Module-IV

A. Meaning of Jajmani System: Jajmani system is considered as the backbone of rural economy and
social order. It is a system of traditional occupational obligations. In rural India Jajmani system is very
much linked with caste system. It has become a part and parcel of social and economic system.

Etymologically, the term Jajman has been derived from the Sanskrit word Yajman, which means a
person who performs a yajna. Thus if some yajna is to be performed for that the services of some
Brahmins are essentially needed. It was gradually that its use was made common to everyone who hired
services or to whom the services were given.

It could be said that the Jajmani system is a system of distribution whereby high caste land owning
families are provided services and products of various lower castes such as Khati (Carpenter), Nai
(Barber), Kumhars (Potters), Lobars (Blacksmiths), Dhobi (Washer man), Sweeper (Chuhra) etc.

The servicing castes are called Kamins while the castes served are called Jajmans. For services rendered
the servicing castes are paid in cash or in kind (grains, fodder, clothes, animal products like milk, butter
etc.) Kamin means who works for some body or services him.

In villages, durable relations obtain mainly between food-producing families and the families that supply
them with goods and services. William H. Wiser’s study of a village in uttar Pradesh reveals that these
relations are called Jajmani in Hindi. In Maharashtra, they are known as “Balutdarl”.

In Jajmani system, at the centre is the family of agriculturists, the zamindars. They receive services from
the families of occupational castes. One who receives services is known as Jajman, the patron. The
families that provide services are known as Kamin, Kam Karney waley or Kamgars (workers). In other
parts of India, terms such as Parjan, Pardhan, Balutedar etc. are also used for the providers of goods and
services.

All these words literally refer to the same people, i.e. those who ‘work’ for others and one may call them
clients. The castes, which happen to provide services to the agriculturists, vary from one village to
another. Every caste in the village does not happen to be a part of Jajmani system. So Jajmani system
can be defined as a patron-client relationship.

Yogendra Singh describes Jajmani system as a system governed by relationship based on reciprocity in
inter-caste relations in villages. Ishwaran has said, that it is a system in which each caste has a role to
play in a community life as a whole. This role consists of economic, social and moral functions.

Definition of Jajmani System:

The Jajmani system is a peculiarity of Indian villages. “A person by whom a Brahmin is hired to perform
religious services, hence a patron, a client”. —Webster’s Dictionary

“The service relations which are governed by a hereditary tenure are called Jajman-Praja relations”. —
N.S. Reddy
Kamins are also known as Praja. “Under this system each caste group within a village is expected to give
certain standardised services to the families of other castes. Each one works for certain family or group
of families with whom he is hereditary linked.” —Oscar Lewis

Harold Gould has described the Jajmani system as inter-familial inter-caste relationship pertaining to the
patterning of super- ordinate-subordinate relations between patrons and suppliers of services. The
patrons are the families of clean castes while the suppers of services are the families of lower and
unclean caste.

The first detailed study of Jajmani tradition in India was made by William H. Wiser. Both Kamin and
Jajman are Integral part of the jajmani system and thus complementary to each other. The Jajmani
system is called “Aya” in Mysore of South India, according to Ishwaran (1966).

Henty Orenstein has held that the families of village officials or village servants (for example the
watchman) maintain jajmani relations with the whole village rather than with particular families.

Edmund R. Leach (1960) said, “Jajmani system maintains and regulates the division of labour and
economic interdependence of caste.” William H. Wiser (1967) said, “Jajmani system serves to maintain
the Indian village as a self-sufficient community.” Harold Gould (1987) said, “Jajmani system distributes
agricultural produce In exchange for menial and craft services.”

A number of studies have been conducted on jajmani system in India. The important studies code N.S.
Reddy’s study on North India in 1955, W.H. Wiser’s study in 1936, Prof. S.C. Dubey’s study in Hyderabad;
D.N. Majumdar’s study (1958) in Lucknow of U.P., Katheline Cough’s (1955) study in Tanjore, Darling’s
study (1934) In Punjab etc.

Although the Jajmani relationship seems to be between castes, in reality, it is between particular
families belonging to particular castes. It is the relationship between families that continue to exist over
time.

Advantages of Jajmani System:

1. Security of Occupation: Security of occupation is guaranteed in case of jajmani system. Since this
system is hereditary, the kamin is assured of his occupation. He knows that if he breaks his family
occupation he shall not be able to earn his livelihood.

2. Economic Security: It provides economic security to kamins as the jajman looks after all of their
needs. The kamins are assured of their economic security. In every monetary crisis the jajman helps the
kamins. They extend all possible help to the kamins. So there is economic security in the jajmani system.

3. Close and Intimate Relationship: There is close and intimate relationship between the jajman and
kamin. This relationship is not purely economical but it is sentimental and internal. A spirit of fellow
feeling and brotherhood develops under this system. Both jajman and kamin know full well each other’s
limitations as well as plus points.
So, they try to adjust each other. Jajmani system is hereditary and permanent, that is why both jajman
and kamin sympathies for each other. This system creates an atmosphere conducive to peaceful living
and co-operation.

4. Peaceful Living: The cut-throat-competition for work or employment is almost absent in jajmani
system. No jajman goes without service nor any kamin goes without food. So this system creates an
atmosphere of peaceful living by creating the spirit of fellow-feeling and co-operation.

Disadvantages of Jajmani System:

1. Source of Exploitation: Jajmani system is exploitative. The agricultural castes, which are invariably
upper castes, seek the services of the occupational castes, which Eire generally lower castes. The
exploitation of lower castes continues under the garb of paternal ties.

Like the caste system, this system has become a source of suppression, exploitation and discrimination.
Oscar Lewis has pointed out in his study of Jajmani system in Rampur village, whereas in the past it was
based on personal relationship, it has now become an instrument of exploitation of kamins by jajmans.

2. Feeling of Superiority and Inferiority: In this system, the kamins are considered low whereas the
jajmems are placed high. This has resulted in social inequality and feeling of superiority and inferiority in
the minds of both Jajman and kamin. Because this system is based on heredity, the kamin cannot take
other Job or occupation and the advantage of latest scientific developments to improve his economic
condition.

This system has resulted in lowering the economic standard of the kamins. They are treated as inferior.
They are sometimes exploited and abused by the JaJmans. They become helpless before the money
power of their Jajmans. This is a system which is based on the sense of high and low.

3. Impediment to Occupational and Social Mobility: Jajmani system has stood on the way of
occupational mobility and resulted in lowering economic standard of the kamins. This system is
hereditary, so there is no possibility of changing the occupation. In this way the system has checked
social mobility. The conditions of the kamins remain miserable because of their economic weaknesses.

4. Supported by Caste System: Caste system is the basis of jajmani system. So this system suffers from
all the evils of caste system. Dr. Majumdar found in his study that the conditions of kamins are
miserable and the upper castes subject them to great harassment and trouble.

They are ill-treated by the Jajmans. This system leads to widespread discrimination. There is exploitation
and coercion. Dumont has pointed out that this system has to satisfy all those who enter into jajmani
relationships.
5. Effect of Transport and Communication: Due to rapid expansion of transport and communication,
the system is in a decline. Because it has made easy for the kamins to seek job or other occupation
outside their village. Now the kamins are no longer compelled to do the Job of Jajmans.

6. Impact of Social Reform Movement: Due to the impact of social reform movements, the suppressed
castes get benefits. They try to rise up in the social ladder. Various religious reform movements, like
Arya Samaj have produced one of the greatest setback to the Jajmani system.

B. SANSKRITISATION, MODERNISATION AND WESTERNISATIONLAW AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION

ASSIGNMENT

Introduction: India presents one of the oldest, continuous and uninterrupted living civilizations in
thewhole world known as Hinduism. One of the prominent features of Indian civilization is its ‘Caste
system’. Caste system is a unique way of stratifying the society. It has beenconceptualized, originated
and practiced exclusively in India. It has given a distinguishedidentity to Indian society.Caste-system is
one of the prominent features running through the entire social fabricof India. Castes have its ethnic
roots as denoted by “ Jati”, and a ritualistic and symbolicsignificance in its Varna aspect. It has greatly
influenced the culture of the whole of India.Caste system has maintained its continuity without
interruption. It has survived the vicissitudesof time, saved itself by erosion from within and assault from
outside only because of theadaptability. Its absorptive nature has internalized alien influences. It has
taken different shadesand meaning with the changing times and places. Its character during Indus Valley
Civilizationwas altogether different from what exists today. It is still in a transient phase. Its shade
isdifferent in the context of village, locality, region or religion. Once changed, the system never returned
to its original form. Its absorptive nature has internalized alien influences.

Though the Indian Society which is based on caste system is often regarded as “closedsociety”, it is not
altogether changeless. Within the framework of the caste itself, some kind of mobility is observed. The
socio-cultural changes that has taken place in India can mainly becategorised into these processes
namely; sanskritisation, westernisation and modernisation.These three process reflect an attempt on
the part of Indian masses to achieve some amount of mobility both within and outside the framework of
the caste system.

SANSKRITISATION:-The term Sanskritisation was introduced into Indian Sociology by Prof. M.N.
Srinivas.The term refers to a process whereby people of lower castes collectively try to adopt upper
caste practices and beliefs, as a preliminary step to acquire higher status. Thus, this indicates a process
of cultural mobility that took place in the traditional social system of India.

Meaning of Sanskritisation: Sanskritisation is not a new phenomenon. It has been a major process of
cultural changein Indian history, and it has occurred in every part of the Indian sub-continent. It denotes
the process in which the lower castes try to imitate the life-styles of upper castes in their attempt to
raise their social status. The process seems to be associated with the role of local “dominantcaste”.

Definition of Sanskritisation: The definition of Sanskritisation was given by M.N. Srinivas in his “Social
Change in Modern India” published in 1971. It means “a process by which a low caste or a tribe or other
group changes its customs, rituals, ideology, and a way of life in the direction of a high and frequently,
twice born caste.”

An analysis of the process of Sanskritisation:- Sanskritisation denotes the process of upward mobility.
In this process, a caste is tryingto increase its position in the caste hierarchy not at once, but over a
period of time. Itwould take sometimes, a period of one or two generations.

Mobility that is involved in the process of Sanskritisation results only in “positionalchanges” for
particular castes or sections of castes, and need not necessarily lead to a“structural change”. It means,
while individual castes move up or down, the structure as such remains the same.

The castes which enjoyed higher economic and political power but rated relatively lowin ritual ranking
went after Sanskritisation for they felt that their claim to a higher position was not fully effective.

Economic betterment is not a necessary pre-condition to Sanskritisation, nor economicdevelopment

must necessarily lead to Sanskritisation. However, sometimes a group(caste/tribe) may start by
acquiring political power and this may lead to economicdevelopment and Sanskritisation.

Sanskritisation is not necessarily confined to the castes within the Hindu community, itis found in tribal
communities also. The Bhils of Western India, the Gonds and Oraonsof Middle India and the Pahadiyas
of Himalayan region have come under the influenceof Sanskritisation. These tribal communities are now
claiming themselves to be Hindus.

The process of Sanskritisation serves as a “reference group”. It is through this processa caste group tries
to orient its beliefs, practices, values, attitudes and “life styles” in terms of another superior or dominant
group, so that it can also get some recognition. Sanskritisation does not take place in the same manner
in all the places.

Impact of Sanskritisation:- Modern education, Western literature and philosophy of people widened,
and as a resultthe mental horizons and visionary of people changed. They welcomed rationality
andother good features of and made good use of liberal, and humanitarian ideas andthoughts. Vedas
has been conceived through intellectual contemplation and empiricalobservation and used Upnishads
(speculative interpretation of Vedas or Mythology) for the creation of human imagination.

Reformists and their organizations had purely an economic and social thrust. Theyaimed at establishing
a social order based on Vedic teachings and practices. Theycriticized the mumbo-jumbo of rituals and
superstitions created by some selfish peopleto entangle the ignorant and poor masses. They laid
emphasis on interpreting Vedas ina rational and scientific way.

It reduced or removed the gap between the ritual and secular rankings. It also helpedupliftment of
weaker persons. The lower caste group which successfully got into theseat of secular power also tried to
avail of the services of Brahmins especially at thetime of observing rituals, worshipping and offering
things to God.
Criticisms of Sanskritisation:- According to J.F Stall, Sanskritisation as used by Srinivas and other
anthropologists isa complex concept or a class of concepts. The term itself seems to be misleading,
sinceits relationship to the term Sanskrit is extremely complicated. Yogendra Singh opines that
sanskritisation fails to account for many aspects of culturalchange in past and contemporary India as it
neglects the non-sanskritic traditions.

Sanskritic influence has not been universal to all parts of country. In most of northernIndia, especially in
Punjab, it was the Islamic tradition which provided a basis for cultural imitation. When we try to
interpret certain changes that have taken place in the field of socialmobility in the light of
Sanskritisation, we face certain paradoxes. According to Dr.Srinivas, political and economic forces are
normally favourable for Sanskritisation. But the “policy of reservation” a poltico-constitutional attempt
to elevate the status of lower caste, and class people, presents here a different picture. Theoretically,
the policy of reservation must be supportive of Sanskritisation. But paradoxically it goes against it. Those
who avail of the

“reservation benefits” have developed a vested interest in callingthemselves “dalits” or Scheduled Caste
people. They want to be called so in order to

permanently avail of the benefits of reservation.

WESTERNISATION:-

The process of Westernization of caste-system in India began with the frantic efforts of missionaries to
convert as many Indians as possible into Christianity and coming of East IndiaCompany in India first to
trade and later on to increase its political power in India. East IndiaCompany

successfully established ‘British Imperial Rule’ in India by 1958.

British rule produced radical and lasting changes in the Indian society and culture. TheBritish brought
with them new technology, institutions, knowledge, beliefs, and values. Thesehave become the main
source of social mobility for individuals as well as groups. It is in this

context, M.N. Srinivas, introduced the term “Westernisation” mainly to explain the changes

that have taken place in the Indian society and culture due to Western contact through theBritish rule.

Definition of Westernisation

:-

According to M.N. Srinivas, “Westernisation” refers to “the changes brought about in

the Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumeschanges
occurring at different levels technology, institutions, ideology and values.”
Meaning of Westernisation:-In comparison with Sanskritisation, Westernisation is a simplier concept. It
explainsthe impact of Western contact (particularly of British rule) on the Indian society and culture.

M.N. Srinivas used the term “Westernisation” to describe the changes that a non -westerncountry had
undergone as a result of prolonged contact with the western one. It imples, according to Srinivas,
“certain value preferences”, which in turn subsumes several values, suchas “humanitarianism”. It
implies an active concern for the welfare of all human beings irrespective of caste, economic position,
religion, age and sex.Westernisation not only includes the introduction of new institutions, but also
fundamental changes in old institutions. For example, India had schools long before the arrivalof the
British, but they were different from the British introduced schools. Other institutionssuch as army, civil
service and law courts were also similarly affected.However, the increase in Westernisation does not
retard the process of Sanskritisation.Both go on simultaneously, and to some extent increase in
Westernisation accelerates the process of Sanskritisation. For example, the postal facilities, railways,
buses and newspaper media which are the fruits of Western impact on India render more organised
religious pilgrimages, meetings, caste solidarities, etc., possible compared to the past.

Impact of Westernisation:- Modern education opened up the doors of the knowledge flourished in
Europe after Renaissance movement of Middle Ages. It had widened the mental horizons of Indian
intelligentsia.

Education for all - During second half of the nineteenth century, British government inIndia opened the
doors of education to all the sections of Indian society, irrespective of caste or creed. Still, very few
amongst the general public could avail the advantages of formal modern education. Education remained
confined within a small section of society.

Highlighted evil practices – Modern education had highlighted the evil practices andweaknesses
developed into the system like rigidity and harshness of many socialcustoms and practices prevalent at
that time for the weaker sections of the society i.e.un-touch-ability and inhuman treatment to women,
Sati, Polygamy, child marriage etc.etc. prevalent at that time.

Attracted attention of social reformers:b Modern education had attracted the attentionof intellectuals
and social reformers towards real issues evils caused by ignorance, Irrationality of mumbo-jumbo of
rituals and superstitions created by some selfish people to entangle the ignorant and poor masses. They
suggested remedies for social, political and economic ills of the country. They took upon themselves the
responsibilityto build a modern, open, plural, culturally rich, prosperous and powerful India out of
afragmented, poverty stricken, superstitious, weak, indifferent, backward and in-ward looking society.
As a result of such efforts, it led to the abolition of Sati System and slavery. Female infanticide practice
lowered to a great extent.

Realization of the worth of liberty and freedom- It equipped national leaders withintellectuals tools
with which they fought the oppressive British Raj. Indians realizedthe worth of liberty and freedom.
They got exposure to the philosophies of thinkers likeLocke, Mill, Roussseau, Voltaire, Spencer and
Burke etc. They understood the reasonsand impact of English, French, American revolutions.
Criticisms of Westernisation:- The concepts of Sanskritisation and Westernisation primarily analyse
social change in “cultural” and not in “structural” terms. This denoted that these terms have limited
range of application and use. Srinivas’s model explains the process of social change only in India which is
based on the caste system. It is not useful for other societies. Though Srinivas claimed that the concept
of Westernisation is “ethically neutral”, it is not really so. The Western model which Srinivas has
eulogised has its owncontradiction. Mention can be made of the facts of Western life such as racial
prejudice,colour segregation and exploitive nature of the Western economy, etc. These factscontradict
humanitarian ideals or rational outlook on life.

It is also commented that the Western model which Srinivas has eulogised has its owncontradiction. The
western model sometimes conveys values that are contrary to theones referred by Srinivas. In this
context, mention can be made of the facts of Westernlife such as racial prejudice, colour segregation,
and exploitative nature of Westerneconomy, etc. These facts contradicts humanitarian ideals or rational
outlook on life. Daniel Lerner has raised some objections to the use of Westernisation as conceived
Srinivas:

a. It is too local label and the model which is imitated may not be western country; but Russia.
b. b. One of the result of prolonged contact with the west is the rise of the elite classwhose
attitude towards the West is ambivalent is not invariably true. In thiscontext, Lerner refers to
the appeal of Communism in non-western countries.
c. Westernisation in one area or level of behaviour does not result inWesternisation in another
related area or level.
d. While there is certain common elements in Westernisation, yet each represent a particular
variant of a common culture and significant difference exists betweenone country and another.

Difference between Sanskritisation and Westernisation

1. Sanskritization process promoted the sacred outlook; while Westernisation process promoted
secular outlook.
2. Sanskritisation is a process of upward mobility by a process of imitation while Westernisation
is a process of upward mobility by a process of development.
3. Sanskritisation implies mobility within the framework of caste while Westernisation implies
mobility outside the framework of caste.
4. While Sanskritisation puts a taboo on meat-eating and consumption of alcohol,
Westernisation promoted meat-eating and consumption of alcohol.

MODERNISATION:-
The term modernisation “does not denote any philosophy or movement, but it onlysymbolises a
process of change”. Infact, “modernisation” is understood as a process whichindicates the
adoption of the modern ways of life and values.” The term was being used to previously to refer
only “to change in economy and its related effect on social values and practices.” Today, the
term ‘modernisation’ is understood as an attempt, on the part of the people, particularly who
are custom-bound, to adopt themselves to the present time, conditions,styles and ways in
general.
Definition of modernisation:- According to Smelser, “Modernisation is a complex set of changes
that place almost inin every part of society as it attempts to be industrialised. Modernisation
involves ongoingchange in a so ciety’s economy, politics, education, traditions and religion.”
According to Alatas, “Modernisation is a process by which modern scientificknowledge is
introduced in the society with the ultimate purpose of achieving a better and amore satisfactory
life in the broadest sense of the term as accepted by the society concerned”.
Meaning of Modernisation:-The term modernisation does not denote any philosophy or
movement, but it onlysymbolises a process of change. In fact, Modernisation is understood as a
process whichindicates the adoption of modern ways of life and values. The term was being
used previouslyto refer only to change in economy and its related effect on social values and
practices. Today,the term is understood as an attempt, on the part of the people, particularly
those who are custom based, to adopt themselves to the present time, conditions, styles, and
ways in general.
It indicates a change in people’s food habits, dress habits, speaking styles, tastes, choices,
preferences, ideas, values, recreational facilities and so on. It is also described as “social change
involving the use of scien ce and technology”. The scientific and technological innovations have
brought about remarkable changes in the whole system of social relationships and installednew
ideologies in the place of traditional ones.
Criteria of Modernity or Measures of Modernisation:- Rustow and Ward mentioned some
measures of modernisation. They are:-
a) Industrialisation of economy and adopting a scientific technology in industry,agriculture,
dairy farming, etc. to make them highly productive.
b) Secularisation of ideas.
c) Remarkable increase in geographic and social mobility which includes social mobility.
d) A spread of scientific and technical education.
e) A transition from ascribed to achieved status.
f) An increase in material standard of living.
g) High proportion of working force employed in secondary and tertiary rather than primary
production.
h) High expectancy of life at birth; and
i) Relatively greater measure of public participation in the polity.
Causes of Modernisation:-
Myron Weiner speaks of five main instruments which make modernisation possible:
1. Education:- Education pertaining to science and technology provides the basis of
modernisation. Education increases in the number of people with modern skills
andattitudes. It creates skills and attitudes essential for technological innovation. This isthe
reason why in recent decades education including mass communication is givenutmost
importance.
2. Mass Communication:- The process of modernisation hinges on the phenomenon of mass
communication. The development of mass communication including newspapers,
 periodicals and magazines, T.V., radio, telephone, etc. is an important means of spreading
modern ideas at a faster rate. The function of mass communication is to open
3. Poor governance: In modern India, millions of submerged people suffer fromdiscrimination
and exploitation, it is not the caste-system, but the bad politics and poor governance, which
is responsible. Modern India is sharply divided into two “haves”and “have nots”. The
4. most important factors responsible for disparities are vote-bank politics, irrational and
corrupt ways of pursuing the paternal policies and government’s failure to address real
issues at central and State levels.
5. Narrow loyalties of caste and religion: - Narrow loyalties of caste and religion are
encouraged in political arena. It has generated sub-cultures like caste-ism, favouritism, and
lure for easy money, nepotism, parochialism, communalism, regionalism etc. Bigoted
sentiments and irresponsible comments are spreading in-discipline in the society. The rising
aspirations and demands of people, with the spread of education and awareness, has
created added problem for the government.
6. Under-currents of caste politics: – Under-currents of caste politics have made
thegovernment incapable to solve the burning national issues. It has made to maintain
lawand order difficult. Inter-caste and intra-caste, inter-community and intra-
communityand inter-tribal and intra-tribal conflicts are increasing day by day in order to get
morespace in the corridors of power.
7. Real issues pushed into the background: Real issues like mass-scale illiteracy, poverty,
unemployment, inflation, deteriorated law and order situation, increasingviolence or
general coarsening of moral fiber of the Indian society etc. are pushed intothe background.
The voice of upright and honest people belonging to middle class is being continuously
throttled mercilessly. They are being punished for followingsincerely family-planning norms,
which has decreased their numbers. In present dayvote-bank politics based on game of
numbers, it is very easy now for the pursuers of political power to sideline them.
8. Other Criticism includes:-a)Family values diminished.
b)Marriages became more of contractual than pious c)Evil effects on the Environment
d)Contrary views among the new and old generations e)Structural changes mostly remain
uneven f)Society did not change in all ways

Difference between Westernisation and Modernisation

1. The term Westernisation unlike Modernisation is ethically neutral. It does not carrythe
implication that it is good or bad, whereas modernisation is normally used in thesense that it is
good.
2. Westernisation as used by Srinivas covers behavioural aspects like eating, drinking,dressing,
dancing, etc., the knowledge aspect like literature, science, etc.; and thevalue aspect like
humanitarianism, equalitarianism, secularism, etc. the termModernisation involves a
transformation of social, political and economicorganisation.
3. Modernisation is a broader concept and has a wider range of application, whilewesternisation
characterises the changes brought about in Indian society and cultureas a result of over 150
years of British rule.
4. Westernisation is a middle class phenomenon while modernisation is a mass processinvolving
mass media.
Conclusion: Caste system has travelled a very long distance. Many changes have taken place in
thesystem especially during centuries of Muslim and British rule in the country. As time
passedon, vested interests in each era had distorted or interpreted the original concepts in the
manner,which suited to their purpose. Many deformities and rigidities had developed into
system to preserve its indigenous identity and culture. Still Caste-system presents one of the
oldest socialinstitution and a continuous and uninterrupted living culture still existing in the
whole world.In conclusion, as B. Kuppu Swamy has said that “the concepts Sanskritisation
andWesternisation helps us only to analyse the superficial change processes which took place
inthe later half of 19th Century and the first two decades of 20th Century. Neither Sanskritisation
nor Westernisation affect social change. So they are entirely inadequate to help us to analysethe
change processes which are currently taking place in Indian society.
Though one cannotsay that the terms westernisation and Sanskritisation are useless one can
definitely assert thatthe term Modernisation is more appropriate and relevant in providing a
satisfactory explanationof social change.