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First-principles simulations of liquid silica: Structural and dynamical behavior at high pressure
gate its structural and dynamical properties. The organization 58 ps, respectively, are required at 6000, 5000, 4000, and
of the paper is as follows: Section II presents the computa- 3000 K. Our simulation time periods far exceed previous
tional details. Section III presents the calculated results with FPMD simulation durations of 8 ps at 3500 K from Ref. 43,
analysis of the equation of state, thermodynamic properties, 2 ps at 3500 K from Ref. 45, and 12.5 ps at 3500 K and
geometric structure, and dynamical properties. Section IV 22.5 ps at 3000 K from Ref. 46. In our simulations, the mean
discusses implications of our results and draws some conclu- displacement of the atoms from initial to final configurations
sions. is 2 Å at 3000 K and more than 5 Å at higher temperatures.
Uncertainties in the energy and pressure are computed using
the proper statistics via the blocking method.60 The conver-
II. METHODOLOGY
gence of the time-averaged properties and systematic energy
The computations have been performed using the first- drift are tested as in our previous study of liquid MgO.49 We
principles molecular dynamics method 共VASP parallel find that equilibrium properties 共e.g., structure, pressure,
code兲47,48 as in our recent studies of liquid MgO and energy兲 converge much more quickly 共i.e., within a few
MgSiO3.14,49,50 The interatomic forces are computed at each picoseconds at all temperatures兲 as in previous FPMD
time step from a fully self-consistent solution of the elec- studies43–46 than dynamical properties 共e.g., diffusion coeffi-
tronic structure to the Born-Oppenheimer surface, within the cient兲. Previous MD studies have not predicted any signifi-
finite temperature formulation of density functional theory.51 cant effects of finite size on equilibrium properties or struc-
The local density approximation 共LDA兲 is used52 as this has ture of silica liquid. However, this is not true in the case of
been found to yield superior agreement with the equation of its dynamical properties, and we make a critical assessment
state, structure, and elasticity of silicates and oxides,53 al- of the potential uncertainties in our calculations 共see the Sec.
though we also perform a limited number of computations III C兲.
with the generalized gradient approximation 共GGA兲54 for
comparison. Ultrasoft Si 共0.82 Å and 3s23p4兲 and O 共0.82 Å III. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
and 2s22p4兲 pseudopotentials47 are used with a plane wave
A. Structural properties
cutoff of 400 eV and gamma point sampling. The Pulay
correction,55 which varies with compression from The radial distribution function 共RDF兲, g共r兲, is computed
2.8 to 6.4 GPa over the volume range considered in this to examine the structural properties of the simulated liquid
study, is added to the calculated total pressure. To correct for system. Figure 1 shows the partial 共both like and unlike兲
the well-known overbinding tendency of LDA, we follow radial distribution functions gSi-O共r兲, gSi-Si共r兲, and gO-O共r兲 at
previous work14,56,57 by adding a uniform correction to the four different compression and temperature conditions,
pressure of 1.5 GPa, evaluated on the basis of comparison which are denoted as V1T1 共V = 1.0VX and T = 3000 K兲,
between the LDA equation of state of quartz to experimental V2T2 共V = 0.8VX and T = 4000 K兲, V3T3 共V = 0.6VX and T
data. = 5000 K兲, and V4T4 共V = 0.4VX and T = 6000 K兲. These V-T
Our FPMD simulations are based on the canonical 共NVT兲 points are chosen to lie uniformly 1000 K above the silica
ensemble in which the number of atoms in the periodically freezing curve over the compression range considered here.
repeated unit cell 共N兲, the volume 共V兲, and the temperature The size of the fluctuations after the first peak in each case
共T兲 are fixed.58 The simulation box contains 24 SiO2 units decreases rapidly with distance and the RDF approaches
共72 atoms兲. A series of FPMD simulations of the liquid state unity at larger distances, indicating the short-range order and
have been performed covering seven volumes: V / VX = 1.0, long-range disorder characteristic of the liquid state. The po-
0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, and 0.4 along four isotherms, 3000, sitions of the peaks at low compression agree well with ex-
4000, 5000, and 6000 K. Here, VX = 45.80 Å3 / SiO2 is the perimental data on silica melt and glass as does the asymme-
reference volume, similar to the experimental volume of the try in the second Si-O peak23,61 共see Table I兲. For all RDFs,
liquid at the ambient melting point.21 The corresponding with increasing temperature and compression, both the first
pressure-temperature conditions span the freezing curve as and second peaks decrease in amplitude and become broader
estimated on the basis of shock-wave compression: 2000 K 共Fig. 1兲. The positions of both peaks tend to shift to smaller
at zero pressure to approximately 4500 K at 150 GPa 共Ref. distances except the second peak in the Si-Si RDF, which
59兲 and so include the liquid stability field and also the high- eventually disappears at high compression and instead a new
pressure supercooled regime. The simulation schedule is as second peak appears at a larger distance 共at condition V4T4兲.
follows: The crystalline structure at each volume is first After the first peak, the like 共Si-Si and O-O兲 radial distribu-
melted and equilibrated at 10 000 K for a period of 3 ps. A tion functions are very similar to each other at V1T1 and
time step of 1 fs is used. We then quench the system to a V2T2. This behavior has been seen in previous molecular
desired lower temperature. At this temperature, we run the dynamics simulations38 and is remarkable because it is typi-
simulation long enough to reach the diffusional regime in cal of symmetrical ionic liquids such as the alkali halides.
which the mean-square displacement 共MSD兲 of atoms varies However, at higher compression 共V3T3 and V4T4兲, the like
linearly with time 共see Sec. III C兲. We confirm that the sys- distributions begin to differ significantly.
tem at each V-T condition simulated is in the liquid state by The structure of the liquid demonstrates that it compresses
analysis of the radial distribution function as well as the via mechanisms that are entirely different from those opera-
mean-square displacement. For instance, at V / VX = 1.0 共the tive in the crystalline polymorphs. We calculate the average
reference volume兲, simulation time periods of 3, 7, 20, and Si-O, O-O, and Si-Si distances as 共Fig. 2兲
104205-2
FIRST-PRINCIPLES SIMULATIONS OF LIQUID… PHYSICAL REVIEW B 76, 104205 共2007兲
12 3.2
V = VX
10 T = 3000 K
Si-O 3.0 Si-Si
8
2.8
RDF
6
4 O-O Si-Si
2.6
Distancce (Å)
O-O 3000 K
2 2.4 4000 K
0 5000 K
2.2 6000 K
8 Averaged
V = 0.8VX
6 T = 4000 K 2.0
Si-O
RDF
4
1.8
2
1.6
0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
6 V/VX
V = 0.6VX
4 T = 5000 K
RDF
冕
condition V1T1, V2T2, V3T3, and V4T4. rmin
C␣ = 4x r2g␣共r兲dr, 共2兲
冕0
rmin
rg␣共r兲dr
where is the number density and x is the concentration
0
具r典 = 共1兲
冕 rmin , 共N / N兲 of species . The calculated Si-O, Si-Si, and O-O
g␣共r兲dr coordination numbers at V1T1 are, respectively, 4.02, 4.13,
0 and 7.54, compared to the corresponding experimental val-
ues of 3.9, 3.8, and 5.7 for silica melt 共Table I兲 and corre-
where rmin is the position of the first minimum in the corre- sponding values of 4, 4, and 6 for the ambient pressure crys-
sponding g␣共r兲. Remarkably, all three average distances talline polymorph. The Si-O coordination number increases
gradually increase in the liquid up to 30% compression. This on compression, as expected by analogy with the crystalline
is in contrast to the behavior of tetrahedrally coordinated polymorphs, but much more slowly initially than in MgSiO3
TABLE I. The calculated positions of the first peak, the minimum after the first peak, and the second peak for Si-O, O-O, and Si-Si RDFs,
and the corresponding coordination numbers at four V-T conditions. The experimental results for vitreous 共Ref. 23兲 and liquid 共Ref. 61兲 silica
at ambient pressure are shown.
V1T1 1.625 2.225 4.025 4.03 2.625 3.425 4.925 7.57 3.025 3.575 5.225 4.14
V2T2 1.625 2.375 3.925 4.21 2.625 3.425 4.875 10.59 3.025 3.575 4.775 5.01
V3T3 1.625 2.425 3.775 5.06 2.475 3.425 4.625 13.47 2.925 3.925 5.175 7.90
V4T4 1.625 2.375 3.675 6.52 2.175 2.925 4.175 12.17 2.825 3.725 5.175 13.03
Ref. 23 1.62 4.15 2.6 4.95 3.08 5.18
Ref. 61 1.62 ⬃4.2 3.9 2.65 ⬃5 5.7 3.12 ⬃5 3.8
104205-3
KARKI, BHATTARAI, AND STIXRUDE PHYSICAL REVIEW B 76, 104205 共2007兲
Si O Coordination
7 3000 K 1.0
3 4
4000 K V 3000 K 5K 5000 K 6 6000 K Avg
4000 P at 3000 K
5000 K 1 4.03 7 4.04 8
4.02 3.95 4.01 0
0.4
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
3000 k
4
Coordination
11
FIG. 4. 共Color online兲 The calculated Si-O coordination num-
Coordination Number
5
The Si-Si coordination number, however, continues to in-
crease with compression even at the highest pressure of our
3 study, indicating that it is not accurate to characterize further
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
compression of the liquid simply in terms of close-packed
(b) V/VX
structures.
At each volume-temperature condition, a variety of local
FIG. 3. 共Color online兲 The calculated Si-O, O-Si, Si-Si, and O-O
Si-O coordination environments exist 共Fig. 4兲. We calculate
coordination numbers as a function of compression at four different
the relative proportions of different Si-O coordinations,
temperatures. Solid lines represent the temperature-averaged values.
which vary from threefold to eightfold. At low compression,
Long dashed line represents crystalline silica phases. Short dashed
line represents MgSiO3 liquid 共Ref. 14兲.
fourfold coordination is dominant with noticeable contribu-
tions from three- and fivefold coordination. The proportions
liquid 共Fig. 3, top兲. In contrast to the silicate liquid, in which of these odd coordination environments decrease with de-
the coordination number depends nearly linearly on com- creasing temperature in the simulations 共Fig. 4, top兲, consis-
pression, in silica the coordination number remains very tent with the experimental observation that they are essen-
nearly 4 until V / VX = 0.8 where it begins to increase more tially absent in the nearly perfectly tetrahedral room
rapidly. This behavior is consistent with the behavior of temperature glass.23,25 With increasing compression, contri-
sodium-silicate glasses for which it is found that the butions from five- and sixfold coordination increase, whereas
pressure-induced Si-O coordination increase occurs more those from three- and fourfold coordination decrease. The
readily 共at a lower pressure兲 in less siliceous compositions.63 preponderance of fivefold Si-O coordination environments at
The interpretation of these results is also consistent with our midcompression 共V / VX = 0.6兲 is significant for two reasons.
findings, namely, that the Si-O coordination number in- First, it demonstrates that liquid structure is not merely a
creases initially at the expense of nonbridging oxygen 共nomi- disordered version of the structure of the crystalline poly-
nally absent in the pure silica compositions of our study兲.62,64 morphs, fivefold coordination being extremely rare in crys-
A similar behavior 共initial slow increase兲 with compression talline silicates. Second, fivefold coordination has been sug-
of O-Si coordination in silica liquid is also predicted by our gested as a particularly unstable transition state that enhances
calculations 共Fig. 3, top兲. On the other hand, the O-O 共and diffusion.41 At high compression, sixfold coordination is
Si-Si兲 coordination number increases rapidly with compres- dominant with its contribution increasing with decreasing
sion and is close to 12 at the highest compression of our temperature at the expenses of five- and sevenfold coordina-
study, i.e., that of close-packed structures 共Fig. 3, bottom兲. tion 共Fig. 4, bottom兲. Our results are consistent with the pre-
104205-4
FIRST-PRINCIPLES SIMULATIONS OF LIQUID… PHYSICAL REVIEW B 76, 104205 共2007兲
V1T1
V2T2
104205-5
KARKI, BHATTARAI, AND STIXRUDE PHYSICAL REVIEW B 76, 104205 共2007兲
P (GPa)
4000 K
Number of 3-Ring
45.8 0.90014678
8 45.25036 0.90019739
1.5
B (MPa K-1)
44.70072 0.90026534
44.15108 0.90035671
20
43.60144 0.9004795
1.0 6 43.0518 0.90064448
42.50216 0.90086615
41.95252 0.901164 -5
41.40288 0.90156424
4 40.85324 0.90210205
3000 4000 5000 6000
0.5
40.3036 0.9028247 T (K)
39.75396 0.9037956
39.20432 0.90509993
2
0.0 38.65468 0.90685219
38.10504 0.90920591
66.0
0 37.5554 0.91236693
0 37.00576 0.91661143
2.366 1.447 1.532 0.756
36.45612 0.92230928
1.878 1.975 2.013 1.816 15 20
35.90648 25
0.92995524 30 35 40 45 50
2.793 2.075 3.627 4.303
35.35684 0.94021058
Characteristic Ring Size
3.493
5.5 4.521 4.841 7.713
34.8072 0.95395678 V(Å3)
5.712 6.883 7.895 11.134
104205-6
FIRST-PRINCIPLES SIMULATIONS OF LIQUID… PHYSICAL REVIEW B 76, 104205 共2007兲
Energy (eV)
140 Qt Expt 3
eos-fit
St 15
P (GPa)
Se 0.8
-24
Shock data
100
5
P (GPa)
0.6
γ
-26
60 3000 4000 5000 6000
-5 26 30 34 38 42 46
T (K)
V(Å3) 0.4
20
0.2
-20 0.0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
V(Å3) (a) V/VX
from Ref. 59. Inset: Comparison of our results at 3500 K with pre-
vious GGA results at 3500 K 共Ref. 45兲 and with the experimental 4.0
results 共Expt 1 from Ref. 18, Expt 2 from Refs. 18 and 20, and Expt
3 from Ref. 22兲 at 1623 K. The uncertainties for liquid at 3500 K
are based on the averages taken between results at 3000 and 3.5
4000 K.
104205-7
KARKI, BHATTARAI, AND STIXRUDE PHYSICAL REVIEW B 76, 104205 共2007兲
100 100
5000 K
6000 K V2T2
10 10 V1T1
4000 K V3T3
1 1
V4T4
D(Å2)
3000 K
D(Å2)
MSD
01
0.1 01
0.1
MSD
0.01 0.01
0.4VX, 3000K
Si atoms
0.001 0.001
Si atoms
0.0001 0.0001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
(a) Time (ps) 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
(a) Time (ps)
100
5000 K 100
6000 K
V2T2
10
4000 K V1T1
10
V3T3
1
3000 K V4T4
1
MSD(Å2)
01
0.1
Å2)
MSD(Å 01
0.1
0.01
0.01 0.4VX, 3000K
O atoms
0.001
0.001 O atoms
0.0001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.0001
(b) Time (ps) 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
(b) Time (ps)
FIG. 11. 共Color online兲 Mean-square displacement 共MSD兲 ver-
sus time relationships for Si and O atoms at V / VX = 1.0 for four FIG. 12. 共Color online兲 Mean-square displacement 共MSD兲 ver-
different temperatures: 3000, 4000, 5000, and 6000 K 共from lower sus time relationships for Si and O atoms at four different
to upper curves兲. compression-temperature conditions: V1T1, V2T2, V3T3, and
V4T4. The lowermost curve in each plot is MSD at 3000 K for the
averaging over atoms of a given species. We account for the smallest volume 共V / VX = 0.4兲.
translational symmetry of the system so that the MSD value
is not restricted by the size of the supercell. At high tempera- The calculated diffusion coefficient at the reference vol-
tures of 5000 and 6000 K, each MSD clearly shows two ume 共V = VX兲 as a function of the inverse temperature follows
temporal regimes. The first is the ballistic regime 共for short the Arrhenius relation 共Fig. 13兲. Our analysis is made at con-
times兲 in which the atoms move without interacting strongly stant volume 共along V / VX = 1.0 isochore兲, and the corrections
with their neighbors and MSD is proportional to t2. The sec- to constant pressure are within uncertainties. The calculated
ond is the diffusion regime 共for long times兲 in which MSD is activation energies are 3.43共8兲 and 3.27共12兲 eV for silicon
proportional to t. However, at 3000 and 4000 K, an interme-
and oxygen, respectively. These numbers are relatively
diate regime appears where MSD increases slowly due to the
small, compared to the experimental values for vitreous
so-called cage effect. The atoms are temporarily trapped in
the cages made by their neighbors. The duration of the cage silica at lower temperatures of 6.0 and 4.7 eV, respectively,
regime increases rapidly with decreasing temperature span- for Si 共Ref. 31兲 and O 共Ref. 32兲, and a more recent experi-
ning 0.1– 1 ps at 4000 K and 0.2– 20 ps at 3000 K. This is mental value of 4.74 eV for Si diffusion.33 The difference
consistent with a previous FPMD study.46 At 3000 K, the between our results and experiment may be explained by a
curves show additional features; immediately after the ballis- crossover from strong Arrhenian behavior at the low tem-
tic regime, the curves show a small shoulder at around peratures of the experiments to fragile, non-Arrhenian behav-
0.03 ps and a peak at around 0.2 ps. As suggested ior within the temperature range of our simulations.40 Previ-
previously,40 the first feature can be associated with the com- ous MD studies based on semiempirical interatomic force
plex local motion of the atoms in the open tetrahedral net- models have produced a wide range of activation energies as
work and the second with the so-called boson peak related to the predicted diffusion constants differ by up to two
a low-frequency vibrational mode. decades.40,41,77,78 Our results are slightly smaller than those
104205-8
FIRST-PRINCIPLES SIMULATIONS OF LIQUID… PHYSICAL REVIEW B 76, 104205 共2007兲
D (10-9m2/s)
1
0.1
01
0.01 0.1
Si atoms
0.001 0.01
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 40 80 120 160 200
104/T (K-1) (a) P (GPa)
100
FIG. 13. Calculated diffusion coefficients 共symbols兲 for Si and 3000 K 4000 K
O atoms as a function of temperature at V / VX = 1.0. Lines represent 5000 K 6000 K
the fit to the Arrhenius law. Previous calculated values are from 10
Ref. 44.
D (10-99m2/s)
from a previous FPMD study;43 the small difference may be 1
due to the greater duration of our simulations. A crossover to
fragile behavior at high temperature would suggest nonlinear 0.1
dependence of the diffusion coefficient on inverse tempera-
O atoms
ture over the range of our simulations. Indeed, we cannot
rule out a nonlinear dependence within our uncertainties, in 0.01
which case the values quoted above for the activation ener- 0 40 80 120 160 200
gies should be considered as average values over the tem- (b) P (GPa)
perature range of our simulations.
Very long simulations at compressed volumes are needed FIG. 14. 共Color online兲 The calculated diffusion coefficients for
for 3000 K 共the lowest temperature studied兲 to obtain the Si and O atoms as a function of pressure at four temperatures:
fully converged diffusion coefficients. For instance, at the 3000 K 共circles兲, 4000 K 共diamonds兲, 5000 K 共squares兲, and
smallest volume 共V / VX = 0.4兲 used, the 3000 K MSD re- 6000 K 共triangles兲. The lines are Arrhenius fit to the selected data
mains below 0.9 Å2 over the run of about 60 ps 共Fig. 12兲. points 共see the text兲.
This behavior is consistent with a vitreous 共nondiffusional兲
state. We calculate the diffusion coefficients only at those analyzed is geophysically relevant as it encompasses
volume-temperature points where we see a clear evidence for pressure-temperature conditions at which partial melting
the beginning of the diffusional regime. At 4000 K, with would be expected in Earth’s mantle.
increasing pressure, the calculated diffusion coefficient Previous MD studies have shown that finite-size effects
initially increases, reaching a maximum at approximately on diffusivity of silica liquid can be substantial.38,79,80 The
25 GPa, and then decreases with further increase in pressure diffusion coefficient at zero pressure varies with the number
共Fig. 14兲. A similar maximum is weakly present at 5000 K 共N兲 of atoms as 1 / N at 3000 K or as 1 / N1/3 at 6000 K.80 We
and absent at 6000 K, where the diffusion coefficient estimate, based on these results, that our simulations may
decreases monotonically with increasing pressure to within underestimate the diffusion coefficient by 20% at 6000 K
our uncertainty. Previous MD studies have also predicted and by 45% at 3000 K, relative to the infinite system limit.
diffusivity maxima at temperatures ranging from Since the finite-size effect is systematic, we may estimate the
3000 to 5000 K.11,13,38,41,77–79 The Arrhenius law cannot rep- value of the zero-pressure activation energies in infinite sys-
resent the complete set of calculated pressure-temperature tem limit: 3.22 and 3.19 eV, respectively, for Si and O, i.e., a
values of diffusivity of silica liquid due to the diffusivity few percent difference. Finite-size scaling is not well known
maximum. We include only those pressure-temperature at high pressure, although little difference between systems
points in the Arrhenius analysis which show a diffusivity with 324 and 728 atoms was previously found by MD
decreasing with increasing pressure including all seven vol- simulation.79 We note that the height of our diffusivity maxi-
umes at 6000 K, V / VX 艋 0.9 at 5000 K, and V / VX 艋 0.6 at mum at 4000 K is about 3.5⫻ 10−9 m2 / s relative to the value
4000 K. Thus derived activation energy and activation vol- at V / VX = 1.0, which is much larger than the potential finite-
ume for the total diffusivity are 2.0 eV and 1.2 Å3, respec- size errors.
tively. The activation energy is substantially less than that
共3.35 eV兲 at V / VX = 1.0, which emphasizes difference in dif- IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
fusional behavior in silica liquid between low and high pres-
sures. For comparison, the corresponding values for MgO Liquid silica has been predicted to display several
from the Arrhenius fit to a complete set of P and T results for anomalies, including a temperature of maximum density
the total diffusivity are 0.83 eV and 1.3 Å3, respectively.49 共TMD兲, spinodal instability, and liquid-liquid phase
We note that the apparently Arrhenian regime that we have transformations9–11 that so far have not been studied with
104205-9
KARKI, BHATTARAI, AND STIXRUDE PHYSICAL REVIEW B 76, 104205 共2007兲
first-principles methods. Predictions of these anomalies have behavior of silica liquid is thus quite distinct from MgSiO3
been based on semiempirical interatomic force models, liquid in which the Si-O coordination number and the Grü-
including van Beest–Kramer–van Santen 共BKS兲76 and neisen parameter depend essentially linearly on compression.
Woodcock-Angell-Cheeseman 共WAC兲.77 The prediction of a Structural compression mechanisms in these two regimes
TMD has led several authors to draw analogies between the are fundamentally different. In the high-pressure regime,
behavior of silica and water.3 More recent studies have compression is primarily associated with an increase in the
shown that the dependence of TMD on volume and the mag- Si-O coordination number. The low-pressure regime displays
nitude of negative thermal expansivity are sensitive to the a unique compression mechanism that is not seen in any
assumed form of the atomic interactions.9,10 crystalline silicate. Whereas crystalline silicates compress ei-
Our results show no evidence for a TMD. In particular, ther by decreasing nearest neighbor bond lengths 共e.g.,
the pressure increases monotonically and nearly linearly with stishovite兲 or the distances 共angles兲 between coordination
increasing temperature along all isochores investigated 共Fig. polyhedra 共e.g., quartz or coesite兲, neither of these two com-
8兲. This is in contrast to the strongly concave dependence of pression mechanisms occur in the liquid. Instead, the liquid
pressure with temperature along isochores found in previous compresses by altering its medium range structure as mani-
results based on semiempirical potentials.9 For example, at a fested in the ring statistics.66 In particular, the number of
density of 2.2 g / cm3, similar to our V / VX = 1.0, Ref. 9 finds small rings decreases with compression, and the ring size
that the pressure decreases with increasing temperature up to increases. These results are understood in terms of the rela-
a temperature of 9000 K, where the pressure is 10 GPa less tive pruning efficiency of different sized rings as they are
than that at 3000 K according to the WAC model. The mag- formed in a Bethe lattice, and rationalized by comparison
nitude of this local pressure minimum lies well outside the with a suite of crystalline silicate structures, which show a
uncertainties of our simulations. The BKS model produces wide variety of ring statistics and a range of framework den-
more subtle effects 共pressure at 5000 K is 4 GPa less than sities over a factor of 3, with the least dense frameworks
that at 2500 K兲, which can nevertheless also be excluded by associated with the largest number of small rings.67 The to-
our simulations. pological compression mechanism found in silica liquid is
We find no evidence of spinodal instabilities 共vanishing potentially very important for understanding the behavior of
bulk modulus兲 over the range of our first-principles simula- polymerized silicate liquids at elevated pressure. The reason
tions. The pressure monotonically increases with decreasing is that the topological mechanism is operative in the pressure
volume along all isotherms 共Fig. 9兲. Spinodals have been regime where the liquid is most compressible, and therefore
found in previous simulations of liquid silica, behavior that is responsible for a large fraction of the compression over the
has been connected to the possibility of liquid-liquid phase pressure regime of Earth’s mantle.
transformations.9–11 The WAC potential predicts two spin- An alternative interpretation of compression in the low-
odals on the 3000 K isotherm at 8 and 10 GPa, whereas the pressure regime was offered by Trave et al.45 They argued
BKS potential predicts spinodals at positive pressure for T that increased network connectivity due to the presence of a
⬎ 6500 K and T ⬍ 2000 K,9 outside the range of our results. small fraction of fivefold coordinated Si is primarily respon-
We cannot rule out the presence of spinodal instabilities out- sible for compression in this regime. While this may also be
side the range of our results. Indeed, extrapolation of our a contributing factor, it is not clear how this mechanism can
equation of state fit at 3000 K shows a spinodal at a pressure lead to substantial amounts of compression. Unlike the ring-
of −0.12 GPa and V / VX = 1.05. Our results show no signs of growth mechanism discussed above, it is not possible to use
spinodal instability at temperatures higher than the range in- crystalline models to quantify the relationship between the
vestigated here on the basis of the nearly linear dependence compression mechanism and density. Moreover, we find that
of pressure on temperature. formation of fivefold coordination Si does not increase net-
The disagreement between pair potentials and first- work connectivity, at least at low pressure.
principles simulations calls into question the accuracy of the The dynamical properties of silica liquid are also found to
pair potentials. Even if two quite different pair potentials show two distinct regimes, a low-compression anomalous
yield qualitatively similar results, it does not necessarily fol- regime showing a temperature-dependent diffusivity maxi-
low that the qualitative trends are realistic. This may be be- mum and a high-compression regime in which the diffusion
cause of the limitations in the functional form of the pair coefficient decreases with increasing pressure. We find that
potentials: the well-known Born-Mayer form81 may not cap- the diffusivity maximum is closely associated with the pres-
ture the essential physics of bonding.42 Indeed, by including ence of fivefold coordinated Si, in agreement with previous
polarizability, Ref. 82 finds much better agreement with first- studies.41 The pentahedral coordination environments can be
principles simulations of liquid silica. considered as transition states for atomic diffusion. In par-
We find that silica liquid is characterized by two distinct ticular, the pressure at which fivefold coordinated Si is most
compressional regimes: a low-pressure regime 共V / VX ⬎ 0.7兲 abundant coincides with the pressure of the diffusivity maxi-
in which the Si-O coordination number is nearly constant mum at 4000 K. We confirm from first principles the diffu-
and a high-pressure regime 共V / VX 艋 0.7兲 in which the Si-O sivity maximum in silica liquid, which was previously pre-
coordination number increases relatively rapidly. These two dicted by MD simulations based on interatomic force
regimes are characterized by distinct thermodynamic proper- models.13,38,41,78,79 A clear pattern in our results has not been
ties. In the low-pressure regime, the liquid is much more widely discussed: the vanishing of the diffusivity maximum
compressible, the heat capacity is higher, and the Grüneisen with increasing temperature. Indeed, the strong temperature
parameter is smaller than in the high-pressure regime. The dependence is at odds with a previous explanation of the
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FIRST-PRINCIPLES SIMULATIONS OF LIQUID… PHYSICAL REVIEW B 76, 104205 共2007兲
diffusivity maximum as being associated with the crystalline vation energy obtained from our simulations and the larger,
fourfold to sixfold coordination change.79 This model would lower-temperature activation energy found in experiments.
predict that the diffusivity maximum should either be inde-
pendent of temperature or move to higher pressures with
increasing temperature, contrary to our findings. Our results ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
are consistent with a picture in which silica liquid behaves
like a strong liquid at low pressure and low temperature and This work was supported by the NSF Grants No. EAR-
a fragile liquid at high pressure and high temperature. This 0409074 共B.B.K.兲 and No. EAR-048182 共L.S.兲. Computing
explains the diffusivity maximum, its temperature depen- facilities were provided by CCT at Louisiana State Univer-
dence, and the difference between the high-temperature acti- sity.
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