Excretion, Osmoregulation and Homeostasis

Excretion: The process of removal of metabolic non-gaseous nitrogenous wastes like

urea, uric acid and ammonia along with excess of water, salts and Co2 from body is
called excretion.

Accessory excretory organs:

1. Skin: Human skin possesses two glands, sweat glands and sebaceous glands
which are excretory in nature in addition to their usual function. The sebaceous
glands produce sebum which keeps skin and hair greasy and waterproof.
However waxes, sterols, fatty acids, traces of hydrocarbons etc., are excreted
with sebum. The sweat glands secrete sweat. Sodium chloride, lactic acid, small
amount of urea etc., are eliminated with sweat.

2. Lungs: These helps in removing Co2 and little amount of water in the form of
water vapor.

3. Liver: It helps in excreting bile pigments, cholesterol, alcohol, Nicotine drugs

steroid hormones etc.

4. Intestine: It excretes salts of calcium and iron along with faeces.

Urinary System

Urinary system is the main excretory system of human and it consists of:

A. A pair of kidneys, which secrete urine

B. A pair of ureters, which convey the urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder

C. A urinary bladder, where urine is collected and is temporarily stored

D. Urethra, through which the urine is discharged from the urinary bladder to the
exterior

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 Figure: Human excretory system

A. Kidneys (primary or major excretory organs of man):

I. External structures of kidney:

• Shape: Bean shaped. Outer surface of kidney is convex and inner surface is
concave surface called hilum or hilus.

• Size: It is about 11 cm long, 6 cm wide and 3 cm thick.

• Weight: In adult males the average weight of kidney is about 150g and in adult
female 135g.

• Colour: Reddish brown.

• Covering: Covered by tough fibrous structure called renal capsule. The renal
capsule is covered by a layer of adipose tissue called adipose capsule which,
in turn, is covered by a fibrous membrane called renal fascia.

• Position: The kidneys lie on the posterior abdominal wall, one on each side of
the vertebral column, behind the peritoneum and below the diaphragm. They
extend from the level of the 12th thoracic vertebra to the 3rd lumbar vertebra,
receiving some protection from the lower rib cage. The right kidney is usually
slightly lower than the left, because of the considerable space occupied by the
liver. These are retroperitoneal in position (peritoneum* lying only in front of
kidneys).

II. Internal structure of kidney: L. S of kidney shows following structures-

1. Capsule: It is an outer thin envelope of tough fibrous connective tissue.

Capsule is further surrounded by a shock-absorbing layer of fat called
renal fat, followed by a fibrous membrane called renal fascia.

2. Cortex: It is a reddish-brown layer of tissue immediately below the

capsule and outside the renal pyramids. It contains Bowman’s capsule,
proximal convoluted tubules and distal convoluted tubules of nephrons.

3. Medulla: It is the innermost layer, consisting of pale conical-shaped, the

renal pyramids. The tips of the pyramids are called the renal papillae.
The renal papillae are surrounded by funnel shaped structures called the
minor calyx. The minor calyces of several pyramids join together to
form larger funnels called major calyx. There are 8-20 minor calyces

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 and 2 or 3 major calyces per kidney. The major calyces converge to form
an enlarged channel called the renal pelvis. The renal pelvis then
narrows to form the ureter. The cortex extends between the pyramids
which is called the columns of Bertini.

Urine formed in the nephrons passes through a papilla at the apex of a pyramid
into a minor calyx, then into a major calyx before passing through the pelvis into
the ureter. The walls of the pelvis contain smooth muscle and are lined with
transitional epithelium. Peristalsis of the smooth muscle originating in
pacemaker cells in the walls of the calyces propels urine through the pelvis and
ureters to the bladder. This is an intrinsic property of the smooth muscle, and is
not under nerve control.

*
Peritoneum: The membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers most of the abdominal
organs. (From the Greek peri- meaning around + tonos meaning a stretching = a stretching
around).

III. Microscopic structure of kidney:

The kidney is composed of about 1 million structural and functional units called
nephrons (uriniferous tubules) and a smaller number of collecting tubules.

Structure of nephron: Each nephron is made up of two main parts- a) Malpighian

body or renal capsules and b) Renal tubules.

a) Malpighian body: Malpighian body comprises a cup-shaped Bowman’s

capsule (glomerular capsule or renal capsule) which is lined by squamous
epithelium. The renal artery after entering the kidney divides and re-divides to
form afferent renal arterioles. An afferent renal arteriole enters Bowman’s
capsule to form a network of capillaries called glomerulus. The glomerular
capillaries unite to form efferent renal arteriole that leaves the Bowman’s
capsule. Diameter of efferent arteriole is narrower than that of afferent renal
arteriole so the blood pressure in the glomerulus is higher than in other
capillaries. Efferent renal arterioles form a network of capillaries around the
renal tubules (PCT, loop of Henle and DCT). These capillaries unite to form a
renal vein.

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 Fig: Malpighian body.

b) Renal tubule: Bowman’s capsule leads into renal tubule. It consists of three
parts-

i. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): It is the first part of renal tubule which is
coiled in the cortex. It is lined by cuboidal epithelium.

ii. Loop of Henle: Proximal convoluted tubule extends into a ‘U’ shaped loop of
Henle. At first, it moves downward as descending limb of loop of Henle.
Then, it turns and moves upward as ascending limb of loop of Henle.
Descending limb and ascending limb are lined by squamous and cuboidal
epithelium respectively.

iii. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT): It is the second coiled part of renal tubule in
the cortex that continuing from the ascending limb of loop of Henle. It is lined
by cuboidal epithelium.

Renal tubule is lined with single layer of cuboidal cells.

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 c) Collecting tubule, collecting duct and duct of Bellini: DCT joins to
collecting tubule, lined by columnar epithelium and many collecting tubules join
to form a larger collecting duct. Numbers of collecting ducts join to form a
larger duct of Bellini that runs through renal pyramid and opens into renal
pelvis.

d) Vasa rectae: These are capillaries which run parallel with the loop of Henle
and the collecting duct. These capillaries carry away the molecules that are
reabsorbed from the tubules.

B. Ureters: The pelvis of each kidney is directly continued into a narrow 25-30 cm
long, cylindrical tube called ureter. They run downward on the abdominal wall
and open into urinary bladder. These are lined by transitional epithelium.
Ureters pass urine from kidneys to urinary bladder.

C. Urinary bladder and urethra: It is pear shaped muscular sac situated on

posterior part of abdominal cavity. Its wall is lined with smooth muscles called
detrusor muscles and lined by transitional epithelium. Urinary bladder
temporarily stores urine. It opens into a thick walled duct, urethra through
which urine is discharged out.

Mechanism of excretion or urine formation

Urine formation includes:

1. Glomerular filtration (ultra- filtration)

2. Selective reabsorption

3. Tubular secretion

1. Glomerular filtration (ultra-filtration):

Filtration takes place through the
semipermeable walls of the glomerulus and
glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule).
Water and a large number of small molecules
pass through, Blood cells, plasma proteins and
other large molecules are unable to filter
through and remain in the capillaries.
Filtration is assisted by the difference between
the blood pressure in the glomerulus and the pressure of the filtrate in the
glomerular capsule. Because the diameter of the efferent arteriole is less
than that of the afferent arteriole, a capillary fig: Ultrafiltration in Malpighian
hydrostatic pressure of about 75 mmHg builds body.

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 up in the glomerulus. This pressure is opposed by the osmotic pressure
(exerted by plasma proteins inside glomerular capillaries) of about 30
mmHg, and by filtrate hydrostatic pressure of about 20 mmHg in the
glomerular capsule.

The net filtration pressure = glomerular hydrostatic pressure-(osmotic pressure

of blood + hydrostatic pressure of glomerular filtrate + interstitial fluid
pressure)

=75-(30+10+10) mmHg

=25 mmHg

This filtration under pressure is called ultra-filtration or glomerular filtration. The

filtrate is called nephric filtrate or glomerular or capsular filtrate or “primary
urine”. Its composition is same as blood minus blood cells and plasma proteins.
It contains large amount of water and substances such as urea, uric acid,
creatinine, amino acids, glucose, sodium, potassium, vitamins, hormones etc.

The volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys each minute is called the
glomerular filtration rate (GFR). In a healthy adult the GFR is about 125
ml/min; i.e. 180 liters of dilute filtrate are formed each day by the two
kidneys.

2. Selective reabsorption: The glomerular filtrate contains many

substances useful to the body. So the absorption of such selective
materials takes place from the filtrate into the blood. It is termed as
selective reabsorption. Glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones,
calcium and some urea are reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule.
Water, sodium and chloride ions are reabsorbed in proximal convoluted
tubule, loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubule. About 90% of
glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed. Absorption involves both passive and
active transport across the tubular epithelium. Sodium, glucose, amino
acids, vitamins, hormones are absorbed by active transport mechanism
where as, water, chloride and urea by passive transport mechanism.

3. Tubular secretion: As glomerular filtrate passes through the distal

convoluted tubule and collecting duct, the unwanted substances are
secreted by tubule into the tubular filtrate. This is called tubular
secretion. These include substances such as potassium, ammonia,
hydrogen ions, various drugs etc. the tubular filtrate after secretion is

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 called urine. Human urine is hypotonic i.e. it has higher osmotic pressure
than the blood.

Counter current mechanism or function of loop of Henle

Loop of Henle acts as counter current system. The overall function of counter current
mechanism is to concentrate the urine. In counter current mechanism, the ascending
limb of loop of Henle actively transports chloride and sodium ions out of the tubule
into the interstitial fluid of medulla. The high osmotic pressure created by NaCl in the
interstitial fluid causes the water to diffuse out through the descending limb into the
interstitial fluid and eventually to the blood of vasa recta. This process makes urine
hypertonic (i.e. more concentrated than blood) and helps in conserving water in the
body. It is called counter current as the fluid flows in the opposite direction in two
limbs of Henle.

Composition of urine

Water 96% Characteristics of urine

Urea 2% Colour: Yellow due to pigment called Urochrome
Uric acid and Urobilin.
Creatinine Tonicity: Hypertonic
Ammonia pH: Average pH is 6.
Sodium Odour: Faint but strong smell of ammonia if allowed to
Potassium stand. This is due to conversion of urea to ammonia by
2%
Chlorides bacteria. Urinod substance gives bad smell to urine.
Phosphates Average out put: 1 to 1.5 lts per day.
Sulphates Nitrogenous wastes: Urea, Ammonia, Uric acid,
Oxalates creatinine and hippuric acid.
Others Main nitrogenous waste: Urea

MICTURITION: The process of removal of urine from urinary bladder time to time is
called micturition.

Urinary bladder: The urinary bladder consists two main parts-

A. Body and

B. Trigone

The body is a hollow muscular sac which temporarily stores urine collected through
two ureters. Trigone is triangular area forming at the openings of ureters and urethra.
Opening of urethra is guarded by two sphincters- internal and external sphincters.
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Process of micturition: Accumulation of urine about 300-400 ml in the bladder
raises its pressure and a micturition reflex is initiated. As a result detrusor muscle
contracts and there is reflex relaxation of the internal sphincter. Micturition occurs
when there is voluntary relaxation of the external sphincter. Therefore the control of
micturition is both voluntary and involuntary.

Functions of kidney

1. Excretion of nitrogenous wastes: Kidney excretes nitrogenous wastes like

urea, uric acid, creatinine, hippuric acid etc.

2. Osmoregulation: Kidney maintains constant amount of salt and water content

in blood by producing dilute and concentrated urine.

3. Maintenance of ionic concentration: The concentration of different ions

sodium, potassium, chloride, ammonia etc., in the blood is regulated by
selective reabsorption and tubular secretion in renal tubule.

4. Control of pH of blood: Kidney excretes excess H+ ions and regulates their

concentration in blood.

5. Removal of drugs and toxic substances: Kidney eliminates toxic substances

and drugs.

6. It manufactures certain new substances: Ammonia, hippuric acid and

inorganic phosphates are manufactured and removed by Kidney.

7. It plays an important role in vitamin D metabolism.

8. Homeostasis: Kidney maintains constant internal environment of the body by

maintaining solute potential, ionic concentration and pH of blood.

Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal environment of body is called

homeostasis. The homeostasis organs in man are liver, skin and kidney.

Homeostasis functions of kidney are:

1. Osmoregulation

2. Maintenance of ionic concentration

3. Maintenance of pH of blood

1. Osmoregulation: The maintenance of solute potential of body is called

osmoregulation. This is achieved by uptake of water in diet and loss of water in
evaporation, sweating, egestion and excretion. The concentration of water in the
blood is detected by osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus. When the blood
becomes more concentrated (little intake, excessive sweating or large amount of salt

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 intake), the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the change and set up nerve
impulses which pass to the posterior pituitary to release ADH (antidiuretic hormone) or
vasopressin. ADH travels in the blood to the distal convoluted tubule and collecting
duct of nephron. ADH increases the permeability of the DCT and CD for the
reabsorption of water, hence low volume of concentrated urine or hypertonic urine
produced.

Opposite of that, when the level of water in the blood is high the osmoreceptor cells
inhibit the posterior pituitary gland for the release of ADH. As a result the DCT and CD
becomes impermeable and less water is reabsorbed from filtrate into the blood, hence
higher amount of dilute urine is excreted.

2. Maintenance of ionic concentration of blood: The concentration of different ions

sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, ammonium etc., in the blood is regulated by
selective reabsorption and tubular secretion in renal tubule. The sodium ions which
are filtered out during ultra-filtration are later reabsorbed in the proximal and distal
convoluted tubule. The excess H+, K+, NH4+ ions are secreted by the tubule from blood
into the urine.

Kidney maintains a constant sodium level in blood under the control of aldosterone
hormone secreted by adrenal cortex. Decreased sodium level in blood brings about
the release of aldosterone which stimulates active uptake of Na+ from filtrate into the
blood plasma. Just reverse takes place if there is excess of Na+ in the blood.

Regulation of calcium level is achieved by the secretions of calcitonin and

parathormone hormones secreted by thyroid and parathyroid glands. The DCT
reabsorbs less calcium in response to calcitonin and more in response to
parathormone. Thus, kidney maintains proper ionic concentration of blood.

3. Maintenance of pH of blood: The normal blood pH is 7.4. If the blood starts

to become too acidic, hydrogen ions are secreted into the tubule. The reverse may
happen if pH rises.

Functions of liver

1. Carbohydrate metabolism:

• Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis: Liver regulates blood glucose level. Liver

converts excess glucose into glycogen by the process called glycogenesis for
storage, under the influence of insulin hormone. When glucose level fails, the
hormone glucagon stimulates the conversion of glycogen into glucose by the
process of glycogenolysis.

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 • Gluconeogenesis: Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like
amino acids and glycerol.

2. Protein metabolism:

• Deamination: Excess amino acids are broken down into the liver by a process
called deamination. In this process, amino (NH2) group is converted into
ammonia (NH3).

• Urea formation: Toxic ammonia combines with carbondioxide to form less

toxic urea.

• Transamination: Production of new amino acids or non-essential amino acids.

3. Fat metabolism:

• Stores fat as triglyceride.

• Converts excess carbohydrate to fat.

• If glucose is short supply, the liver converts fat into fatty acids and glycerol
which are used to obtain energy.

4. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes bile, plasma proteins and clotting factors
prothrombin and fibrinogen.

5. Storage: Liver stores glycogen, vitamin A, D, E, K (fat soluble) B12 (water

soluble), iron, copper, zinc, molybdenum etc.

6. Breakdown of erythrocytes and defense against microbes: This is carried

out by phagocytic hepatic macrophages called Kupffer cells.

7. Detoxification: Liver detoxifies ammonia to urea, drugs and toxins like

ethanol, nicotin etc.

8. Inactivation of hormones: Liver inactivates hormones such as insulin,

glucagon, thyroxin, ADH and sex hormones.

9. Production of heat: It is the main heat producing organ of the body. It has a
high metabolic rate and produces heat.

Functions of skin

1. Regulation of body temperature:

• Hairs of the skin trap a layer of warm air in contact with the skin and preserve
our body temperature.

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 • Evaporation of sweat keeps body cool.

• Cutaneous vasoconstriction diverts the blood to the interior of the body and so
diminishes heat loss against cold environment, Vasodilation of the skin helps in
elimination of heat from the body.

2. Excretion and secretion: Through sweat salts and metabolic wastes are
excreted. Sebaceous glands secret sebum which is rich in cholesterol. It
prevents skin from drying.

3. Water balance: Sweat regulates water balance of the body.

4. Protection: It protects body from mechanical injuries and bacterial invasion.

5. General sensation: Receives touch, pain, temperature etc.

6. Synthesis: It synthesizes vitamin D in presence of UV rays of the sun.

Very short questions:

1. Define Ultra-filtration?

2. What is Bowman’s capsule?

3. Define the term deamination?

4. Which pigment gives colour to urine?

5. Define excretion?

6. What is osmoregulation?

7. What is structural and functional unit of kidney?

8. Where do nephrons discharge urine?

9. Name the different excretory organs of human body.

10.What is Loop of Henle?

11.Where do you find detrusor muscle?

12.Write the composition of urine?

13.In which organ of the body urea is formed?

14.Name two non-nitrogenous excretory substances.

15.Define Homeostasis.

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 16.Write shape, size, colour and location of kidneys.

17.What is the route of urine formation?

18.Name the main or chief nitrogenous excretory product of mammals.

19.Where do ultra-filtration, reabsorption and secretion of substances take place?

20.What makes urine bad smell?

21.Which hormone controls osmoregulation?

22.Write the name of hormones that controls blood sodium and calcium.

23.What is the most toxic excretory product produced in the body?

24.Write the name of three nitrogenous wastes produced in man?

25.Define micturition.

26.Name the organs involved in urinary system.

27.What is vasa rectae?

28.What is the function of Loop of Henle?

29.What is trigone?

30.Write the homeostatic functions of kidney? (points only)

31.Why kidney is known as homeostatic organ?

32.What is Glomerulus?

33.What is the volume of glomerular filtrate and urine per day?

34.List accessory excretory organs?

35.Which part of nephron is blood filtering unit?

Short questions:

1. List the functions of kidney.

2. Draw labeled L.S of human kidney.

3. Describe the process of glomerular filtration.

4. Make a sketch of a nephron.

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5. Draw neat and well labeled diagram of human excretory organs.

6. State the steps of urine formation and explain selective reabsorption.

7. Discuss the role of ADH in osmoregulation?

8. Discuss how the kidneys help in osmoregulation in mammals.

9. Describe the role of counter current systems in forming the hypertonic urine.

10.Describe the role of kidney in regulation of the osmotic pressure of body fluids.

11.Describe the internal structure of human kidney.

12.Describe the role of liver and kidney in excretion of nitrogenous waste.

13.How glomeruli act as ultra filter of our body?

14.Name anti-diuretic hormone. How is it secreted?

15.Describe the structure of malpighian body.

16.Why is it necessary for animals to excrete water?

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