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Determinants of Chinese
Consumers’ Green Purchase
Behavior
Ricky Y. K. Chan
Hong Kong Polytechnic University

ABSTRACT

This study examines the influence of various cultural and

psychological factors on the green purchase behavior of Chinese
consumers. To this end, a conceptual model has been proposed and
subjected to empirical verification with the use of a survey. The
survey results obtained in two major Chinese cities provide
reasonable support for the validity of the proposed model.
Specifically, the findings from the structural-equation modeling
confirm the influence of the subjects’ man – nature orientation,
degree of collectivism, ecological affect, and marginally, ecological
knowledge, on their attitudes toward green purchases. Their
attitudes toward green purchases, in turn, are also seen to affect
their green purchase behavior via the mediator of green purchase
intention. Although the present findings provide a better
understanding of the process and significant antecedents of green
purchasing, they also highlight two areas for more thorough
investigation. These are the exact role of ecological knowledge in
Chinese consumers’ green purchasing process and the underlying
factors that account for their low level of green purchase. This study
also discusses how the present findings may help the Chinese
government and green marketers to fine-tune their environmental
programs. 䉷 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

An awareness of environmental degradation has taken a long time to

emerge in China (Head, 1996). Sharing the industrialization experience Base of text

Psychology & Marketing

䉷 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Vol. 18(4): 389–413 (April 2001)
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of most advanced nations, China has been paying a high ecological price Base of text
for its rapid economic growth in terms of worsening pollution and an
accelerating depletion of many critical resources (Chen, 1998). When
compared with other countries, China’s lack of environmental concern
and sustainability management is clearly evident; on average, China
spends less than 1% of its GDP on environmental protection. This figure
is surpassed by Hong Kong’s 1.5%, even though the territory was once
named as “the most ecologically unsound place in the world” (“Hong
Kong’s Environmental,” 1996). In comparison with the corresponding
percentages of the United States (2.5%) and Australia (5%), China’s
apathy toward ecological matters appears undeniable (Martinsons, So,
Tin, & Wong, 1997).
As the environment continues to worsen, the Chinese government has
begun to realize the seriousness of the problem (Head, 1995). The recent
enactment of various anti-pollution laws and preparation for new crim-
inal codes on environmental offenses have shown the country’s deter-
mination to act more proactively in tackling its ecological problems
(Head, 1996). Although some fairly comprehensive environmental laws
are in place in China, their actual effectiveness at the implementation
level is still far from clear, as various societal stakeholders are too con-
tent with the rapid economic development to feel any urgent threat from
the ecological deterioration (H. S. Chan & Wong, 1994).
To advance a country’s green revolution, McGougall (1993) asserts
that the role of consumers is essential. This assertion is supported by
the evidence that 30 – 40% of environmental degradation has been
brought about by the consumption activities of private households (Gru-
nert, 1993). More importantly, if consumers exhibit a high degree of
ecological consciousness and channel it to corresponding ecofriendly or
green purchases, it is likely that profit-driven enterprises will be
strongly motivated to adopt the concept of green marketing in their
operations. The dynamics of this buyer – seller interaction will conse-
quently lead to further advancement of the green revolution across the
whole country (Ottman, 1992). Thus, to better understand the environ-
mental movement of a particular nation, an examination of how its con-
sumers view and feel about ecological issues, and how they behave ac-
cordingly, serves as a good starting point.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Against the foregoing background, this study aims to grasp a better

understanding of how various psychological factors might affect Chinese
consumers’ green purchasing. As will be elaborated later, the major fac-
tors under investigation include the consumers’ affective responses
toward (ecological affect) and knowledge of (ecological knowledge) eco- short
logical issues in general, and their specific attitudes toward green pur- standard

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chases. Moreover, given the profound impact of cultural values on the Base of text
beliefs and behavior of the Chinese (Bond, 1996; Yau, 1994), their pos-
sible influence on the green purchase behavior of Chinese consumers is
also analyzed in this study.
As the literature has only given little attention to the issues under
investigation, it is hoped that findings from the present study would
provide a foundation for more thorough investigation along the same
direction in the future. In practical terms, it is also hoped that the
present study can contribute to policy makers’ and businesses’ better
understanding of the environmental ethics of Chinese citizens/consum-
ers. Certainly, such an understanding can provide useful insights into
further advancing the idea of green consumption in the country.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Although various psychological constructs such as affect, knowledge,

verbal commitment, attitudes, and memory have been advocated as im-
portant determinants of ecofriendly behavior (cf. Benton, 1994; Heckler,
1994; Maloney & Ward, 1973; Maloney, Ward, & Braucht, 1975; Mobley,
Painter, Untch, & Unnava, 1995; Smith, Haugtvedt, & Petty, 1994) and
widely researched in the literature, their exact relationships with such
behavior are still unclear (R. Y. K. Chan & Yam, 1995). In addition,
their relationships with Chinese cultural values have yet to be fully
explored. To bridge this gap, a literature review of the major constructs
under investigation and their possible relationships with green pur-
chase behavior is first provided. This will form a useful basis for for-
mulating the relevant conceptual model to guide the conduct of the sub-
sequent survey.

Chinese Cultural Values and EcoCentric Orientation

As one of the objectives of the present study is to examine the possible
influence of Chinese cultural values on ecofriendly purchasing behavior,
a discussion on how these values may shape Chinese people’s views on
environmental protection is considered necessary. With Rokeach’s
(1973) definition, cultural values can be conceived as those enduring
beliefs that establish stable principles to guide the roles and relation-
ships of people in a particular society. More than three decades ago,
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) developed a value-orientation frame-
work (the K & S framework) to describe the uniqueness of Chinese cul-
ture. This framework was later employed by Yau (1988) to study Chi-
nese cultural values in the marketing context. On the whole, the K & S
framework has proven to be applicable to the analysis of Chinese cul-
tural values, which are largely formed from and nurtured by interper- short
sonal relationships and social orientations. standard

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The K & S framework asserts that cultural values can be classified Base of text
into five dimensions: (a) man – nature orientation; (b) man – himself ori-
entation; (c) relational orientation; (d) past-time orientation; and (e) ac-
tivity orientation. Of particular interest here are the man – nature and
relational orientations. As far as the man – nature orientation is con-
cerned, the Chinese traditionally place heavy emphasis on living in har-
mony with nature. Such emphasis is greatly influenced by the thoughts
of Lao Tzu, a great philosopher who lived long before the time of Con-
fucius. His philosophies are embodied in his masterpiece, Tao Te Ching,
and have been influencing the Chinese way of thinking for over 2000
years. Taoist philosophies portray man as only a part of nature and
maintain that he should not try to master it. Instead, he should learn
how to adapt to, or even integrate with it to achieve a man – nature
unity. The Chinese conceive flowers, trees, and grass as having their
own consciousness, and thus they should not be destroyed without good
cause. Having been influenced by this man – nature orientation, the Chi-
nese believe that nature has the way or tao, by which all things become
what they are (Miles, 1992). In other words, this traditional cultural
orientation dictates that people should behave according to the way of
nature, which is, in general, believed to be unalterable (Zhang, 1998).
To a certain extent, this Chinese man – nature orientation is similar to
the ecocentric orientation found in the Western literature (cf. Dunlap &
Van Liere, 1978; Van Liere & Dunlap, 1980). This similarity, for in-
stance, is evidenced by a study on the environmental attitudes of Amer-
ican national park visitors. In that study, an ecocentric orientation is
conceived as proposing that “mankind must live in harmony,” as well
as “maintain a balance with nature” (Jurowski, Uysal, Williams, & Noe,
1995).
Regarding how the Chinese view their relationships with others (i.e.,
relational orientation), most researchers point to their unique collectiv-
ist nature (Li, 1997; Yau, 1994). Hofstede (1980) asserts that the Chi-
nese emphasize the primacy of the interests of specific social groups
(e.g., family) and the maintenance of group cohesiveness. Lee (1990)
further maintains that people from Confucian nations such as China,
Japan, and Korea have a strong propensity to conform with the norms
of their social groups, and that they are highly concerned whether their
behavior would make them lose face within such groups (see also Red-
ding & Ng, 1983; Yau, 1994). In developing its Chinese-values survey
instruments, the Chinese Culture Connection (1987) also notes that two
of its four derived cultural values, indeed, point to a more basic cultural
dimension of the Chinese, namely, collectivism.
Given their collectivist nature, the Chinese are expected to exhibit a
relatively strong tendency to subordinate their individual interests in
pursuit of group interests compared to their Western counterparts
(Hofstede, 1983; Triandis, 1989; Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & short
Lucca, 1988). As far as the preservation of ecological well-being is con- standard

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cerned, McCarty and Shrum (1994) further contend that collectivist in- Base of text
dividuals tend to be more cooperative than those who are individualistic.
Based on the theoretical premises of the value – attitude – behavior hi-
erarchy (cf. Homer & Kahle, 1988), these two researchers have dem-
onstrated the significant influence of an individual’s collectivist orien-
tation on his/her recycling behavior, via the mediating variable of
attitudes toward recycling. Using regression analysis, Li (1997) has also
detected significant influence of collectivist orientation on Chinese con-
sumers’ propensity to search for green product information and on their
actual green consumption.

Psychological Determinants of Ecofriendly Behavior

In an attempt to better understand people’s performance of ecofriendly
acts, Maloney and Ward (1973) advocate the importance of determining
these people’s knowledge of the environment (ecological knowledge),
how they feel about it (ecological affect), what commitment they are
willing to make (verbal commitment or intention), and what commit-
ment they do make (actual commitment) (see also Maloney et al., 1975).
Researchers following this paradigm further assert that an individual’s
ecological behavior is highly dependent upon his/her ecological knowl-
edge, affect, and intention (R. Y. K. Chan & Yam, 1995). Such a view is
consistent with the classic behavioral proposition that cognition, affect,
and conation are three essential components in determining correspond-
ing behavior (Bagozzi, Tybout, Craig, & Sternthal, 1979; Breckler, 1984;
Rosenberg, 1956). In the following, a discussion on the possible rela-
tionship between each of these three constructs and behavior in the
context of ecological preservation is given.
In general, the behavioral literature reports a positive relationship
between knowledge and behavior (e.g., Hoch & Deighton, 1989; Park,
Mothersbaugh, & Feick, 1994). However, in the field of environmental
research, empirical findings on this issue are far from clear (Martin &
Simintiras, 1995). For instance, Dispoto (1977) and Kilkeary (1975)
have found a positive association between ecological knowledge and en-
vironmentally responsible behavior. On the other hand, a number of
studies have shown that ecological knowledge exerts no significant bear-
ing on the performance of ecofriendly acts (Arbuthnot & Lingg, 1975;
Geller, 1981; Schahn & Holzer, 1990). In a meta-analysis of 128 previous
studies, Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera (1987) noted an average cor-
relation of 0.30 between ecological knowledge and behavior. This mod-
erately (yet statistically significant) positive association was also ob-
served in Grunert’s (1993) study concerning the purchase of green foods.
To conclude, although increased ecological knowledge has, in general,
been found to be associated with increased ecological behavior, contra-
dictory results have also been reported in the literature. Such mixed short
empirical findings may well suggest a more complex relationship be- standard

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tween ecological knowledge and behavior (R. Y. K. Chan, 1999). As Co- Base of text
hen (1973), and Arbuthnot and Lingg (1975) suggested more than two
decades ago, ecological knowledge might act as a mediating variable for
ecological attitudes and behavior. More recently, Davis (1993) and Syn-
odinos (1990) have also asserted that augmented knowledge of environ-
mental issues may lead to more positive ecological attitudes.
Comparatively, more consistent empirical evidence has been found to
support a positive relationship between ecological affect and behavior
(Dispoto, 1977; Li, 1997; Maloney & Ward, 1973). In this context, Benton
(1994) has termed such affect ecological concern, which represents an
individual’s degree of emotional attachment to ecological issues. Kin-
near, Taylor, and Ahmed (1974), and Schwepker and Cornwell (1991)
further maintain that the ecologically concerned consumer’s attitudes
must express concerns for ecology. Notwithstanding the general belief
that attitudes should comprise both affective and cognitive components
(Petty, Unnava, & Strathman, 1991), the foregoing views seem to sug-
gest that some environmental researchers have treated ecological affect
and attitudes as similar, or even equivalent to each other (e. g., Martin
& Simintiras, 1995; Synodinos, 1990). On the other hand, in those en-
vironmental studies explicitly dealing with the attitude – behavior re-
lationship, a moderate but statistically significant relationship has often
been found. Moreover, several studies further show that the attitude –
behavior relationship has been strengthened when attitudes toward
performing specific environmentally friendly behavior (e.g., recycling),
rather than toward general environmental issues, have been examined
(Hines et al., 1987; Schwepker & Cornwell, 1991). This observation is
consistent with the premise of the theory of reasoned action (cf. Ajzen
& Fishbein, 1980) regarding the importance of retaining the correspon-
dence between attitudes and behavioral intention/behavior.
In general, empirical studies have demonstrated a significant positive
relationship between ecological intention and behavior (cf. Li, 1997; Ma-
loney & Ward, 1973). In addition, the aforementioned meta-analysis has
reported an average correlation of 0.49 between the two variables
(Hines et al., 1987). These findings support the classic behavioral prop-
osition that intention is the most immediately relevant predictor of cor-
responding behavior (cf. Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980).

THE PROPOSED MODEL

With reference to the foregoing literature review, a conceptual model is

proposed in Figure 1 to explain Chinese consumers’ green purchase be-
havior. The model draws much input from the literature aforemen-
tioned. For instance, consistent with the value – attitude – behavior hi-
erarchy, it postulates direct causal links between the two cultural value short
dimensions (man – nature orientation and collectivism) and attitudes standard

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Base of text

Figure 1. The proposed model of the present study.

toward green purchases. Furthermore, an individual’s ecological knowl-

edge and affect were postulated as affecting his/her attitudes toward
green purchases. This postulation is to reflect the cognitive and affective
structure of attitudes as discussed earlier. Moreover, it is hoped that
the incorporation of the cognitive, affective, and attitudinal constructs
into the same model would provide further insights into how an indi-
vidual’s knowledge of, and affective responses toward, general ecological
issues, influence his/her attitudes toward performing a specific kind of
ecofriendly behavior, namely green purchase. Last, attitudes toward
green purchases were hypothesized to influence green purchase behav-
ior via the mediating variable of green purchase intention. Given the
reported positive relationship between behavioral intention and behav-
ior, in both general behavioral and environmental studies (cf. Ajzen &
Fishbein, 1980; R. Y. K. Chan & Yam, 1995), the inclusion of the cona-
tive construct as a mediator between attitudes and behavior should fur-
ther improve the explanatory power of the model.

THE SURVEY

To empirically verify the proposed model, a comprehensive survey was short

conducted in China. Although English was initially used to develop the standard

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survey questionnaire, it was subsequently translated into Chinese to Base of text
facilitate respondents’ understanding. Linguistic equivalence between
the English and Chinese versions was ensured by employing the back-
translation technique (cf. Bhalla & Lin, 1987).

INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT

The measurement instruments of the present study were developed

based on input from previous studies, focus group sessions, and the au-
thor’s own judgment. The relevant details are described below.

Man – Nature Orientation (MNO)

The items to operationalize the construct of man – nature orientation
were developed by referring to Churchill’s (1979) suggested guidelines.
Specifically, literature search (e.g., Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961; Li,
1997; Yau, 1994), and two focus groups were employed to generate a set
of items to delineate the construct. To conduct the two focus-group ses-
sions, eight participants were recruited for each group. They were re-
cruited in Guangzhou, China, with one group consisting of only partic-
ipants who had purchased green products before, and the other of only
those who had not. A deliberate attempt was also made to balance the
gender of participants (four males and four females) of each group. An
experienced focus-group moderator was responsible for conducting the
two focus-group sessions, with the aim to find out what the participants
thought the relationship between human beings and nature should be.
The two sessions were audiotaped and then content analyzed by four
scholars specializing in the issues under investigation. They were first
requested to identify independently the major items representing the
man – nature orientation. Having completed this stage, the four scholars
then met together to exchange views. This process consequently led to
the development of a concordant list of scale items. The finalized items
(five 7-point statements anchored with “1 ⫽ do not agree at all” and
“7 ⫽ strongly agree”) used in this study are reproduced in Appendix I
for reference.

Collectivism (COLLECT)
With reference to the McCarty and Shrum (1994) measurement instru-
ment, three statements, anchored by “1 ⫽ not at all important” to “7 ⫽
extremely important,” were employed to tap respondents’ degree of col-
lectivism. The exact wordings of the statements are (a) Working hard
for the goals of your group, even if it does not result in personal recog-
nition; (b) being a cooperative participant in group activities; and (3) short
standard

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readily helping others in need of help. The empirical work of these two Base of text
researchers showed that all three aforementioned items loaded signifi-
cantly on the latent construct of collectivism at p ⬍ .01. In addition, the
R2s of these three items were found to range between 0.302 and 0.694,
and were considered to be “moderately good indicators of collectivism”
(McCarty & Shrum, 1994, p. 57).

Ecological Affect (EA) and Ecological Knowledge (EK)

The ecological-affect and ecological-knowledge items were adopted from
the ecological scale of Maloney et al. (1975) to assess respondents’ affect
and knowledge relating to general ecological issues. The ecological affect
instrument is comprised of a number of true – false statements; whereas
the ecological knowledge instrument consists of several five-category,
multiple-choice questions. Indeed, this ecological scale has been widely
used in previous environmental studies and is one of the most popular
scales for studying ecological concern (Benton, 1994). The finalized ec-
ological affect and knowledge items used in the present study are re-
produced in Appendix II for reference.

Attitudes Toward Green Purchases (AGP)

With reference to the Taylor and Todd (1995) approach, three state-
ments coded by 7-point semantic-differential scales were employed to
operationalize the global measure of attitudes. These statements are

1. I (1 ⫽ dislike; 7 ⫽ like) the idea of purchasing green.

2. Purchasing green is a (1 ⫽ bad; 7 ⫽ good) idea.
3. I have a/an (1 ⫽ unfavorable; 7 ⫽ favorable) attitude toward pur-
chasing a green version of a product.

In addition to the global attitudinal measure, the operationalization

based on the mathematical function derived from the perceived conse-
quences of purchasing green products, and the evaluation of those con-
sequences, was also performed (i.e., 兺Biei). This was achieved in accord-
ance with the procedure suggested by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), and
served as a check of the validity of the global attitudinal measure. The
relevant salient beliefs generated from the procedure comprised such
items as “reducing environmental pollution,” “helping environmental
protection,” “increasing the product price,” et cetera. The subsequent
survey data indicated that the correlation between the global measure
and that derived from 兺Biei was 0.7325 (p ⬍ .000). In view of the high
correlation, only the global measure was used to verify the proposed
conceptual model. short
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Green Purchase Intention (GPI) Base of text
Three statements were used to measure respondents’ intention to en-
gage in green purchases (cf. Li, 1997; Taylor & Todd, 1995). The three
statements were coded on a 7-point scale with 1 ⫽ “very unlikely” and
7 ⫽ “very likely.” They read as follows:

1. Over the next one month, I will consider buying products because
they are less polluting.
2. Over the next one month, I will consider switching to other brands
for ecological reasons.
3. Over the next one month, I plan to switch to a green version of a
product.

Green Purchase Behavior (GPB)

To examine their green purchase behavior, respondents were contacted
again one month after they had expressed their views on all the afore-
mentioned measurement scales. Three behavioral measures were used:
(a) a 7-point self-reported scale item (1 ⫽ “never”; 7 ⫽ “at every oppor-
tunity”), indicating the frequency of shopping for green products within
the previous month; (b) a 7-point self-reported scale item (1 ⫽ “none”;
7 ⫽ “much money”), indicating the amount spent on green products
within the previous month (cf. Homer & Kahle, 1988); and (c) the total
number of green products bought within the previous month (cf. Taylor
& Todd, 1995).
For verification purposes, all the respondents who reported that they
had bought green products were asked to produce the alleged green
products. In the fieldwork described below, 192 respondents reported
that they had made green purchases in the previous month. Except for
16 respondents, all of these self-reported green purchasers were able to
show the products for verification, and no anomaly was found. The 16
respondents failing to present the green products explained that they
had already consumed the products within the 1-month period. Since
they were able to recall the brand of the products correctly for field-
workers’ verification, their replies were also included in the subsequent
data analysis.
Similar to the method employed to purify the man-nature orientation
scale, the four aforementioned scholars were also invited to assess all
the other scales under investigation. To supplement these expert opin-
ions, a pilot test with 30 subjects in Guangzhou, China, was performed
before conducting the comprehensive survey. The subjects were visitors
of one of the largest shopping centers in Guangzhou and were selected
according to Sudman’s (1980) suggested guidelines. Forty percent of the
subjects were male and 80% were married. The relevant median age short
range and annual personal income range were 25 – 29 and Rmb 11,001 – standard

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13,000 (US$1 ⫽ Rmb8.4) respectively. Overall, the foregoing demo- Base of text
graphic characteristics of the pilot-test sample did not greatly deviate
from those of the Guangzhou or the entire Chinese population (at p ⬍
.07). Based on the inputs from the pilot test, necessary modifications to
the measurement instruments were made accordingly.

THE FIELDWORK

The survey was carried out through door-to-door personal interviews in

Beijing and Guangzhou, China, which are respectively the major north-
ern and southern cities of the country. Moreover, as Beijing is the capital
city of China, and Guangzhou is one of its most rapidly developed yet
polluted cities (cf. Environmental Trends, 1995), surveying the two
should be able to provide valuable insights into the green movement of
the nation’s urbanized areas. However, given China’s vast size and pos-
sibly varying ecological conditions between regions with different de-
grees of urbanization, the present sample may still not be able to fully
capture all the regional differences. This should be treated as a limita-
tion of the present study and calls for caution when projecting the
present findings to rural areas of the country.
With the assistance of a research company specializing in consumer
research in China, 300 households in each of the two cities were ran-
domly selected. Specifically, two sampling frames listing, respectively,
all the city blocks of the two surveyed cities had first been compiled.
Based on this information, two-stage area sampling (cf. Churchill, 1996,
pp. 522 – 525) was employed to select a predetermined number of city
blocks, and subsequently, 300 households in each of the two cities.
Within each selected household, an adult member (aged 18 or over) was
further randomly chosen as a potential subject of the survey. Because
concepts such as environmental protection and green consumption are
relatively new in China, minors were excluded from the survey as they
were considered less likely to be able to fully comprehend the issues
under investigation. Trained, native fieldworkers were employed to visit
each participating household to conduct the survey and a token of ap-
preciation was given to each respondent to encourage cooperation. All
the respondents were also assured of anonymity and encouraged to ex-
press their true opinions. This sampling method resulted in a total of
549 usable questionnaires (279 from Beijing and 270 from Guangzhou).

FINDINGS

Sample Profile
Overall, around one half (48%) of the 549 respondents were male and short
72% were married. The median age range and annual personal income standard

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range of the respondents were 25 – 29 and Rmb 9,001 – 11,000, respec- Base of text
tively. The foregoing demographic characteristics of the sample are sim-
ilar to those of the entire Chinese population (cf. China Statistical Pub-
lishing House, 1999). However, unlike the entire population, of which
only 42% received primary school education, the majority of the respon-
dents were either high school (43%) or university graduates (23%). This
is not surprising, as people with higher education, in general, have a
greater understanding of the topic under investigation, and thus are
more likely to cooperate with fieldworkers than those less educated.
Despite the inclusion of relatively more educated respondents in the
present sample, findings from previous environmental studies suggest
that the influence of such an inclusion is far from significant. Indeed,
the environmental literature has reported that demographic and socio-
economic variables such as education, income, and family size are only
of limited value in explaining different degrees of environmental con-
cern (Balderjahn, 1988; Shrum, Lowrey, & McCarty, 1994).

Cross-Group Comparison
To examine whether there was any difference between the Beijing and
Guangzhou samples, two analyses were performed. First, the foregoing
demographic characteristics of the two samples were compared by the
chi-square test, and no significant difference was detected at p ⬍ 0.05.
Second, a multiple-group analysis for factor-loading parameters was
performed by employing the structural-equation modeling technique (cf.
Byrne, 1994). Specifically, the structural equation-modeling provided by
the EQS software (Windows version 5.6) was used. Because of its user-
friendly nature and less stringent assumptions on the multivariate nor-
mality of data, EQS has long been regarded as one of the best alterna-
tives for the more traditional LISREL software (Hair, Anderson,
Tatham, & Black, 1995). In addition to the conventional fit indexes such
as RMSEA, NFI, and CFI, the Lagrange Multiplier (LM) test is also
built into EQS, which allows the assessment of cross-group equivalence
in an easy and straightforward way (Byrne, 1994).
The ␹2 statistic derived from the cross-group analysis was 1393.253
(df ⫽ 774, p ⫽ .060). The relevant RMSEA value was 0.054 and within
the acceptable limit of 0.1 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). The NFI and CFI
were also above the recommended threshold of 0.90 (NFI ⫽ 0.955; CFI
⫽ 0.959). Moreover, by having p values greater than .05, the univariate
and multivariate LM statistics indicated that all the parameters were
invariant across the two groups (cf. Bentler, 1995; Byrne, 1994). In sum,
the foregoing findings provide support for equivalence between the Bei-
jing and Guangzhou samples. In view of this, data from the two cities
were then combined for subsequent analysis. short
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Descriptive Statistics Base of text
The average summated mean scores (simply called mean scores here-
after) and the corresponding standard deviations of all the constructs
under study are presented in Table 1. In terms of the man – nature ori-
entation and collectivism, the respondents exhibited the Chinese cul-
tural characteristics as postulated. Along a 7-point measurement scale,
the reported mean MNO and COLLECT scores were 4.93 and 5.64, re-
spectively. Although the respondents, in general, exhibited only little
knowledge of ecological issues, they demonstrated a very strong emo-
tional attachment to the issues. As noted, out of a maximum score of
1.0, the mean EK and EA scores were 0.35 and 0.80, respectively. Spe-
cifically relating to the respondents’ attitudes toward green purchases
and green purchase intention, the findings were also encouraging. Along
a 7-point measurement scale, the mean AGP and GPI scores were 5.32
and 4.52, respectively. Apparently, the encouraging attitudes and in-
tention were not effectively translated into green purchase behavior. On
average, the respondents had only bought 1.48 items of green products
in the 1-month period under investigation (i.e., GPB3 ⫽ 1.48). Along a
7-point measurement scale, their self-reported shopping frequency
(GPB1 ⫽ 2.04) and amount spent on green products (GPB2 ⫽ 1.89) were
also far below the mid-value of 4.0.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Constructs Under Study

(N ⴝ 549).
Mean Score Standard Deviation
MNO 4.93 1.46
COLLECT 5.64 1.37
EK 0.35 0.27
EA 0.80 0.26
AGP 5.32 1.15
GPI 4.52 0.98
GPB:
GPB1: Shopping frequency 2.04 1.11
GPB2: Amount spent 1.89 0.97
GPB3: No. of items bought 1.48 1.00
Note: N represents the sample size. MNO represents man–nature orientation and is mea-
sured on a 7-point scale. COLLECT represents collectivism and is measured on a 7-point scale.
EK represents ecological knowledge and is answerable on a five-category, multiple-choice for-
mat with 1 point for a right answer and 0 for a wrong answer (cf. Maloney & Ward, 1973;
Maloney, Ward, & Braucht, 1975). EA represents ecological affect and is answerable on a two-
category, true/false format with 1 point for a true answer and 0 for a false answer. The possible
range for the average summated mean score of EK and EA is between 0 and 1. AGP represents
attitudes toward green purchases and is measured on a 7-point scale. GPI represents green
purchase intention and is measured on a 7-point scale. GPB represents green purchase be-
havior and is measured by three items, GPB1, GPB2, and GPB3. GPB1 and GPB2 are an-
swerable on a 7-point scale, whereas GPB3 requires respondents to indicate the actual number
of green products bought. short
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Confirmatory Factor Analysis Base of text
The confirmatory factor analysis was performed to validate all of the
constructs under investigation. Overall, the analysis indicated a good
fit of the measurement model (␹2 ⫽ 680.527, df ⫽ 356, p ⫽ .071; RMSEA
⫽ 0.050; NFI ⫽ 0.947; CFI ⫽ 0.950). All the indicators also loaded on
the constructs on which they were hypothesized to load. More detailed
results concerning the estimated factor loadings and construct reliabil-
ities are summarized in Table 2 for reference.

Table 2. Summarized Results of Standardized Factor Loadings and

Reliabilities
Constructs
Indicator MNO COLLECT EK EA AGP GPI GPB
MNO1 0.59a
MNO2 0.67
MNO3 0.81
MNO4 0.72
MNO5 0.61
COLLECT1 0.69a
COLLECT2 0.83
COLLECT3 0.48
EK1 0.54a
EK2 0.71
EK3 0.75
EK4 0.77
EK5 0.58
EK6 0.72
EK7 0.54
EA1 0.59a
EA2 0.80
EA3 0.54
EA4 0.46
EA5 0.57
AGP1 0.63a
AGP2 0.61
AGP3 0.74
GPI1 0.78a
GPI2 0.77
GPI3 0.82
GPB1 0.71a
GPB2 0.84
GPB3 0.72
Construct reliability 0.81 0.71 0.84 0.73 0.70 0.83 0.80
Cronbach’s alpha 0.82 0.73 0.85 0.73 0.71 0.83 n.a.
Notes: MNO ⫽ man–nature orientation, COLLECT ⫽ collectivism, EK ⫽ ecological knowledge, EA ⫽
ecological affect, AGP ⫽ attitudes toward green purchases, GPI ⫽ green purchase intention, and GPB ⫽ green
purchase behavior. All the estimated factor loadings are significant at p ⬍ .05. n.a. Cronbach’s alpha for green
purchase behavior was not calculated because different scales were used (interval vs. ratio) to code the three
behavioral items.
short
a Initially fixed at 1 for estimation purposes. standard

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Because no particular problem was observed in the measurement Base of text
model, the structural-equation modeling was then employed to analyze
the overall fit of the proposed model, and to estimate all the relevant
path coefficients (cf. Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The major findings are
summarized in Figure 2 below.

Overall Model Fit

The upper part of Figure 2 summarizes the degree to which the present
data fit the proposed model by various fit indexes. First, it was noted
that the ␹2 statistic of the proposed model was much smaller than that
of the null model (782.811 vs. 6308.923). Nevertheless, the correspond-
ing p value of the proposed model fell below the recommended level of

short
Figure 2. Overall fit of the proposed model and path analysis of the latent constructs. standard

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.05 (cf. Hair et al., 1995). Given that the ␹2 statistic is highly sensitive Base of text
to sample size (Bagozzi & Foxall, 1996), other fit indexes such as
RMSEA, NFI, and CFI were referred to as well. As noted in Figure 2,
the RMSEA, NFI and CFI values were 0.061, 0.913, and 0.928, respec-
tively. These values all met the threshold requirements suggested by
psychometric researchers (cf. Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Byrne, 1994;
Hair et al., 1995). Last, it was observed that the model was able to
explain 59% of the variance of green purchase behavior. On the whole,
the aforementioned measures indicated that the present data set rea-
sonably fitted with the proposed model.
Figure 2 also shows the estimated standardized path coefficients of
the seven constructs under investigation. Except for the one between
ecological knowledge (EK) and attitudes toward green purchases (AGP),
all other estimated path coefficients were significant at p ⬍ 05, with the
sign of influence as hypothesized. As noted, the EK : AGP path was
only significant at the less stringent level of p ⬍ .10. Consistent with
the theory of reasoned action, green purchase intention (GPI) in the
present study was found to be a significant predictor of green purchase
behavior (GPB). Moreover, alongside the premise of the value – atti-
tude – behavior hierarchy, the two Chinese cultural dimensions, man –
nature orientation (MNO) and collectivism (COLLECT), were found to
exert a significantly positive influence on attitudes toward green pur-
chases (AGP). Their respective influence on attitudes toward green pur-
chases was also seen to be rather similar. This contrasts sharply with
the respective influence of ecological knowledge and ecological affect on
the attitudinal construct. Compared with their level of ecological knowl-
edge (EK), respondents’ degree of ecological affect (EA) was found to
exert a much stronger influence on their attitudes toward green pur-
chases (AGP). Overall, the empirical results mentioned provide reason-
able support for all the hypothesized relationships of the proposed
model. Implications of the survey findings are discussed in the next
section.

IMPLICATIONS

The results of this study provide both a practical and theoretical con-
tribution to the understanding of the green purchase behavior of Chi-
nese consumers. Specifically, the results indicate that certain cultural
and psychological variables significantly influence the behavior under
investigation. Culturally, traditional Chinese man – nature orientation
and collectivism are found to exert significant bearing on Chinese con-
sumers’ attitudes toward green purchases, which in turn, affect their
green purchase intention, and ultimately, their green purchase behav-
ior. These findings remind the Chinese government of the importance
of preserving these cultural virtues among its citizens in the course of short
rapid industrialization. Although environmental protection is an ideol- standard

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ogy that has emerged in the West within the past few decades, the Base of text
present findings highlight its similarity with some long-existing Chi-
nese cultural orientations. Hopefully, through proper educational and
social marketing means, the Chinese government can make better use
of this cultural heritage to advance its citizens’ environmental con-
sciousness and achieve more sustainable national development.
Psychologically, attitudes toward green purchases are found to be de-
termined by ecological knowledge and ecological affect, albeit at differ-
ent degrees. The reported asymmetric influence exerted by these two
variables provides further insights into how an individual’s affective
responses toward, and cognitive understanding of, general ecological
issues shape his/her specific attitudes toward green purchases. As evi-
dent in this study, attitudes toward green purchases are much more
heavily influenced by ecological affect than by ecological knowledge. For
both the Chinese government and green marketers operating in China,
these findings point to the superiority of employing emotional rather
than cognitive appeals to facilitate the relevant attitudinal changes.
Alongside the foregoing discussion, Chinese consumers’ strong emo-
tional attachment to ecological issues warrants further discussion. As
reflected by their mean score on ecological affect (cf. Table 1), Chinese
people are, in fact, not as environmentally apathetic as most people have
thought. Out of a maximum score of 1.0, their reported mean EA score
is 0.80. Indeed, their ecological affect is even stronger than that of Amer-
ican subjects observed in Benton’s (1994) study, which reported a mean
EA score of only 0.66. Undoubtedly, if this strong emotional attachment
to ecological issues can be properly translated into corresponding be-
havior, the potential of China’s green market would be greatly en-
hanced. In short, while businesspeople are trying hard to capitalize on
green opportunities in developed countries, they should also watch
closely for similar opportunities that may emerge in China.
Although the proposed model has proven to be reasonably competent
in explaining Chinese consumers’ green purchase behavior, the path
coefficient between green purchase intention and behavior (i.e. GPI :
GPB) deserves special attention. As revealed in Figure 2, the estimated
standardized path coefficient between these two constructs is .34. This
value is much lower than the one between attitudes toward green pur-
chases and green purchase intention (AGP : GPI ⫽ 0.77), two of the
most immediate antecedents of green purchase behavior. The findings
suggest that although positive attitudes toward green purchases are
translated rather effectively into green purchase intention, the trans-
lation of green purchase intention into corresponding behavior does not
enjoy the same degree of effectiveness. As such, it is not surprising to
note that Chinese consumers’ actual commitment to green purchases,
as revealed by the three behavioral measures, remains at rather low
levels (cf. Table 1). short
The low correspondence between green purchase intention and actual standard

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purchase evident in the present Chinese sample, some might suggest, Base of text
is attributed to the relative unavailability of green products in China.
Despite its plausibility, this inference might only be able to partly ex-
plain the low correspondence. Although in terms of variety, green prod-
ucts are still not as widely available in China as in other developed
countries, it is observed that many green versions of consumer products
(e.g., green food, energy-saving bulbs, CFC-free refrigerators, etc.) are
already on sale there (Liu, 1994; Ye, 2000). A recent environmental
study also reports that Chinese consumers are highly familiar with such
green consumer products as ecofriendly detergents and batteries, and
over one third of the consumers under study had bought either one of
these products in the last 6 months (R. Y. K. Chan, 2000). These pre-
vious studies suggest that if environmentally conscious Chinese con-
sumers are really prepared to channel their green purchase intention
into some form of actual green purchase, a number of ecofriendly con-
sumer products are, indeed, available for their choice. In sum, although
Chinese consumers are unlikely to enjoy the same degree of green prod-
uct variety as their Western counterparts, the availability of a consid-
erable number of ecofriendly consumer products would still provide
them with adequate opportunity to express their green concerns via
corresponding behavioral responses.
On the other hand, empirical evidence from a recent study seems to
suggest that the perceived credibility of the environmental claims of
green products contributes even more to the reported low correspon-
dence. In that study, it is reported that Chinese consumers, in general,
have reservations about the credibility of the environmental claims of
green products available in China. Out of a maximum score of 5.0, their
average perceived credibility score on the environmental claims is only
equal to 2.63 (R. Y. K. Chan, 1999). Moreover, the same survey reveals
that from Chinese consumers’ perspective, the government should be
most responsible for protecting the environment, followed by enter-
prises.
In view of these previous findings and those of the present study, it
is suggested that the Chinese government should further strengthen its
environmental education to better equip citizens in how to discern be-
tween genuine and false environmental claims. For marketers wishing
to further cultivate China’s green market, they should pay particular
attention to the design and content of their environmental claims. In
any event, they should realize that carelessly misrepresenting or delib-
erately exaggerating an environmental claim will do more harm than
good to the salability of their green products and corporate image. Last,
as Chinese consumers would like to see both the Chinese government
and enterprises assume more responsibility for protecting the environ-
ment, it is desirable for them to work more closely together to establish
a comprehensive ecocertification scheme and a set of clear environmen- short
tal advertising guidelines. Consistent with the contention of previous standard

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environmental studies in developed countries (Davis, 1993; Ottman, Base of text
1992) as well as in China (R. Y. K. Chan, 1999, 2000), it is believed that
such regulatory measures could help boost consumers’ confidence in var-
ious available green products, and assure them that what they buy will,
in effect, contribute to environmental improvement.
From a theoretical perspective, the present results furnish further
empirical support to some of the important premises of such classic be-
havioral theories as the value – attitude – behavior hierarchy and the
theory of reasoned action. By incorporating cultural, psychological, and
behavioral variables within the same analytical framework, the pro-
posed model provides useful insights into various important antece-
dents of green purchase behavior. Undoubtedly, these insights could
provide a basis for further in-depth investigation into the proenviron-
mental behavioral process of the Chinese.

CONCLUSIONS

Since its adoption of the open-door policy in late 1978, China has been
facing the dilemma of protecting the environment while developing its
economy (H. S. Chan & Wong, 1994). To implement the open-door policy,
and ultimately to satisfy the basic needs of its 1.2 billion inhabitants,
the Chinese government has been actively involved in many develop-
ment and economic projects. Although this active governmental involve-
ment has sped up the economic development of the country, it has also
led to accelerated consumption of natural resources and the degradation
of the ecological environment (Chen, 1998). Fortunately, with increas-
ing affluence derived from rapid economic growth, certain sections of
society have recently begun to realize the hazardous impact of environ-
mental deterioration on their well-being. This realization certainly cre-
ates new challenges and opportunities for both policy makers and green
marketers.
Alongside this development, the present study examines the influence
of various cultural and psychological factors on the green purchase be-
havior of Chinese consumers. In doing so, a conceptual model has been
proposed and subjected to empirical verification with the use of a survey.
The results from the structural-equation modeling, by and large, sup-
port the hypothesized relationships of the proposed model. Specifically,
it confirms the significant influence of cultural values (in terms of man –
nature orientation and collectivism), ecological affect, and to a lesser
extent, ecological knowledge, on attitudes toward green purchases. The
results also confirm the significant bearing of attitudes toward green
purchases on green purchase behavior via the mediator of green pur-
chase intention. Hopefully, this better understanding of the process and
antecedents of green purchases can provide the Chinese government short
and green marketers with some useful insights into improving the com- standard

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munication effectiveness of their educational and promotional cam- Base of text
paigns.
Last, although the empirical results provide reasonable support to all
the hypothesized relationships, two observations call for further explo-
ration. The first concerns the asymmetric influence of ecological affect
and ecological knowledge on attitudes toward green purchases. As noted
earlier, ecological affect exerts much stronger influence on the attitu-
dinal construct than ecological knowledge does. The second concerns
Chinese consumers’ low degree of actual commitment to green pur-
chases. Such observations may be attributed to some underlying factors
that have not been dealt with thoroughly in this study. In view of this,
more in-depth follow-up investigation is considered necessary to further
advance understanding of the proenvironmental behavioral process of
the Chinese.

APPENDIX I – ITEMS USED TO MEASURE THE MAN –

NATURE ORIENTATION
1. Human beings need to understand the ways of nature and act accordingly.
2. We should maintain harmony with nature.
3. Being the master of the world, human beings are entitled to deploy any of the nat-
ural resources as they like. (R)
4. Human beings are only part of nature.
5. We should master instead of adapting to the environment. (R)
Note: All the statements are set on a 7-point scale with “1 ⫽ not agree at all” and 7 ⫽ “strongly agree” as the
anchor points. R—Reverse scored.

APPENDIX II - THE REFINED ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE

AND AFFECT ITEMS ADOPTED IN THE PRESENT
SURVEYa
Ecological knowledge (EK):b
1. Soil pollution is generally due to: (A) sparse rains; (B) improper farming meth-
ods; (C) poisonous metalsc; (D) over-fertilization; (E) poor crop rotation.
2. Most smog in our big cities comes from: (A) automobiles; (B) supersonic jets;
(C) industrial plants; (D) large trucks; (E) refuse disposal.
3. Ecology is best described as the study of: (A) the relationship between man and
the environment; (B) the relationship between organisms and the envi-
ronment; (C) pollution and its control; (D) the environment; (E) recycling of
products.
4. Birds and fish are being poisoned by: (A) iron; (B) mercury; (C) silver; (D) lead;
(E) magnesium.
5. All but one of the following decomposes in ocean water: (A) sewage; (B) garbage;
(C) tin cans; (D) plastic bags; (E) chemical fertilizer.
6. Practically all of the lead in the atmosphere is caused by: (A) cars; (B) Indus-
trial plants; (C) airplanes; (D) burning refuse; (E) cigarettes.
7. How long does DDT take to deteriorate into harmless chemicals? (A) it never
does; (B) 10– 20 months depending on the weather; (C) about 200 years; (D) short
about 400 years; (E) anywhere from several days to several years. standard

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Ecological Affect (EA)d Base of text
1. It frightens me to think that much of the food I eat is contaminated with pesti-
cides.
2. It genuinely infuriates me to think that the government doesn’t do more to help
control pollution of the environment.
3. I become incensed when I think about the harm being done to plant and animal
life by pollution.
4. When I think of the ways industries are causing pollution, I get frustrated and
angry.
5. The whole pollution issue has never upset me too much since I feel it’s some-
what overrated. (R)
Note: R—reverse scored
a
Finally adopted items based on experts’ opinions, pilot test results, and post-hoc exploratory factor analysis
results.
b
Answerable on a five-category, multiple-choice format with 1 point for a right answer and 0 for a wrong answer
(cf. Maloney & Ward, 1973; Maloney, Ward, & Braucht, 1975).
c Bold letters indicate the right answer for the EK questions.

d
Answerable on a two-category, true/false format with 1 point for a true answer and 0 for a false answer.

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The work described in this article represents part of a research project sup-
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Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to: Ricky Y. K. Chan,

Department of Business Studies, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung
Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong (buricky@polyu.edu.hk).

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