder for people to understand.’
This lack of knowledge on the benefits of
sport psychology has been reported previ-
ously (Zakrajsek & Zizzi, 2007), with calls
for greater education of coaches regarding
sport psychology enhancing performance
(Gardner, 2001; Pain & Harwood, 2004). It
also reflects the necessity of sport psycholo-
gists to provide proper evaluations on the
effectiveness of their work through meas-
uring the effects of interventions in allaying
coaches’ scepticisms (Anderson et al., 2002).
One further note of interest in relation
to a possible preference on the background
of the consultant was raised by C5:
There is nobody really filling that role
that I know has either: a) got the
academic study behind them; or b)
the experience of playing at a good
level; and c) the experience of them-
selves dealing with top class players.
Although a singular reference, this insight
provides practitioners with advance notice of
some coaches’ expectations and preference
for practitioners within the golfing frater-
nity. Similar reports have been documented
with American football coaches’ prefer-
ences towards consultants within the foot-
balling community (Zakrajsek et al. 2011).
In attempting to overcome this, Poczwar-
dowski, Sherman and Henschen (1998) have

Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1 29

GOLF COACHES RECEPTIVITY TO SPORT PSYCHOLOGY 37
Eamonnname
Author O’Flanagan, Gavin Breslin & Lee-Ann Sharp
Appendix G (Page 14)

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Figure 2: The coaching-psychology interface

30 Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1

GOLF COACHES RECEPTIVITY TO SPORT PSYCHOLOGY 38

Golf coaches’ receptivity to sport psychology

Title
Appendix H (Page 14)
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Figure 3: Confidence in sport psychology
previously commented on the importance
of consultants gaining respect of the client
through demonstrating knowledge and
experience of the sport.
Pain and Harwood (2004) referred to
coaches viewing themselves as amateur
psychologists with a similar theme emerging
in this study. ‘I think if you have been there
and done it at some sort of level… I think you
can probably do a bit of the amateur psych
stuff,’ (C6). The foundations of this confi-
dence may stem from coaches’ application
of mental skills training in their own careers.
I was doing it 20, 30, 40 times a day,
visualising things… and when I came
back (from injury) to play, didn’t
practice much, I broke the course
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1 31
Change in
Culture
Towards
SP
record at X, I won the X Cup, I
qualified in the European Amateur
which I had never done before and
I was unbeaten in the Inter-Pros…
so I played unbelievably well… that
proved to me the value of the strength
of mind. (C5).
This blurred boundary prompts the question
who is qualified to deliver effective training as
previously raised by Zizzi et al. (2009). Welcome
as these intentions regarding receptivity are,
there are also concerns that coaches may not
meet the psychological needs of their athlete
with previous research raising this issue (Sullivan
& Hodge, 1991). This should create greater
urgency for practitioners to attend to the educa-
tional needs within the coaching fraternity.
GOLF COACHES RECEPTIVITY TO SPORT PSYCHOLOGY 39

Eamonnname
Author O’Flanagan, Gavin Breslin & Lee-Ann Sharp
Appendix I (Page 14)

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Figure 4. The role of the sport psychologist.

Figure 4: The role of the sport psychologist

In delineating the topic of the coaching- Confidence in sport psychology (Figure 3)

psychology interface and the culture of golf
coaching for practitioners, C6 offered this
insight:
I would always look and ask the ques-
tions first… where is it at, is it a tech-
nical issue, have a look at the golf
swing…have a look at performance…
if we were happy with everything
else… is there something affecting
performance from lifestyle?
Finally, within this theme, coaches’ recep-
tivity towards sport psychology was evident
with all participants having attended sport
psychology programmes or sought the advice
of consultants to improve their coaching.
Emergent within this theme were clear refer-
ences to sub-ordinate themes, (a) interest in
sport psychology; and (b) a change in culture
towards sport psychology. Coaches indicated
confidence in sport psychology with all
participants having previous experience of
attending or working with a consultant.
(If) you were getting nervous you
were weak minded… you know now
it’s totally natural and that’s part of
the joy of golf, going through those
things to actually experience that set
of emotions. I couldn’t handle it very
well and ended up because of my own
desire to get better, pushed me to
talk to people, and then the advice

32 Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1


they gave me helped me understand
it and ended being probably an asset
to me that I was able to accept it and
I played… when I could control it
(nerves… pressure) I played some of
my best golf. (C5).
Further confidence was reflected in respond-
ent’s comments with individuals actively
seeking out support. Interest in sport
psychology emanated throughout with all
coaches identifying the benefits they have
received as reflected by C2, ‘I needed to look
after myself more so I got one-on-one help
with a sports psychologist…that’s the benefit
there.’ This was further echoed by C4, ‘You
are preaching to the converted. I have used
sports psychology many times and believe
in its benefits.’ This openness was also
reported in chi-square analysis indicating
coaches with previous positive experiences
of sport psychology were more likely to seek
assistance for their golfers for performance
benefits (Table 4). Coaches also referred
to their experiences of working alongside
consultants and openly expressed their
receptivity as voiced by C5, ‘I have encoun-
tered five or six of them (sport psycholo-
gists) in my own coaching and I love working
with them.’ Support for the involvement of
sport psychologists was referred to by C6
‘So spending time with a couple of sports
psych’s has given me a little bit of an insight
into it… where I can actually think if the
guys struggling in that area actually get the
sports psych to help him.’ Coaches may also
deem support more necessary for players
competing at a professional level possibly
due to increased pressures.
The more I spend watching and
teaching golf at the very top level of
European Tour players, I’m convinced
that the difference between the good
and the great are the mental skills…
they are fundamental in developing a
robust reliable golfer especially at the
elite level. (C5).
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1 33
Golf coaches’ receptivity to sport psychology
Title
These comments highlight the current posi-
tivity towards sport psychology within this
coaching population. Progress made by
practitioners in building confidence within
the golf coaching population is also indi-
cated in the change of culture towards sport
psychologists as discussed by C4, ‘Yeah defi-
nitely a change in culture. Definitely getting
more to the forefront now.’ This change
in culture may also have been supported
by prominent professional golfers utilising
sport psychology.
At that stage in terms of sports
psychology, I suppose that now is too
many years ago to remember…20/25
years ago…. I’m not saying there was
no such thing as sports psychology
but there was little or no…there was
little or no thought, it was try and
keep it as simple in your head as you
could, you had heard of it and you
had of maybe heard people like Nick
Faldo taking it on board. (C6).
Previous research with NCAA golf coaches
highlights the higher engagement with
consultants within the golf coaching commu-
nity (Smedley, 2013). This may have asso-
ciations with coaches previously utilising
sport psychology in their own careers. Find-
ings from the questionnaire substantiate
these comments with 83 per cent of partici-
pants having received support from a sport
psychologist.
With researchers confirming the benefits
of sport psychology in golf then it is reason-
able to assume that the golf coaches involved
in this study have understood this and sought
out support (Valiante & Morris, 2013). This
was recognised by C2, ‘People are starting
to see it and use it more and find the bene-
fits,’ while C4 notes, ‘Nobody wanted to talk
about this stuff really 15 years ago.’ Interest-
ingly, another factor potentially supporting
this change are reports that coaches’ willing-
ness to engage sport psychology services may
be influenced by other coaches’ personal
recommendations (Fifer et al., 2008). With
Author name
Eamonn O’Flanagan, Gavin Breslin & Lee-Ann Sharp
confidence reported as the largest predictor
of intentions to use sport psychology services
(Zakrajsek & Zizzi, 2007), coaches’ confi-
dence in sport psychology across these two
themes augurs well for consultants.
The role of the sport psychologist
(Figure 4)
Instances calling for specific support relating
to education were present alongside require-
ments for sport psychology services. These
sub-ordinate themes, (a) sport psychology
services, and (b) education of coaches
emerged during analysis. Coaches indicated
support for consultants working with junior
golfers as outlined by C5, ‘A psychologist….
I would like to have in there at 12, 13, 14….
you can get their real basic mental structures
set up at an early age.’ Supporting this, were
calls for a whole person approach promoted
by C6, ‘That’s an area that you can help…
you can help them with lifestyle…you know
to give them that balance.’ This reflects the
position of research where the promotion
of sport psychology for performance devel-
opment must not overlook the wellbeing
of the individual (Hemmings & Holder,
2013). Athletes retain the same suscepti-
bility to mental illness as the general popula-
tion (Bär & Markser, 2013; Markser, 2011).
Considering the fact that talent development
programmes are designed to amplify athletic
performance for elite level competition, it
is important to recognise elite level sport
operates within a highly pressurised and
competitive environment (Jordet, 2009),
where ‘succeeding in high level sport often
comes at the expense of overall health devel-
opment’ (Miller & Kerr, 2002, p.143). This
raises the question what role should the
sport psychologist fill? Balancing the promo-
tion of performance excellence and personal
excellence has been raised before (Brady &
Maynard, 2010). This view was echoed by C2.
Their mental wellbeing is the most
important thing… and golf is a funny
game, it can make or break some of
these guys, so we need to be equipped
34 Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1
with the proper tools to pass these
onto these kids, to pass the strategies
they need to be able to use to help
them with the game of golf and life.
Coaches’ interest in developing a deeper
understanding of sport psychology emerged
with three coaches previously undertaking
educational courses with further calls for
support. ‘I think sport psychology could be
part of the training, and I speak from a
regional coach now’ (C1). These sentiments
were echoed by C6 in reference to the knowl-
edge gap that exists, ‘Maybe they’re losing
focus on the golf course and maybe I can
identify that by chatting to them but I don’t
know how to sort it out.’ The challenges
faced by coaches in applying mental tech-
niques can be supported by qualified sport
psychologists.
I struggle with some of the better
players to get them to trust the power
of the mental strategies rather than
always going back to stroke or grip or
technical thoughts. I find especially
with boys, they get ground down on a
bad shot, it’s always them and on what
they did with their swings or whatever
technical thoughts are going through
the head and I don’t always agree
with that. I try and take them away
from that and focus on just staying
in the present and working on some
mental tools, but I find that hard to
get them back from the technical
(thoughts) over into the mental kind
of approach. (C2).
A further statement offered more insight for
consultants. ‘I understand there is a place for
it and I understand it’s better to access the
guy with 10 or 15 or 20 years’ worth of expe-
rience in the field rather than trying to do it
myself’ (C6). With interest in psychological
training and support being sought it is also
evident coaches are calling on the provincial
branches to provide this as voiced by C2,
‘Coaches especially at the elite level… with

the GUI can be educated on how to actually
deliver the tools that the kids need…’ This
may facilitate the development of talented
underage golfers in reaching their potential
(Abraham et al., 2010).
Conclusion
This study highlights the receptivity of
provincial golf coaches to sport psychology,
providing a unique insight into their opin-
ions. It demonstrates a clear appetite for
sport psychology services and support within
this population. This study extends research
within coaching populations, outlining that
receptivity may be associated with sport
type when recognising the higher engage-
ment figures of golf coaches. Coaches have
declared their preference for education on
psychological techniques while stating their
desire to have practitioners available to them
within the provincial branches. Specific
instances requiring support were identified
(Table 3), with coaches intimating prefer-
ences for services predominately associated
with golf outcome performance.
However, the engagement of sport
psychologists exclusively for the promo-
tion of golfing performance is a concern.
Whether this is down to a lack of knowledge
on the coaches’ behalf as to the services a
sport psychologist may offer or the exclusive
requirement by coaches to have their golfers’
mental skills ‘calibrated’ exclusively for
competition presents challenges for the field.
Golfers transitioning onto talent develop-
ment programmes are exposed to additional
pressures with results carrying greater signifi-
cance and potentially raising expectations of
both players and coaches. Coaches' reports
of mental health issues (e.g. perfectionist
behaviours, anxiety and depression) carries
the dual risks of affecting the athlete’s well-
being along with the possible consequences
for talent development being delayed or
stopped (Hill, MacNamara & Collins, 2015).
Coaches' lack of understanding relating to
mental health issues within sport has previ-
ously been reported (Hill et al., 2015). With
no designated sport psychology service
Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, Vol. 13 No. 1 35
Golf coaches’ receptivity to sport psychology
Title
embedded within the current coaching
programme it may be reasonable to assume
a similar lack of knowledge may also exist.
Ensuring early intervention, education of
coaches and support staff in helping identify
general warning signs of mental health issues
and facilitating the availability of expertise to
support athletes wellbeing should be central
to any talent development programme (Hill
et al., 2015).
Recognising the applied contexts sport
psychologists may encounter working within
the golf coaching community, a proposed
model is offered for theory development.
This model provides an outline of the
potential barriers and opportunities which
consultants may encounter when attempting
to gain approval from coaches for consulting
services. Within the current study, the
external possibilities have created an oppor-
tunity to promote sport psychology services.
Furthermore, the model outlines potential
external barriers relating to administrative,
stakeholders and additional coaching popu-
lations receptivity alongside practical barriers
such as time or finance. These potential
barriers may require further research to
facilitate a clearer picture of the receptivity
within the golf coaching landscape. With
provincial coaches actively requesting educa-
tion on sport psychology and endorsing
support for availability within respective
branches, understanding this model may
provide a road map to guide practitioners
initiating support. It also highlights chal-
lenges sport psychologists may encounter
as a hierarchy exists within the coaching
process with coaches evaluating technical
proficiency in advance of sport psychology
services.
Limitations to this study need to be
considered. This study was golf specific
which may not reflect the views on sport
psychology of other sport coaches. Repli-
cating this study with other PGA coaching
populations may return alternative views as
differences in coaching structures, training,
funding, resources or culture may exist.
Further research could investigate alter-
Author name
Eamonn O’Flanagan, Gavin Breslin & Lee-Ann Sharp
native PGA populations’ receptivity. Addi-
tionally, previous experiences of sport
psychology may have increased the recep-
tivity of coaches.
With no dedicated sport psychology
support currently employed, practitioners
should engage with provincial golf branches
and outline how their services can develop
not only performance techniques but
also support the health and wellbeing of
the golfer. Sport psychologists may wish to
consider initiating and building relation-
ships with relevant stakeholders within Irish
golf to enhance the coaching programmes
currently delivered. From an applied
perspective there is a clear call to the provin-
cial branches that sport psychology services
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