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FLIGHT DYNAMICS - I - AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
1. Introduction.
Flight limitations.
Coordinators:
Estimations of take-off distance and landing distance.
Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
6. Examples of estimation of the drag polar and Department of Aerospace
performance of a piston engined and a jet engined EngineeringIIT Madras
airplane.
COURSE DETAIL
1 Chapter 1 : Introduction 3
Total 40
References:
A joint venture by IISc and IITs, funded by MHRD, Govt of India http://nptel.iitm.ac.in
Flight dynamics-I Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1
Chapter 1
Introduction
(Lectures 1, 2 and 3)
Topics
1.1 Opening remarks
1.1.1 Definition and importance of the subject
1.1.2 Recapitulation of the names of the major components of the airplane
1.1.3 Approach in flight dynamics
1.1.4 Forces acting on an airplane in flight
1.1.5 Body axes system for an airplane
1.1.6 Special features of flight dynamics
1.2 A note on gravitational force
1.2.1 Flat earth and spherical earth models
1.3 Frames of reference
1.3.1 Frame of reference attached to earth
1.4 Equilibrium of airplane
1.5 Number of equations of motion for airplane in flight
1.5.1 Degrees of freedom
1.5.2 Degrees of freedom for a rigid airplane
1.6 Subdivisions of flight dynamics
1.6.1 Performance analysis
1.6.2 Stability and control analysis
1.7 Additional definitions
1.7.1 Attitude of the airplane
1.7.2 Flight path
1.7.3 Angle of attack and side slip
Chapter 1
Lecture 1
Introduction – 1
Topics
At the beginning of the study of any subject, it is helpful to know its definition,
scope and special features. It is also useful to know the benefits of the study of
the subject, background expected, approach, which also indicates the limitations,
and the way the subject is being developed. In this chapter these aspects are
dealt with.
Apart from the motion during controlled operations, an airplane may also
be subjected to disturbances which may cause changes in its flight path and
produce rotations about its axes.
The study of these motions of the airplane – either intended by the pilot or
those following a disturbance – forms the subject of Flight dynamics.
Flight dynamics: It is a branch of dynamics dealing with the motion of an object
moving in the earth’s atmosphere.
The study of flight dynamics will enable us to (a) obtain the performance of the
airplane which is described by items like maximum speed, minimum speed,
maximum rate of climb, distance covered with a given amount of fuel, radius of
turn, take-off distance, landing distance etc., (b) estimate the loads on the
airplane, (c) estimate the power required or thrust required for desired
performance, (d) determine the stability of the airplane i.e. whether the airplane
returns to steady flight conditions after being disturbed and (e) examine the
control of the airplane.
Flight dynamics is a basic subject for an aerospace engineer and its
knowledge is essential for proper design of an airplane.
Some basic ideas regarding this subject are presented in this chapter. The topics
covered herein are listed in the beginning of this chapter.
1.1.3 Approach
The approach used in flight mechanics is to apply Newton’s laws to the
motion of objects in flight. Let us recall these laws:
Newton’s first law states that every object at rest or in uniform motion
continues to be in that state unless acted upon by an external force.
The second law states that the force acting on a body is equal to the time
rate of change of its linear momentum.
The third law states that to every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
Newton’s second law can be written as:
F = ma ; a = dV / dt ; V = dr / dt (1.1)
Fig.1.4b The forces and moments acting on an airplane and the components of
linear and angular velocities with reference to the body axes system
In the spherical earth model, the gravitational force is taken to act along
the line joining the center of earth and the c.g. of the airplane. It is directed
towards the center of the earth (Fig.1.6).
The spherical earth model is used for accurate analysis of flights involving
very long distances.
Remarks:
In this course the flat earth model is used. This is adequate for the
following reasons.
i) The distances involved in flights with acceleration are small and the
gravitational force can be considered in the vertical direction by proper choice of
axes.
ii) In unaccelerated flights like level flight, the forces at the chosen instant of time
are considered and the distance covered etc. are obtained by integration. This
procedure is accurate as long as it is understood that the altitude means height
of the airplane above the surface of the earth and the distance is measured on a
sphere of radius equal to the sum of the radius of earth plus the altitude of
airplane.
iii) As mentioned in section 1.1.4, the forces acting on the airplane are the
gravitational force, the aerodynamic forces and the propulsive force. The first one
has been discussed in this section.The discussion on aerodynamic forces will be
covered in chapter 3 and that on propulsive force in chapter 4.
1.3 Frame of reference
A frame of reference (coordinate system) in which Newton’s laws of
motion are valid is known as a Newtonian frame of reference.
Chapter 1
Lecture 2
Introduction – 2
Topics
Remarks:
i) The derivation of the equations of motions in a general case with six degrees of
freedom (see chapter 7 of Flight dynamics-II or Ref.1.4 chapter 10, pt.3 or
Ref.1.5, chapter 10) is rather involved and would be out of place here.
ii) Here, various cases are considered separately and the equations of motion
are written down in each case.
1.6 Subdivisions of flight dynamics
The subject of flight dynamics is generally divided into two main branches viz.
(i) Performance analysis and (ii) Stability and control
1.6.1 Performance Analysis
In performance analysis, only the equilibrium of forces is generally
considered. It is assumed that by proper deflections of the controls, the moments
coordinates of the c.g. at that instant of time. The attitude of the airplane is
described by the angular orientation of the OXbYbZb system with respect to
OXeYeZe system or the Euler angles. Reference 1.4, chapter 10 may be referred
to for details. Let us consider simpler cases. When an airplane climbs along a
straight line its attitude is given by the angle ‘γ’ between the axis OXb and the
In the case of an airplane the flight path, as mentioned earlier, is the line along
which c.g. of the airplane moves. The tangent to the flight path is the direction of
flight velocity (V). The relative wind is in a direction opposite to the flight velocity.
If the flight path is confined to the plane of symmetry, then the angle of attack
would be the angle between the relative wind direction and the fuselage
reference line (FRL) or OXb axis (see Fig.1.11e). However, in a general case the
velocity vector (V) will have components both along and perpendicular to the
The angle of sideslip (β) is the angle between the velocity vector (V) and the
plane of symmetry i.e.
β = sin-1 (v/ |V|); where |V| is the magnitude of V.
The angle of attack (α) is the angle between the projection of velocity vector (V)
in the Xb - Zb plane and the OXb axis or
w w w
α = tan-1 = sin-1 = sin-1
u |V|2 -v 2 u2 +w 2
Remarks:
i) It is easy to show that, if V denotes magnitude of velocity (V), then
u = V cos α cos β, v = V sin β; w = V sin α cos β.
Chapter 1
Lecture 3
Introduction – 3
Topics
The lift and drag, being perpendicular to the relative wind, are in the
vertical and horizontal directions respectively, in this flight. The weight acts at the
c.g. in a vertically downward direction.
In an unaccelerated level flight, the components of acceleration in the
horizontal and vertical directions are zero.
Hence, the sums of the components of all the forces in these directions
are zero. Resolving the forces along and perpendicular to the flight path (see
Fig.1.12.), gives the following equations of force equilibrium.
T cos α – D = 0 (1.3)
T sin α + L – W = 0 (1.4)
Apart from these equations, equilibrium demands that the moment about
the y-axis to be zero, i.e.,
Mcg = 0
Unless the moment condition is satisfied, the airplane will begin to rotate
about the c.g.
Let us now examine how the moment is balanced in an airplane. The
contributions to Mcg come from all the components of the airplane. As regards the
wing, the point where the resultant vector of the lift and drag intersects the plane
of symmetry is known as the centre of pressure. This resultant force produces a
moment about the c.g. However, the location of the center of pressure depends
on the lift coefficient and hence the moment contribution of wing changes with
the angle of attack as the lift coefficient depends on the angle of attack. For
L = (1/2) ρ V2 S CL
D = (1/2) ρ V2 S CD
where CL and CD are the lift and drag coefficients; S is the area of the wing.
polar of the airplane. This has to be known for carrying the performance
analysis. The density of air (ρ) depends on the flight altitude. Further the Mach
number depends on the speed of sound, which in turn depends on the ambient
air temperature. Thus, performance analysis requires the knowledge of the
Chapter 1
References
Chapter 1
Exercises
1. Sketch the three views of an airplane and show it’s axes systems.
2. Define, with neat sketches, the following terms.
(a) flight path
(b) flight velocity
(c) body axes system
(d) angle of attack
(e) angle of slide slip and
(f) bank angle.
3.“Jane’s All the World Aircraft” (Ref.1.15) is a book published annually and
contains details of airplanes currently in production in various countries. Refer to
this book and study the three view drawings, geometrical details and
performance parameters of different types of airplanes.
Chapter 2
Earth’s atmosphere (Lectures 4 and 5)
Topics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Earth’s atmosphere
2.2.1 The troposphere
2.2.2 The stratosphere
2.2.3 The mesosphere
2.2.4 The ionosphere or thermosphere
2.2.5 The exosphere
2.3 International standard atmosphere (ISA)
2.3.1 Need for ISA and agency prescribing it.
2.3.2 Features of ISA
2.4 Variations of properties with altitude in ISA
2.4.1 Variations of pressure and density with altitude
2.4.2 Variations with altitude of pressure ratio, density ratio speed of
sound, coefficient of viscosity and kinematic viscosity.
2.5 Geopotential altitude
2.6 General remarks
2.6.1 Atmospheric properties in cases other than ISA
2.6.2 Stability of atmosphere
References
Exercises
Chapter 2
Lecture 4
Earth’s atmosphere – 1
Topics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Earth’s atmosphere
2.2.1 The troposphere
2.2.2 The stratosphere
2.2.3 The mesosphere
2.2.4 The ionosphere or thermosphere
2.2.5 The exosphere
2.3 International standard atmosphere (ISA)
2.3.1 Need for ISA and agency prescribing it.
2.3.2 Features of ISA
2.1 Introduction
Airplanes fly in the earth’s atmosphere and therefore, it is necessary to
know the properties of this atmosphere.
This chapter, deals with the average characteristics of the earth’s
atmosphere in various regions and the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
which is used for calculation of airplane performance.
2.2 Earth’s atmosphere
The earth’s atmosphere is a gaseous blanket around the earth which is
divided into the five regions based on certain intrinsic features (see Fig.2.1).
These five regions are: (i) Troposphere, (ii) Stratosphere, (iii) Mesosphere,
(iv) Ionosphere or Thermosphere and (v) Exosphere. There is no sharp
distinction between these regions and each region gradually merges with the
neighbouring regions.
Chapter 2
Lecture 5
Earth’s atmosphere – 2
Topics
From Eq.(2.8)
p8
= δ8 = T/T0 = 236.15/288.15
5.25588 5.25588
= 0.35134
p
0
Or p8 = 0.35134 × 101325 = 35599.5 N/m2
35599.5
ρ8 = p8 / RT8 = = 0.52516 kg/m3
287.05287×236.15
a8 = (γ RT8)0.5 = 1.4×287.05287×236.15
0.5
= 308.06 m/s
From Eq.(2.14):
T81.5 -6 236.151.5
μ8 = 1.458×10-6 = 1.458×10 = 1.5268×10-5 kg m-1 s-1
T8 +110.4 236.15 +110.4
(b) h = 16 km
In lower stratosphere Eq.(2.10) gives :
p ρ
= = exp -g h -11000 /RT11
p11 ρ11
Consequently,
p16 ρ16
= = exp -9.80665 16000 -11000 / 287.05287×216.65 = 0.45455
p11 ρ11
a16 = 1.4×287.05287×216.65
0.5
= 295.07m/s
216.651.5
μ16 = 1.458×10-6 -5 -1 -1
= 1.4216×10 kg m s
216.65+110.4
16 = 1.4216×10-5 / 0.16541 = 8.594×10-5 m2 /s
Remark :
To calculate the required values at 24 km altitude, the values of T and p are
needed at h = 20 km. These values are :
T20 = 216.65
(c) h = 24 km
T24 = 216.65 +0.001 24000 - 20000 = 220.65K
From Eq.(2.11):
p24
= T24 /T20
-34.1632
p20
a24 = 1.4×287.05287×220.65
0.5
= 297.78 m/s
220.651.5
μ24 = 1.458×10-6 -5 -1 -1
= 1.4435×10 kg m s
220.65+110.4
24 = 1.4435×10-5 / 0.04627 = 3.12×10-4 m2 /s
Answers:
h (km) 8 16 24
T (K) 236.15 216.65 220.65
p (N/m2) 35599.5 10287.0 2930.5
δ = p/p0 0.35134 0.10153 0.02892
where ‘ R ’ is the radius of earth and ‘hG’ is the geometric altitude above earth’s
surface.
Thus, the values of p and ρ obtained by assuming g = g are at an
0
altitude slightly different from the geometrical altitude (hG). This altitude is called
geopotential altitude, which for convenience is denoted by ‘h’. Following Ref.1,
the geopotential altitude can be defined as the height above earth’s surface in
units, proportional to the potential energy of unit mass (geopotential), relative to
sea level. It can be shown that the geopotential altitude (h) is given, in terms of
geometric altitude (hG), by the following relation. Reference 1.13, chapter 3 may
be referred to for derivation.
R
hG = h
R-h
It may be remarked that the actual difference between h and hG is small
for altitudes involved in flight dynamics; for h of 20 km, hG would be 20.0627 km.
Hence, the difference is ignored in performance analysis.
2.6 General remarks:
2.6.1 Atmospheric properties in cases other than ISA
It will be evident from chapters 4 to 10 that the engine characteristics and
the airplane performance depend on atmospheric characteristics. Noting that ISA
only represents average atmospheric conditions, other atmospheric models have
been proposed as guidelines for extreme conditions in arctic and tropical regions.
Figure 2.3 shows the temperature variations with altitude in arctic and tropical
atmospheres along with ISA. It is seen that the arctic minimum atmosphere has
the following features. (a) The sea level temperature is -500C (b) The
Note:
(a) The local temperature varies with latitude but the sea level pressure (p0)
depends on the weight of air above and is taken same at all the places i.e.
101325 N/m2. Knowing p0 and T0, and the temperature lapse rates, the pressure,
temperature and density in tropospheres of arctic minimum and tropical
Note: Following values / expressions have been used while preparing ISA table.
R=287.05287m2sec -2 K
g= 9.80665m/s2
Sutherland formula for viscosity:
T 3/2
μ = 1.458X10-6 [ ]
T+110.4
ρ = 1.225 [1-0.000022588h]4.25588 .
T = 216.65 + 0.001h
p = 5474.9 [1+0.000004616(h-20000)]-34.1632
ρ = 0.08803 [1+0.000004616(h-20000)]-35.1632
Chapter 2
Reference
Chapter 2
Exercises
2.1 On a certain day the pressure at sea level is 758 mm of mercury
(101059 N / m2) and the temperature is 25oC. The temperature is found to fall
linearly with height to -55oC at 12km and after that it remains constant upto
20 km. Calculate the pressure, density and kinematic viscosity at 8km and 16km
altitude.
(Hint : When the temperature variation is linear, Eqs. (2.6) and (2.7) can be used
to obtain the pressure and density at a chosen altitude by using appropriate
values of p0, T0, ρ0 and λ . As regards the constant temperature region, an
equation similar to Eq (2.10) can be used; note that, in this exercise, the
tropopause is at 12 km altitude)
[Answers:
p8 = 36,812 N/m2, 8 = 0.5238 kg/m3, 8 = 3.002 x 10-5 m2/sec,
p 16 = 10897 N/m2, 16 = 0.1740 kg/m3,16 = 8.218 x 10-5 m2/sec]
Remark : Due to round off errors in calculations, the student may get the
numerical values which are slightly different from those given as answers. Values
within 0.5% of those given as answers can be regarded as correct.
2.2 If the altimeter in an airplane reads 5000m, on the day described in exercise
2.1, what is the altitude of airplane above mean sea level? What would be the
indicated altitude after landing on aerodrome at sea level?
(Hint: An altimeter is an instrument which senses the ambient pressure and
indicates height in ISA corresponding to that pressure. It does not read the
correct altitude when the atmospheric conditions differ from ISA.
To solve this exercise, obtain the pressure corresponding to 5000 m altitude in
ISA. Then find the altitude corresponding to this pressure in the atmospheric
conditions prevailing as in exercise 2.1. As regards the second part of this
exercise, the pressure at the sea level on that day is 101059 N/m2. When the
airplane lands at sea level, the altimeter would indicate altitude, in ISA,
corresponding to this pressure. In actual practice, the air traffic control would
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Atmospheric properties in ISA
speed
Altit- Tempe- of Kinematic
ude rature Pressure δ Density σ sound viscosity
(m) (K) (N/m2) (p/po) (kg/m3) (ρ/ρo) (m/s) (m2/s)
0 288.15 101325.0 1.00000 1.22500 1.00000 340.29 1.4607E-005
200 286.85 98945.3 0.97651 1.20165 0.98094 339.53 1.4839E-005
400 285.55 96611.0 0.95348 1.17864 0.96216 338.76 1.5075E-005
600 284.25 94321.6 0.93088 1.15598 0.94365 337.98 1.5316E-005
800 282.95 92076.3 0.90872 1.13364 0.92542 337.21 1.5562E-005
1000 281.65 89874.4 0.88699 1.11164 0.90746 336.43 1.5813E-005
1200 280.35 87715.4 0.86568 1.08997 0.88977 335.66 1.6069E-005
1400 279.05 85598.6 0.84479 1.06862 0.87234 334.88 1.6331E-005
1600 277.75 83523.3 0.82431 1.04759 0.85518 334.10 1.6598E-005
1800 276.45 81489.0 0.80423 1.02688 0.83827 333.31 1.6870E-005
2000 275.15 79494.9 0.78455 1.00649 0.82162 332.53 1.7148E-005
2200 273.85 77540.6 0.76527 0.98640 0.80523 331.74 1.7432E-005
2400 272.55 75625.4 0.74636 0.96663 0.78908 330.95 1.7723E-005
2600 271.25 73748.6 0.72784 0.94716 0.77319 330.16 1.8019E-005
2800 269.95 71909.7 0.70969 0.92799 0.75754 329.37 1.8321E-005
3000 268.65 70108.2 0.69191 0.90912 0.74214 328.58 1.8630E-005
3200 267.35 68343.3 0.67450 0.89054 0.72697 327.78 1.8946E-005
3400 266.05 66614.6 0.65744 0.87226 0.71205 326.98 1.9269E-005
3600 264.75 64921.5 0.64073 0.85426 0.69736 326.18 1.9598E-005
3800 263.45 63263.4 0.62436 0.83655 0.68290 325.38 1.9935E-005
4000 262.15 61639.8 0.60834 0.81912 0.66867 324.58 2.0279E-005
4200 260.85 60050.0 0.59265 0.80197 0.65467 323.77 2.0631E-005
4400 259.55 58493.7 0.57729 0.78510 0.64090 322.97 2.0990E-005
4600 258.25 56970.1 0.56225 0.76850 0.62735 322.16 2.1358E-005
Note: Following values / expressions have been used while preparing ISA table.
R=287.05287m2sec -2 K
g= 9.80665m/s2
Sutherland formula for viscosity:
T 3/2
μ = 1.458X10-6 [ ]
T+110.4
ρ = 1.225 [1-0.000022588h]4.25588 .
T = 216.65 + 0.001h
p = 5474.9 [1+0.000004616(h-20000)]-34.1632
ρ = 0.08803 [1+0.000004616(h-20000)]-35.1632
Chapter 3
Drag polar
(Lectures 6 to 12)
Keywords: Various types of drags; streamlined body and bluff body; boundary
layers; airfoil characteristics and designations; drags of airplane components;
drag polars at subsonic, transonic, supersonic and hypersonic speeds; high lift
devices
Topics
3.1. Introduction- Need and definition of drag polar
3.1.1 Contributions to airplane drag
3.1.2 Interference drag
3.1.3 Contributions to airplane lift
3.1.4 Contributions to airplane pitching moment
3.1.5 Drag coefficient, lift coefficient and pitching moment coefficient of the
airplane
3.1.6 Categorization of airplane components
3.2 Estimation of drag polar at low subsonic speeds
3.2.1 Angle of attack of airplane, wing incidence and tail incidence
3.2.2 Skin friction drag, pressure drag and profile drag of an airfoil
3.2.3 Summary of lift coefficient, drag coefficient, pitching moment
coefficient, centre of pressure and aerodynamic centre of an airfoil
3.2.4 Examples of pressure coefficient distributions
3.2.5 Introduction to boundary layer theory
3.2.6 Boundary layer over a flat plate – height of boundary layer,
displacement thickness and skin friction drag
3.2.7 Boundary layer separation, adverse pressure gradient and
favourable pressure gradient
3.2.8 Boundary layer transition
3.2.9 Turbulent boundary layer over a flat plate
Chapter 3
Lecture 6
Drag polar – 1
Topics
where Dwing, Dfuse, Dht, Dvt , Dnac and D lg denote drag due to wing, fuselage,
Dint is the drag due to interference which is described in the next section.
D
Cd = ; b = span of the airfoil model
1 ρV 2 cb
2
Table 3.1 Interference drag coefficient for different spacings between two airfoils
Note:
(Cd)combination = (Cd)airfoil1 + (Cd)airfoil2 + Cdint
It is evident that Cdint depends on the relative positions and could be very large.
(b) Configuration with airfoils placed side by side as seen in plan view
Remarks:
(i)The drag coefficient of the individual airfoil in this example is large as the airfoil
is thick and Reynolds number is rather low. Airfoils used on airplanes would have
thickness ratio (t/c) of 12 to 18% and the values of Cd, for Reynolds number of
6 x 106, would be around 0.006.
(ii) Ways to reduce interference drag
A large number of studies have been carried out on interference drag and
it is found that Dint can be brought down to 5 to 10% of the sum of the drags of all
components, by giving proper fillets at the junctions of wing and fuselage and
tails and fuselage ( Fig.3.2 ).
3.1.5 Drag coefficient, lift coefficient and pitching moment coefficient of the
airplane
To obtain the non-dimensional quantities namely drag coefficient (CD), lift
coefficient (CL) and pitching moment coefficient (Cmcg) of the airplane, the
reference quantities are the free stream dynamic pressure (½ ρ V2 ), the gross
wing area (S) and the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing ( c ). Consequently,
D L Mcg
CD = ; CL = ; Cmcg = (3.4)
1 ρV 2 S 1 ρV 2 S 1 ρV 2 Sc
2 2 2
Remarks:
(i)The reference area, on which the CD and CL of an individual component is
based, is also called proper area and denoted by S; the drag coefficient based
on S is denoted by CD.
(ii)The reference areas for different components are different for the following
reasons. The aim of using non-dimensional quantities like CD is to be able to
Sfuse S S S Slg S
= CDwing + CDfuse + CDht ht + CDvt vt + CDnac nac + CDlg + CDetc etc + CDint (3.6)
S S S S S S
The data on drag, lift and pitching moment, compiled from various sources, is
available in references 1.9, 1.10, 1.12 and 3.3 to 3.9.
Hence, subsections 3.2.2 to 3.2.13 deal with various aspects of flow past airfoils
which are relevant to the estimation of drag polar. The subsequent subsection
deals with the induced drag which is the result of finite span. It may be added
that in aerodynamics, the quantity finite aspect ratio (A) is employed instead of
the finite span. The aspect ratio is defined as :
A = b2/S; b = wing span, S = wing planform area
Remarks :
(i)When the aspect ratio is less than about 5, which is characteristic of wings of
high speed airplanes, the flow past the wing has to be treated as three-
dimensional.
(ii) Horizontal tail, vertical tail and streamlined struts, seen on some low speed
airplanes, come under the category of wing type surfaces.
Figure 3.4a shows the fuselage of a jet airplane. Here the length (lf) is much
larger than the height (h) and width (w), but ‘h’ and ‘w’ are generally not very
different in their dimensions. Hence, the flow past a fuselage cannot be
considered as two-dimensional. However, for jet airplanes, lf/h is around 6 to 10
and the analysis of flow past fuselage can be simplified by assuming the fuselage
to be a slender/streamlined body.
Figure 3.4 b shows the fuselage of a low speed airplane. Here lf/h is rather low
and the fuselage is treated as a bluff body.
Precise definitions of the streamlined body and bluff body are given in the
subsequent sections.
Remarks:
(i) As regards the analysis of flow is concerned, the fuselage, nacelle, external
fuel tanks, bombs, and antenna masts have common geometric features and are
categorised as “bodies”.
(ii) Components of airplane like landing gear, which do not fall under the above
two categories, are designated as ‘others’.
3.2. Estimation of drag polar at low subsonic speeds
As mentioned in the previous section, the drag polar of an airplane can be
obtained by summing-up the drags of individual components and then adding 5
to 10% for the interference drag. As the drag coefficient depends on the angle of
attack, this exercise has to be carried-out at different angles of attack. The
definition of the angle of attack of the airplane and brief descriptions of the drag
3.2.2 Skin friction drag, pressure drag and, profile drag of an airfoil
The drag coefficient of a wing consist of the (i) the profile drag due to
airfoil (Cd) and (ii) the induced drag due to the finite aspect ratio of the wing (CDi).
The symbols Cd and Cl with lower case suffices refer to the drag coefficient and
lift coefficient of the airfoil. The profile drag of the airfoil consists of the skin
friction drag and the pressure drag. It may be added that an element on the
surface of an airfoil, kept in a flow, experiences shear stress tangential to the
surface and pressure (p) normal to it (Fig.3.6). The shear stress multiplied by the
area of the element gives the tangential force. The component of this tangential
force in the free stream direction when integrated over the profile gives the skin
friction drag. Similarly, the pressure distribution results in normal force on the
element whose component in the free stream direction, integrated over the profile
Chapter 3
Lecture 7
Drag polar – 2
Topics
3.2.3 Summary of lift coefficient, drag coefficient, pitching moment
coefficient, centre of pressure and aerodynamic centre of an airfoil
3.2.4 Examples of pressure coefficient distributions
3.2.5 Introduction to boundary layer theory
3.2.6 Boundary layer over a flat plate – height of boundary layer,
displacement thickness and skin friction drag
distributions of the shear stress( ) and the pressure (p). The distributions also
produce a pitching moment (M). By definition, the component of R perpendicular
to the free stream direction is called lift (L) and the component along the free
stream direction is called drag (D). The resulant aerodynamic force (R) can also
on the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil respectively. The cartesian
coordinates of points Pu and Pl are (xu,yu) and ( x l , y l ) respectively. Whereas su
and sl are respectively the distances along the airfoil surface, of the points Pu
To obtain the forces at points Pu and Pl , the local values of p and are
multiplied by the local area. Since the flow past an airfoil is treated as two-
dimensional, the span of the airfoil can be taken as unity without loss of
generality. Hence, the local area is (ds x 1) and the quantities, L, D, N and C, on
the airfoil, are the forces per unit span. Keeping these in mind, the local
contributions, dNu and dCu, to N and C respectively, from the element at point Pu
are obtained as:
dNu = -pu dsu cosθu - u dsu sinθu (3.9)
Note that the suffix ‘u’ denotes quantities at point Pu and the positive direction of
the angle θu is as shown in Fig.3.8 .
Expressions similar to Eqs.(3.9) and (3.10) can be written down for the
contributions to N and C from element at point Pl .
Note: Once N and C are known, the lift per unit span (L) and drag per unit
span (D) of the airfoil can be obtained using Eqs.(3.7) and (3.8).
It is convenient to work in terms of lift coefficient ( Cl ) and drag coefficient
around the body would not give any resultant force i.e.
p ds = 0 (3.16)
Hence, instead of ‘p’ the quantity p -p can be used in Eqs.(3.11), (3.12)
and (3.13). At this stage the following quantities are also defined.
p -p
pressure coefficient : Cp = (3.17)
1 2
ρV
2
skin friction drag coefficient : c f = (3.18)
1 2
ρV
2
N
Normal forcecoefficient : Cn =
1 2
ρV c
2
C
Chordwiseor axial forcecoefficient: Cc = (3.19)
1 2
ρV c
2
Mle
Pitchingmoment coefficient: Cmle =
1
ρ V2 c 2
2
1
c
Cn = Cpl - Cpu dx + fu c dy + f l
c dy
c 0 upper surface lower surface
(3.20)
1
c
Cc = c fu +c fl dx + Cpu dy - lowersurface
Cpl dy
c 0 upper surface
Following section 10.2 of Ref.1.4, the expressions for Cn, Cc and Cmle can be
rewritten as:
1
c c
dy u dy
Cn =
c 0
pl pu
C - C dx + c fu
dx
+c f l l dx
dx
0
c c
1 dy u dy
Cc = Cpu
c 0 dx
- Cpl l dx +
dx c
0
fu - c f l dx
(3.21)
c c
1 dy dy
Cmle = 2 Cpu - Cpl x dx - Cfu u +c f l l x dx
c 0 0
dx dx
1
c
dy
c
dy l
+ 2 Cpu u +c fu y u dx + - Cpl +c fl y l dx
c 0 dx 0
dx
as :
Cl = Cn cos α - Cc sinα (3.22 )
(ii) Centre of pressure : The point on the airfoil chord through which the
resultant aerodynamic force passes is the centre of pressure. The aerodynamic
moment about this point is zero. It may be noted that the location of centre of
pressure depends on the angle of attack or the lift coefficient.
(iii) Aerodynamic centre: As the location of the centre of pressure depends on
lift coefficient ( Cl ) the pitching moment coefficient about leading edge (Cmle) also
changes with Cl . However, it is found that there is a point on the airfoil chord
about which the pitching moment coefficient is independent of the lift coefficient.
This point is called ‘Aerodynamic centre‘. For incompressible flow this point is
close to the quarter chord point of the airfoil.
(iv) If the distributions of Cp and cf are obtained by analytical or computational
methods, then the pressure drag coefficient (Cdp) and the skin friction drag
coefficient(Cdf) can be evaluated.
In experimental work the pressure distribution on an airfoil at different angles of
attack can be easily measured. However, measurement of shear stress on
an airfoil surface is difficult.The profile drag coefficient (Cd) of airfoil, which is the
sum of pressure drag coefficient and skin friction drag coefficient, is measured in
experiments by ‘Wake survey technique’ which is described in Chapter 9, section
‘f’ of Ref.3.10. In this technique, the momentum loss due to the presence of the
airfoil is calculated and equated to the drag (refer section 7.5.1 of Ref.3.11 for
derivation).
3.2.4 Examples of pressure coefficient distributions
Though the expression for lift coefficient ( Cl ) involves both the pressure
coefficient (Cp) and the skin friction drag coefficient (cf), the contribution of the
coefficient (Cdp) is determined by the distribution of Cp and the skin friction drag
coefficient (Cdf) is decided by the distribution of shear stress .
In this subsection the distributions of CP in typical cases and their implications for
Cl and Cdp are discussed.
The distribution of the pressure coefficient is generally plotted on the outer side
of the surface of the body (Fig.3.9a). The length of the arrow indicates the
magnitude of Cp. As regards the sign convention, an arrow pointing towards the
surface indicates that Cp is positive or local pressure is more than the free stream
pressure p . An arrow pointing away from the surface indicates that Cp is
results are available in books on fluid mechanics and aerodynamics. In the real
Cdp > 0 .
and Cl > 0 are shown in Figs.3.10 a to d. Note also the locations of centre
pressure and the production of pitching moment for the unsymmetrical airfoil.
Flow visualization pictures at three angles of attack( α ) are shown in Figs.3.36 a,
b and c. An attached flow is seen at low angle of attack. Some separated flow is
seen at moderate angle of attack and large separated flow region is seen near α
close to the stalling angle ( αstall ). It may be pointed out that theoretical calculation
of skin friction drag using boundary layer theory can be done, when flow is
attached. This topic is discussed in the next subsection.
Note : Lu = Ll
the gradient U / y is very small and viscous stress can be ignored and flow
treated as inviscid. It may be recalled from text books on fluid mechanics, that in
an inviscid flow the Bernoulli’s equation is valid.
Features of the boundary layer over the surface of a streamlined body are shown
in Fig.3.11a. On the surface of a bluff body the boundary layer develops upto a
certain extent and then separates (Fig.3.11b). The definitions of the streamlined
body and bluff body are presented at the end of this subsection.
stagnation point.
2.Depending on the Reynolds number (RX), the pressure gradient and other
parameters, the boundary layer may separate or become turbulent after
undergoing transition. The turbulent boundary layer may continue till the trailing
edge of the body (Fig.3.11a) or may separate from the surface of the body (point
‘S’ in Fig 3.11b). It may be added that the static pressure across the boundary
layer at a station ‘x’, is nearly constant with ‘y’. Hence the pressure gradient
referred here is the gradient (dp/dx) in the flow outside the boundary layer.
3.Nature of boundary layer decides the drag and the heat transfer from the body.
If the boundary layer is separated, the pressure in the rear portion of the body
does not reach the freestream value resulting in a large pressure drag (Fig.3.9b).
Incidently a streamlined body is one in which the major portion of drag is skin
friction drag. For a bluff body the major portion of drag is pressure drag. A
circular cylinder is a bluff body. An airfoil at low angle of attack is a streamlined
shape. But, an airfoil at high angle of attack like αstall is a bluff body.
Remark:
General discussion on boundary layer is a specialised topic and the
interested reader may consult Ref.3.11 for more information. Here, the features
3.2.6 Laminar boundary layer over flat plate – height of boundary layer,
displacement thickness and skin friction drag
The equations of motion governing the flow of a viscous fluid are called
‘Navier-Stokes (N-S) equations’. For derivation of these equations refer to
chapter 15 of Ref.3.12. Taking into account the thinness of the boundary layer,
Prandtl simplified the N-S equations in 1904. These equations are called
‘Boundary layer equations’ (Chapter 16 of Ref.3.12). Solution of these equations,
for laminar boundary layer over a flat plate with uniform external stream, was
obtained by Blasius in 1908. Subsequently many others obtained the solution.
The numerical solution by Howarth, presented in Ref.3.10, chapter 7, is given in
Table 3.2. In this table U is the local velocity, Ue is the external velocity (which in
this particular case is V ), and η is the non-dimensional distance from the wall
defined as :
Ue
η=y (3.24)
x
Ue
5 = δ0.99
x
δ0.99 5 5 Ux
Or = = ; Rx = e (3.25)
x Ue x Rx
1
It is seen from Eq.(3.25) that δ0.99 grows in proportion to x 2 (see Fig.3.13). It
may be added that in this special case of laminar boundary layer on flat plate, the
velocity profiles are similar at various stations i.e. the non-dimensional profiles of
U/Ue vs (y/ δ0.99 ) are same at all stations.
wall u
Cf = c f = ; wall = μ ;Note: wall is a function of 'x'. (3.27)
1 2 y y =0
ρUe
2
If the length of the plate is L, then the skin friction drag per unit span of the
plate (Df) is :
L
Df = wall dx
0
δ1 1.721
= (3.29)
L RL
Remark :
Reference 1.11, chapter 6 may be consulted for additional boundary
layer parameters like momentum thickness ( δ2 ), shape parameter (H = δ1 / δ2 )
Example 3.1
Consider a flat plate of length 500 mm kept in an air stream of velocity 15 m/s.
Obtain (a) the boundary layer thickness δ0.99 and the displacement thickness
δ1 at the end of the plate (b) the skin drag coefficient. Assume = 15×10-6 m2 /s
0.5×15
Hence, RL = -6
= 5×105
15×10
Consequently, from Eq.(3.25):
δ0.99 5 5
= = = 7.07×10-3
L RL 5×10 5
From Eq.(3.29):
δ1 1.721 1.721
= = = 2.434×10-3
L RL 5×10 5
Remark:
δ0.99 / L is found to be 7.07 x 10-3. Hence the assumption of the thinness of
Chapter 3
Lecture 8
Drag polar – 3
Topics
Fig.3.14 Flow in boundary layer before and after point of separation (not to
scale)
Figure 3.14 also shows a small element ABCD in the boundary layer. The
pressure on the face AD is p whereas that on the face BC is p + dp/dx Δx .
Since dp/dx is positive in this case, the net effect causes a deceleration of the
flow, in addition to that due to viscosity. The effect is more pronounced near the
surface and the velocity profile changes as shown in Fig.3.14. Finally at point S
the slope of the velocity profile at the wall, U / y wall , becomes zero. Besides
the change in shape, the boundary layer also thickens rapidly in the presence of
adverse pressure gradient. Downstream of the point S, there is a reversal of the
flow direction in the region adjacent to the wall. A line can be drawn (indicated as
dotted line in Fig.3.14) in such a way that the mass flow above this line is the
same as that ahead of point S. Below the dotted line, there is a region of
recirculating flow and the value of the stream function ψ for the dotted line is
zero. However, ahead of the point S, the ψ = 0 line is the surface of the body.
Thus, after the point S, it is observed that between the main flow (i.e. region
above ψ = 0 line) and the body surface lies a region of recirculating flow. When
this happens the flow is said to be ‘Separated’ and S is referred to as the ‘Point
of separation’. Due to separation, the pressure recovery, which would have taken
U t = U+u t ; u = U-U .
T
V = U+u i+ v j+ w k; u ,v and w are the components of the
Though the velocity gradient U / y near the wall is much higher for
turbulent boundary layer than for the laminar case, the gradient is lower away
from the wall and δ0.99 is much higher for a turbulent boundary layer. Reference
Skin friction:
The value of U / y wall is higher for turbulent boundary layer than for
laminar boundary layer (Fig.3.12). Hence, the skin friction drag for turbulent
boundary layer is much higher than that for a laminar boundary layer. Reference
3.13, chapter 6 gives the following expression for Cdf .
0.031
Cdf = (3.35)
R1/7
L
However, Ref.3.13 chapter 6 shows that Eqs. (3.34) and (3.35) are more
accurate.
(iii) For the 1/7th power law profile of the turbulent boundary layer (Eq.3.33),
it can be shown using Eqs.(3.26) and (3.33) that :
δ
δ1 = for turbulent boundary layer (3.36)
8
Example 3.2
Consider a case with L = 0.5 m, V = 30m/s , = 15×10-6 m2 /s which gives
RL = 106. Obtain the values of δ0.99 , δ1 and Cdf in the following cases.
(i) Assume that the boundary layer is laminar throughout even at RL = 106
(ii) Assume that the boundary layer is turbulent from landing edge of plate.
Solution:
(i) Laminar flow
δ0.99 5 5
= = = 0.005 or δ0.99 = 2.5 mm
L RL 106
δ1 1.721 1.721
= = = 0.001721 or δ1 = 0.86 mm
L RL 106
1.328 1.328
Cdf = = = 0.001328
RL 106
(ii) Turbulent flow
δ0.99 0.16
= 1/7 = 0.02223 or δ0.99 = 11.12 mm
L RL
larger when the boundary layer is turbulent than when it is laminar. The value of
Cdf in the former case is nearly three times of that in the later case.
case of laminar boundary layer. Hence, a turbulent boundary layer has a higher
resistance to separation. This behaviour is used in bluff bodies to delay the
separation and reduce their pressure drag. For example, in the case of a circular
cylinder the laminar boundary layer separates at around 800 leaving a large
Based on Ref.3.11, chapter 18, Fig.3.17 shows typical plots of Cdf vs Re for
turbulent boundary layer with l /k as parameter. For example, when l /k = 105 , Cdf
remains almost constant at 0.0032 beyond Re = 7 x 106. Reference 3.6 section
3.1 may be seen for plot of (Re)cutoff vs ( l /k) with Mach number as parameter.
These plots are based on section 4.1.5, of Ref.3.5.
Chapter 3
Lecture 9
Drag polar – 4
Topics
four important features viz. (a) angle of zero lift ( α0l ), (b) slope of the lift curve
(II) Drag coefficient (Cd) vs Cl . This curve, shown in Fig.3.18b, has two
important features viz. (a) minimum drag coefficient (Cdmin) and (b) lift coefficient
( Cl opt ) corresponding to Cdmin. In some airfoils, called laminar flow airfoils or low-
drag airfoils, the minimum drag coefficient extends over a range of lift coefficients
(Fig.3.18b). This feature is called ‘Drag bucket’. The extent of the drag bucket
and the lift coefficient at the middle of this region are also characteristic features
of the airfoil. It may be added that the camber decides Cl opt and thickness ratio
this curve, the location of the aerodynamic center (a.c.) and the moment about it
(Cmac) can be worked out. It may be recalled that a.c. is the point on the chord
(IV) Stall pattern : Variation of the lift coefficient with angle of attack near the stall
is an indication of the stall pattern. A gradual pattern as shown in Fig.3.18a is a
desirable feature. Some airfoils display abrupt decrease in Cl after stall. This
xu = x - y t sinθ
yu = y c + y t cosθ
3.37
xl = x + y t sinθ
yl = y c - y t cosθ
where yc and yt are the ordinates, at location x, of the camber line and the
thickness distribution respectively; tan θ is the slope of the camber line at
location x (see also Fig.3.19d).
d) The leading edge radius is also prescribed for the aerofoil. The center of the
leading edge radius is located along the tangent to the mean line at the
leading edge (Fig.3.19c).
e) Depending on the thickness distribution, the trailing edge angle may be zero
or have a finite value. In some cases, thickness may be non-zero at the
trailing edge.
c) NACA 23012 – Airfoil with high Clmax , used on low speed airplanes
m
2
yc = 2px - x 2 ; x x ycmax
p
m 3.39
2
= 1-2p + 2px - x 2 ; x > x ycmax
1-p
m = maximum ordinate of camber line as fraction of chord
p = chordwise position of maximum camber as fraction of chord
The camber lines obtained by using different values of m & p are denoted by two
digits, e.g. NACA 64 indicates a mean line of 6% camber with maximum camber
occuring at 40% of the chord. Appendix II of Ref.3.14 gives ordinates for NACA
61 to NACA 67 mean lines. The ordinates of other meanlines are obtained by
suitable scaling. For example, NACA 24 mean lines is obtained by multiplying the
ordinates of NACA 64 mean line by (2/6).
A cambered airfoil of four-digit series is obtained by combining meanline and
the thickness distribution as described in the previous subsection. For example,
NACA 2412 airfoil is obtained by combining NACA 24 meanline and NACA 0012
thickness distribution. This airfoil has (a) maximum camber of 2% occurring at
40% chord and (b) maximum thickness ratio of 12%.
Refer appendix III of Ref.3.14, for ordinates of the upper and lower surfaces of
several four-digit series airfoils. Appendix IV of the same reference presents the
low speed aerodynamic characteristics at M = 0.17 and various Reynolds
numbers. Chapter 7 of the same reference gives details of experimental
conditions and comments on the effects of parameters like camber, thickness
ratio, Reynolds number and roughness on aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils.
NACA five-digit series airfoils
During certain tests it was observed that Cl max of the airfoil could be
increased by shifting forward the location of the maximum camber. This finding
led to development of five-digit series airfoils. The new camber lines for the five-
digit series airfoils are designated by three digits. The same thickness distribution
1
yc = k1 x 3 - 3mx 2 +m2 3 -m x , 0 < x m
6
(3.40)
1
= k1 m 1- x ; m< x <1
3
6
The value of ‘m’ decides the location of the maximum camber and that of k1 the
design lift coefficient( Cl i or Cl opt ). A combination of m = 0.2025 and k1 = 15.957
designated as NACA 230. The first digit ‘2’ indicates that Cl i = 0.3 and the
subsequent two digits (30) indicate that the maximum camber occurs at 15% of
chord.
A typical five-digit cambered airfoil is NACA 23012. Its shape is shown in
Fig.3.20c. The digits signify :
First digit(2) indicates that Cl i = 0.3.
Second & third digits (30) indicate that maximum camber occurs at 15% of chord.
Last two digits (12) indicate that the maximum thickness ratio is 12%.
Remarks:
(i) Refer Appendices II, III and IV of Ref.3.14 for camber line shape,
ordinates and aerodynamic characteristics of five-digit series airfoils.
(ii) Modified four and five digit series airfoils were obtained when leading
edge radius and position of maximum thickness were altered. For
details Ref.3.14, chapter 6 may be consulted.
Six series airfoils
As a background to the development of these airfoils the following points may
be mentioned.
(NACA 662 - 015) would have the minimum pressure at x/c = 0.6 when producing
zero lift.
The suffix ‘2’ indicates that the drag bucket extends ± 0.2 around Cl opt .
The digit ‘2’ after the dash indicates that Cl opt is 0.2. Thus in this case, drag
The last two digits ”15” indicate that the thickness ratio is 15%.
Since the value of ‘a’ is not explicitly mentioned, the camber line shape
corresponds to a = 1.0.
Remarks:
(i) Refer appendices I, II, III and IV of Ref.3.14 for details of thickness
distribution, camber distribution, ordinates and aerodynamic
characteristics of various six series airfoils.
(ii) The lift coefficient at the centre of the drag bucket ( Cl opt ) depends on
the camber. The extent of drag bucket depends on the thickness ratio
and the Reynolds number. The value given in the designation of the
airfoil is at Re = 9 x 106. The extent is about ±0.1 for t/c of 12%, ±0.2
for t/c of 15% and ±0.3 for t/c of 18%. When the extent of the drag
bucket is less than ±0.1 , the subscript in the designation of the airfoil
is omitted, e.g. NACA 66-210
NASA airfoils
NASA has developed airfoil shapes for special applications. For
example GA(W) series airfoils were designed for general aviation airplanes. The
‘LS’ series of airfoils among these are for low speed airplanes. A typical airfoil of
thickness ratio of 17%. Figure 3.20c shows the shape of this airfoil. For the
airfoils in this series, specifically designed for medium speed airplanes, the
letters ‘LS’ are replaced by ‘MS’.
NASA NLF series airfoils are ‘Natural Laminar Flow’ airfoils.
NASA SC series airfoils are called ‘Supercritical airfoils’. These airfoils have a
higher critical Mach number. Figure 3.20f shows an airfoil of this category.
Chapter 3 of Ref.1.9 may be referred to for further details.
Remarks:
(i)Besides NACA & NASA airfoils, some researchers have designed airfoils for
specialized applications like (a) low Reynolds number airfoils for micro air
vehicles, (b) wind mills, (c) hydrofoils etc. These include those by Lissaman,
Liebeck, Eppler and Drela. Reference 3.9, chapter 4, and internet
(www.google.com) may be consulted for details.
(ii)The coordinates of NACA, NASA and many other airfoils are available on the
website entitled ‘UIUC airfoil data base’.
3.2.14 Induced drag of wing
In the beginning of section 3.2.2 it was mentioned that the drag of the
wing consists of (i) the profile drag coefficient due to airfoil (Cd) and (ii) the
induced drag coefficient (CDi) due to finite aspect ratio of the wing. Subsections
3.2.3 to 3.2.13 covered various aspects of profile drag. In this subsection the
induced drag of the wing is briefly discussed.
For details regarding the production of induced drag and derivation of the
expression for the induced drag coefficient, the books on aerodynamics can be
consulted e.g. Ref.3.12, chapter 5. Following is a brief description of the induced
drag.
Consider a wing kept at a positive angle of attack in an air stream. In this
configuration, the wing produces a positive lift. At the wing root, the average
pressure on the upper surface is lower than the free stream pressure p and
β = 1-M2
= ratio of the slope of lift curve of the airfoil used on wing divided by 2 .
It is generally taken as unity.
Remarks:
(i)Example 3.3 illustrates the estimation of ewing for an unswept wing. Section 2.5
of Appendix ‘B’ illustrates the steps for estimating ewing of a jet airplane.
(ii) When a flap is deflected, there will be increments in lift coefficient and also in
profile drag coefficient and induced drag coefficient. Refer section 2.9 of
Appendix ‘A’.
(iii) The drags of horizontal and vertical tails, can be estimated by following a
procedure similar to that for the wing. However, contributions to induced drag
from the tail surfaces are generally neglected.
3.2.15 Drag coefficient of fuselage
The drag coefficient of a fuselage (CDf) consists of (a)the drag of the fuselage at
zero angle of attack (CDo)f plus (b) the drag due to angle of attack. Following
and (iii) fineness ratio (Af). The fineness ratio is defined as:
Af = lf /de (3.44a)
( /4)de2 = Afmax
where Afmax equals the area of the maximum cross-section of the fuselage.
When the fineness ratio of the fuselage is small, for example, in case of
general aviation airplanes, the fuselage may be treated as a bluff body. In such a
case the term CDof is mainly pressure drag and the drag coefficient is based on
the frontal area (Afmax). However, the expression for (CD0)f given in Ref.3.6,
section 3.1.1 includes the effect of pressure drag and is also valid for general
aviation airplanes (refer section 2 of Appendix A).
The quantity ‘K’ in Eq.(3.44) has a value of 1 for a circular fuselage and 4 to 6 for
a rectangular fuselage. However, the general practice is to include the increase
1
in drag of fuselage, due to angle of attack, by adding a term to
efuselage
1
.
e wing
Remark:
The drag coefficients of other bodies like engine nacelle, external fuel tanks and
bombs suspended from the wing, can also be estimated in a manner similar to
that of fuselage.
1
Reference 3.6, section 3.2 recommends as 0.05.
e
other
3.2.17 Parabolic drag polar, parasite drag, induced drag and Oswald
efficiency factor
It was mentioned earlier that the drag polar can be obtained by adding the
drag coefficients of individual components at corresponding angles of attack.
This procedure needs a large amount of detailed data about the airplane
geometry and drag coefficients. A typical drag polar obtained by such a
procedure or by experiments on a model of the airplane has the shape as shown
that over a wide range of CL2 the curve is a straight line and one could write:
CD0 is the intercept of this straight line and is called zero lift drag coefficient or
2
Fig.3.21b Drag polar replotted as CD vrs. CL
The term KCL2 is called induced drag coefficient or more appropriately lift
denoted by S. Thus, when the contribution of fuselage to CDo is implied, then
CD refers to CDmin fuse and S refers to Sfuse . With these notations Eq.(3.46c)
simplifies to :
1
CD0 = CD S + CDint (3.46d)
S
The product CD0 S is called ‘Parasite drag area’.
Note :
1)See example 3.3 for estimation of CD0 of a low speed airplane.
Chapter 3
Lecture 10
Drag polar – 5
Topics
called the parasite drag area. For a streamlined airplane the parasite drag is
mostly skin friction drag. Further, the skin friction drag depends on the wetted
area which is the area of surface in contact with the fluid. The wetted area of the
entire airplane is denoted by Swet. In this background the term ‘Equivalent skin
S S
Hence, Cfe = CDo x and CDO = Cf e wet (3.47)
S wet S
Reference 3.9, Chapter 12 gives values of Cfe for different types of airplanes.
119.5× 2.566
-6
= 21× 106
14.6× 10
It is assumed that NACA 23012 airfoil is used on the wing. From Ref.3.14,
Appendix IV, the minimum drag coefficient, (Cd)min, of this airfoil at Re = 9 x 106 is
0.006. However, the value of drag coefficient is required at Re = 21× 106 .
1
-
Assuming the flow to be turbulent (Cd)min can be taken proportional to Re7 (Eq.
1 1
0.006 21106 7 / 9 106 7 = 0.0053
As regards the fuselage and nacelle, the frontal areas are specified. Hence, they
are treated as a bluff bodies. The value of (CDmin)fuselage can be taken as 0.08
(Ref.3.4). The nacelle generally has a lower fineness ratio and (CDmin)nac can be
taken as 0.10.
c tail Stail
c wing S wing
Retail c 9.3
and tail = 0.426
Re w c wing 51.22
For the purpose of calculating ewing, the taper ratio ( λ ), the quarter chord
sweep ( 1 ) and the quantity , are taken as 0.4, 0 and 1 respectively.
4
2 ×7.8
Hence, CLα = = 5.121 rad -1
2 2
7.8 ×0.936
2+ +4
1
From Ref.3.14, chapter 6, the leading edge radius, as a fraction of chord, for
NACA 23012 airfoil is :
1.109 t2 = 1.019 x 0.122 = 0.016
Rle = 0.016 x c = 0.016 x 2.566 = 0.041 m
Reynolds number, based leading edge radius ( ReLER ), is :
0.041×119.5
ReLER = -6
= 3.35×105
14×10
Hence, R eLER cot ΛLE 1-M2 cos ΛLE = 3.35×105 ×18.22× 1- 0.3512 ×0.998
= 57.16 x 105
Aλ 7.8×0.4
Further, = = 3.13
cos ΛLE 0.998
Corresponding to the above values of ( ReLER cot ΛLE 1-M2 cos ΛLE ) and
Aλ
( ), Fig 3.14 of Ref.3.6, gives R = 0.95.
cos ΛLE
Hence,
1.1× 5.121/7.8
e wing = = 0.925
0.95 × 5.121 / 7.8 + 0.05×
To obtain efuselage , it is assumed that the fuselage has a round cross section.
1
efuselage fuselage
In this case, Fig.2.5 of Ref 3.6 gives: / S /S = 0.75 when A = 7.8.
Consequently,
1
= 0.75×3.72/51.22 = 0.054
efuselage
1
is recommended as 0.05(Ref.3.6, section 2.2)
eothers
1 1 1 1 1
Thus, = + + = +0.054+0.05 = 1.185
e e wing efuselage eother 0.925
Or e = 0.844
1 1
Hence, = = 0.0484
Ae × 7.8 × 0.844
Hence, a rough estimate of the drag polar is:
CD = 0.0216+0.0484 CL2
Remark:
i) A detailed estimation of the drag polar of Piper Cherokee airplane is
presented in appendix A.
1
CD0 = CD S + CDint
S
where the values of CD represent the minimum drag coefficients of various
( lf /k). Correction is applied for fineness ratio ( lf /de) of the fuselage. Where ‘de’ is
the equivalent diameter of the fuselage (see section 3.2.15). The wetted area in
this case is the wetted area of the fuselage.
Finally, correction is applied for wing-body interference effect (see Appendices A
& B for details).
Similar procedure can be used to estimate the minimum drag coefficients of
bodies like nacelle, external fuel tanks, bombs etc.
3.2.20 Typical values of CDO, A, e and subsonic drag polar.
Based on the data in Ref.3.9, chapter 4 , Ref.3.18 vol. VI , chapter 5 and
Ref.3.15 , chapter 6, the typical values of CD0 , A, e and the drag polar for
airplanes. This is because these airplanes have exposed landing gear, bluff
fuselage (see Fig.1.2a) and struts when a high wing configuration is used. The
CD0 for high subsonic airplanes is low due to smooth surfaces, thin wings and
slender fuselage. It may be added that during the design process, the values of
airfoil thickness ratio, aspect ratio and angle of sweep for the wing are obtained
from considerations of optimum performance.
(ii) The low speed airplanes have a value of K (=1/ Ae ) higher than the other
airplanes. One of the reasons for this is that these airplanes have only a
moderate aspect ratio (6 to 8) so that the wing-span is not large and the hanger-
space needed for parking the plane is not excessive.
(iii) See section 2 of Appendix A for estimation of the drag polar of a subsonic
airplane in cruise and take-off conditions.
3.2.21 Winglets and their effect on induced drag
According to Ref.2.1, a Winglet is an upturned wing tip or added axialliary airfoil
above and / or below the wing tips. Figure 1.2c shows one type of winglets at
wing tips. The winglets alter the spanwise distribution of lift and reduce the
induced drag. Reference 1.9, chapter 4 can be referred for a simplified analysis
of the effect of winglets. However, along with reduction in induced drag, the
winglets increase the weight of the wing and also the parasite drag. After trade-
off studies which take into account the favourable and unfavourable effects of the
winglets, the following approximate dimensions are arrived at for the winglets.
Root chord of about 0.65 ct, tip chord of about 0.2 ct and height of about ct ;
where ct is the tip chord of the wing. As regards the effect on induced drag,
Ref.3.15, chapter 5 suggest that the effect of winglets can be approximately
accounted for by increasing the wing span by an amount equal to half the height
of the winglet. The procedure is illustrated in example 3.4
Example 3.4
Consider a wing, with the following features. Area (S) = 111.63 m2,
Aspect ratio (A) = 9.3, span (b) = 32.22 m, root chord (cr) = 5.59 m,
(a) (b)
(b) α = 2o
observed that the distributions are symmetric about the X-axis but not symmetric
about the Y-axis. This indicates Cl = 0 but Cdw > 0. From the distributions of Cp at
edge total angle of 10 would give a thickness ratio of 8.75%, which is rather high.
Supersonic airfoils would have (t/c) between 3 to 5%.
At supersonic speed the skin friction drag is only a small fraction of the wave
drag. The wave drag of a symmetrical airfoil (Cdw) can be expressed as (Ref.1.9,
chapter 5):
4
CdW = [α2 +(t/c)2 ] (3.48)
2
M -1
KCL2 (refer Ref.1.9, chapter 5 for details). However, in this case K depends on
the free stream Mach number (M∞), aspect ratio and leading edge sweep of the
unity and depends on (a) the shape of airfoil (b) the thickness ratio (t/c) and
maximum Mach number on the airfoil ( M max) and free stream Mach number
(M∞) would also be more than unity. However, (Mmax/ M∞) would not be equal to
(Vmax /V∞) as the speed of sound varies from point to point in the flow.
II) Critical Mach number: As M∞ increases, Mmax also increases. The free stream
Mach number for which the maximum Mach number on the airfoil equals unity is
called the critical Mach number (Mcrit).
III) The changes in flow patterns when the free stream Mach number changes
from subcritical (i.e. M Mcrit ) to supersonic (M > 1) are highlighted below .
(A) When M is less than or equal to Mcrit then the flow is subsonic everywhere
Fig.3.26 (b) M∞ only slightly higher than Mcrit ; shock waves are not discernible
Fig.3.26 (c) M∞ greater than Mcrit ; shock wave seen on the upper surface
Fig.3.26 (d) M∞ greater than Mcrit ; shock waves seen on both the upper and
lower surfaces
Fig.3.26 (e) M∞ greater than Mcrit; shock waves seen on both the upper
Fig.3.26 (f) M∞ greater than unity; bow shock wave seen ahead of the airfoil;
shock waves also seen at the trailing edge on both upper and lower surfaces
and on the body and behind it, is subsonic. It is seen that when Mcrit < M∞ < 1,
unity i.e. free stream is supersonic; there is bow shock ahead of the airfoil
resulting in subsonic flow near the leading edge (Fig.3.24). When the shock
waves are attached to the leading edge (Fig.3.23) the flow is supersonic every-
where i.e. in the free stream and on the airfoil and behind it.
Based on the above features, the flow can be classified into three regimes.
(a) Sub-critical regime - when the Mach number is subsonic in the free stream
as well as on the body (M∞ < Mcrit).
(b) Transonic regime - when the regions of both subsonic and supersonic flow
are seen within the flow field.
(c) Supersonic regime - when the Mach number in the free stream as well as
on the body is supersonic.
The extent of the transonic regime is commonly stated as between 0.8 to
1.2. However, the actual extent of this regime is between Mcrit and the Mach
number at which the flow becomes supersonic everywhere. The extent depends
on the shape of the airfoil and the angle of attack. In the transonic regime the lift
coefficient and drag coefficient undergo rapid changes with Mach number
(Figs.3.27a, b and c). It may be recalled that Cd and Cl refer to the drag
Fig.3.26 (α=20). (Adapted from Ref. 3.16, chapter 9 with permission from author)
Note: The points A, B, C, D, E and F corresponds to those in Figs.3.26a, b, c, d,
e and f respectively.
constant value of angle of attack. It is seen that at sub critical Mach numbers, Cl
The critical Mach number (Mcrit) of an airfoil has been defined in statement (II) of
this subsection. It is the free stream Mach number (M∞) for which the maximum
Mach number on the airfoil equals one. The critical Mach number is a theoretical
concept. It is not possible to observe this (Mcrit) in experiments as the changes in
flow, when M∞ just exceeds Mcrit, are very gradual. Hence, a Mach number
called ‘Drag divergence Mach number (MD)’ is used in experimental work. The
basis is as follows.
When the change in Cd with Mach number is studied experimentally, the effects
of changes in flow, due to the appearance of shock waves, are noticed in the
form of a gradual increase in the drag coefficient. The Mach number at which the
increase in the drag coefficient is 0.002 over the value of Cd at sub-critical Mach
Figure 3.27c shows a typical variation of Cd with M and also indicates MD.
The following may be added. (a) For a chosen angle of attack the value of Cd
remains almost constant when the Mach number is sub-critical. (b) The drag
divergence Mach number of an airfoil depends on its shape, thickness ratio and
the angle of attack. (c) The increase in the drag coefficient in the transonic region
and (c) increasing the Mach number, at which CDpeak occurs, are evident from
Fig.3.28.
number. These Mach numbers depend on the fineness ratio of the fuselage. For
the slender fuselage, typical of high subsonic jet airplanes, Mcritf could be around
0.9. When Mcritf is exceeded the drag of the fuselage will be a function of Mach
Chapter 3
Lecture 11
Drag polar – 6
Topics
3.3.4 Parabolic drag polar at high speeds
3.3.5 Guidelines for variations of CDo and K for subsonic jet transport
airplanes
3.3.6 Variations of CDo and K for a fighter airplane
3.3.7 Area ruling
3.4 Drag polar at hypersonic speeds
3.5 Lift to drag ratio
3.6 Other types of drags
3.6.1 Cooling drag
3.6.2 Base drag
3.6.3 External stores drag
3.6.4 Leakage drag
3.6.5 Trim drag
airplanes
Subsonic jet airplanes are generally designed in a manner that there is no
significant wave drag up to the cruise Mach number (Mcruise). Further, the drag
polar of the airplane for Mach numbers upto Mcruise can be estimated, using the
needed for the increase in CD0 and K beyond Mcruise. Such guidelines are
obtained in this subsection by using the data on drag polars of B727-100 airplane
at Mach numbers between 0.7 to 0.88.
Reference 3.18 part VI, chapter 5, gives drag polars of B727-100 at M = 0.7,
0.76, 0.82, 0.84, 0.86 and 0.88. Values of CD and CL corresponding to various
Mach numbers were recorded and are shown in Fig.3.29 by symbols. Following
the parabolic approximation, these polars were fitted with Eq.(3.49) and CD0 and
K were obtained using least square technique. The fitted polars are shown as
curves in Fig.3.29. The values of CD0 and K are given in Table 3.5 and presented
in Figs.3.30 a & b.
It is seen that the drag polar and hence CD0 and K are almost constant up to
M = 0.76. The variations of CD0 and K between M = 0.76 and 0.86, when fitted
with polynomial curves, give the following equations (see also Figs.3.30 a & b).
Based on these trends, the variations of CD0 and K beyond Mcruise but upto
where CDOcr and Kcr are the values of CD0 and K at cruise Mach number for the
that the value of 0.01634 in Eq.(3.50) has been replaced by CDOcr in Eq.(3.50a).
B). For the same reason the value of 0.05257 in Eq.(3.51) has been replaced by
Kcr in Eq.(3.51a).
Section 4.2 of Appendix B illustrates the application of the guidelines given in this
subsection.
3.3.6 Variations of CD0 and K for a fighter airplane
Reference 1.10, chapter 2 has given drag polars of F-15 fighter airplane at
M = 0.8, 0.95, 1.2, 1.4 and 2.2.These are shown in Fig.3.31. These drag polars
were also fitted with Eq.(3.49) and CD0 and K were calculated. The variations of
CD0 and K are shown in Figs.3.32a & b. It is interesting to note that CD0 has a
Fig.3.31 Drag polars at different Mach numbers for F15 (Reproduced from
Ref.1.10, chapter 2 with permission from McGraw-Hill book company)
Please note: The origins for polars corresponding to different Mach numbers are
shifted.
Fig.3.32a Typical variations of CD0 with Mach number for a fighter airplane
Figure 3.34, based on data in Ref.1.9 , chapter 5, indicates the maximum wave
drag coefficient, in transonic range, for three configurations viz (i) a body of
revolution (ii) a wing-body combination without area ruling and (iii) a wing-body
combination with area ruling (Ref.1.9, chapter 5 may be referred to for further
details). Substantial decrease in wave drag coefficient is observed as a result of
area ruling. Figure 3.35. presents a practical application of this principle.
Note that the exponent of the CL term is 1.5 and not 2.0.
efficiency of the design of the airplane. For a parabolic drag polar CL/ CD can be
1
(L/D)max = (CLmd / CDmd) = (3.56)
2 CD0 K
Note:
To show that CLmd corresponds to minimum of (CD / CL), take the second
derivative of the right hand side of Eq.(3.53) and verify that it is greater than zero.
the downward direction. To compensate for this, the wing needs to produce a lift
(L W) equal to the weight of the airplane plus the downward load on the tail i.e. LW
= W + LT. Hence, the induced drag of the wing, which depends on Lw, would be
more than that when the lift equals weight. This additional drag is called trim drag
as the action of making Mcg equal to zero is referred to as trimming the airplane.
produced by the wing is less than the weight of the airplane. SAAB Viggen
shown in Fig.3.35, is an example of an airplane with canard. Reference1.15 and
internet (www.google.com) may be consulted for details of this airplane.
Chapter 3
Lecture 12
Drag polar – 7
Topics
2W
Or V= (3.59)
ρSCL
However, CL has a maximum value, called CLmax , and a speed called ‘Stalling
2W
Vs = (3.59a)
ρSCLmax
The speed at which the airplane takes-off ( VT0 ) is actually higher than the
stalling speed.
2
It is easy to imagine that the take-off distance would be proportional VT0 and in
turn to VS2 . From Eq.(3.59a) it is observed that to reduce the take-off distance (a)
the wing loading (W/S) should be low or (b) the CLmax should be high. Generally,
the wing loading of the airplane is decided by considerations like minimum fuel
consumed during cruise. Hence, it is desirable that CLmax should be as high as
possible to reduce the take-off and landing distances. The devices to increase
the CLmax are called high lift devices.
Clmax is called stalling angle (αstall). Based on the above observations, the stalling
Fig.3.36a Flow past an airfoil at low angle of attack. Note: The flow is from left to
right (Adapted from Ref.3.20, chapter 6 with permission of editor)
Fig.3.36c Flow past an airfoil at angle of attack near stall. Note: The flow is from
left to right (Adapted from Ref.3.12, chapter 6 with permission of editor)
Remark:
Since stalling is due to separation of boundary layer, many methods have
been suggested for boundary layer control. In the suction method, the airfoil
surface is made porous and boundary layer is sucked (Fig.3.37a). In the blowing
a. Suction
b. Blowing
observed that αstall does not decrease significantly due to the increase of
camber and a higher Cl max is realized (Fig.3.38). However, the camber of the
airfoil used on the wing is chosen from the consideration that the minimum drag
coefficient occurs near the lift coefficient corresponding to the lift coefficient
during cruise. One of the ways to achieve a temporary increase in the camber
during take-off and landing is to use flaps. Some configurations of flaps are
shown in Fig.3.39. In a plain flap the rear portion of the airfoil is hinged and is
deflected when Cl max is required to be increased (Fig.3.39a). In a split flap only
the lower half of the airfoil is moved down (Fig.3.39b). To observe the change in
camber brought about by a flap deflection, draw a line in-between the upper and
lower surfaces of the airfoil with flap deflected. This line is approximately the
camber line of the flapped airfoil. The line joining the ends of the camber line is
the new chord line. The difference between the ordinates of the camber line and
the chord line is a measure of the camber.
Equation (3.57) shows that the lift can be increased when the wing area
(S) is increased. An increase in wing area can be achieved if the flap, in addition
to being deflected, also moves outwards and effectively increases the wing area.
This is achieved in a Fowler flap (Fig.3.39f). Thus a Fowler flap incorporates
three methods to increase Clmax viz. change of camber, boundary layer control
and increase of wing area. It may be added that while defining the Clmax , in case
of Fowler flap, the reference area is the original area of the wing and not that of
the extended wing.
A zap flap is a split flap where the lower portion also moves outwards as
the flap is deflected.
IV) Leading edge devices
High lift devices are also used near the leading edge of the wing. A slot
near the leading edge (Fig.3.39g) also permits passive way of energizing the
boundary layer. However, a permanent slot, in addition to increasing the lift, also
increases the drag and consequently has adverse effects during cruise. Hence, a
On high subsonic speed airplanes, both leading edge and trailing edge
devices are used to increase Clmax (Fig.1.2c).
Remarks:
i) References 1.9, 1.10, 1.12 and 3.9 may be referred for other types of high
lift devices like Kruger flap, leading edge extension, blown flap etc.
ii) Reference1.10, chapter 1 may be referred for historical development of
flaps.
3.7.4 Guide lines for values of maximum lift coefficients of wings with
various high lift devices
An estimate of the maximum lift coefficient of a wing is needed to calculate
the stalling speed of the airplane. It may be added that the maximum lift
coefficient of an airplane depends on (a) wing parameters (aspect ratio, taper
ratio and sweep) (b) airfoil shape, (c) type of high lift device(s), (d) Reynolds
number , (e) surface finish , (f) the ratio of the area of the flap to the area of wing
and (g) interference from nacelle and fuselage.
Table 3.6 presents the values of CLmax which are based on (a) Ref.1.10,
chapter 5, (b) Ref.3.9 chapter 5 and (c) Ref.3.15 chapter 5. These values can be
used for initial estimate of CLmax for subsonic airplanes with unswept wings of
For example, when the unswept wing without flap has CLmax of 1.5, the same
wing with 30o sweep would have a CLmax of 1.5 x cos 30o or 1.3. Similarly, an
unswept wing with Fowler flap has CLmax of 2.5. The same wing with 30o sweep
would have CLmax of 2.5 x cos 30o or 2.17. With addition of leading edge slat, this
in landing configuration
No flap 1.5
Plain flap 1.8
Single slotted flap 2.2
Double slotted flap 2.7
Double slotted flap with slat 3.0
Triple slotted flap 3.1
Triple slotted flap with slat 3.4
Fowler flap 2.5
Fowler flap with slat 2.8
Table 3.6 Guidelines for CLmax of subsonic airplanes with unswept wings of
Remarks:
i) The value of CLmax shown in Table 3.6 can be used in landing configuration.
The flap setting during take-off is lower than that while landing. The maximum lift
coefficient during take-off can be taken approximately as 80% of that during
landing.
ii) The values given in Table 3.6 should not be used for supersonic airplanes
which have low aspect ratio wings and airfoil sections of small thickness ratio.
Reference 3.5, section 4.1.3.4 may be referred to for estimating CLmax in these
cases.
iii) As the Mach number (M) increases beyond 0.5, the Clmax of the airfoil section
decreases due to the phenomena of shock stall (see item IV in section 3.3.3).
Hence CLmax of the wing also decreases for M > 0.5. The following relationship
chapter 12.
Note: The maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) in transonic Mach number range is not
Chapter 3
References
Chapter 3
Exercises
3.1 Following data relate to a light airplane.
W =11000 N
2
Wing: S = 15 m , CD0 = 0.007, A.R. = 6.5, taper ratio () = 1.0, e = 0.9.
Fuselage: Has a drag of 136N at V = 160 km/hr at sea level when the angle of
attack is zero.
Estimate the drag polar of the airplane assuming the contribution of the fuselage
to the lift dependent drag as small.
[Remark : The CDO of wing in this exercise appears higher than CDO of tails. It is
likely that the airfoil section used on Wing may be thicker (say 15 to 18%) and
that on tail be thinner (say 9%).]
3.2 A drag polar is given as:
CD = CD0 + KCLn
Show that:
CD0 1/n n
CLmd = { } , CDmd = C
K(n-1) n-1 D0
1 1
(CL/CD) max = { (n-1)/n
}
n
(n-1)1/n C D0 K1/n
n-1
Verify that when n = 2, the above expressions reduced to those given by
Eqs. (3.54),(3.55) and (3.56).
3.3 Based on data in Ref.1.1, chapter 6, the drag polar of a hypersonic glider is
given in the table below.
Fit Eq.(3.52) to this data and obtain CD0 and K. Also obtain CLmd, CDmd and
Chapter 4
Engine characteristics
(Lectures 13 to 16)
Chapter 4
Lecture 13
Engine characteristics – 1
Topics
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Engines considered for airplane applications
4.2 Piston engine-propeller combination
4.2.1 Operating principle of a piston engine
4.2.2 Effect of flight speed on the output of a piston engine
4.2.3 Effect of altitude on the output of a piston engine
4.2.4 Specific fuel consumption (SFC)
4.2.5 The propeller
4.2.6 Propeller efficiency
4.2.7 Momentum theory of propeller
4.1. Introduction
To evaluate the performance of an airplane we need to know the
atmospheric characteristics, the drag polar and the engine characteristics like
variations of thrust (or power) output and specific fuel consumption with flight
speed and altitude. In this chapter the engine characteristics are briefly reviewed.
4.1.1 Engines considered for airplane applications
Following power plants are considered for airplane applications.
(a) Piston engine-propeller combination.
(b) Gas turbine engines - turboprop, turbofan and turbojet.
(c) Ramjets.
(d) Rockets.
(e) Combination power plants like ramrocket and turboramjet.
At present, piston engine-propeller combination and gas turbine engines are the
power plants used on airplanes. Ramjets offer simplicity of construction and have
ii) The volume of the air-fuel mixture taken in, is almost equal to the swept
volume i.e., product of the area of cross-section of the engine cylinder and the
length of the piston stroke. The mass of fuel taken in per power stroke is thus
approximately equal to:
(swept volume) X (density of air) / (air-fuel ratio).
shows the power output at different MAP’s with RPM as parameter. The lower
part of the figure shows the fuel flow rate in US gallons per hour.
To obtain the effect of altitude on the engine output, the power output is
measured at different RPM’s and MAP’s during flight tests at different altitudes.
Typical altitude performance of Lycoming engine is presented in the right side of
Fig.4.2.
From such a chart, the output of the engine and the fuel flow rate can be
obtained for a chosen combination of altitude, RPM, MAP and ambient
temperature. The steps to obtain these are explained with the help of examples
4.1 and 4.2
called ‘Thrust horse power (THP)’, is ( TV / 1000) in kW. The efficiency of the
propeller is therefore defined as:
ηρ = THP / BHP = T V /(1000 x BHP) ( 4.2 )
Note: T is in Newton, V is in m/s and THP and BHP are measured in kW.
In Fig.4.4 the actuator disc is located at plane AA. Far upstream, the velocity is
V and the pressure p is the atmospheric pressure. The velocity V equals the
forward speed of the airplane on which the propeller is mounted. A stream tube
enclosing the disc is also shown in Fig.4.4. As the stream approaches the front
face of the disc the fluid velocity reaches a value V1 at the disc. As the flow is
assumed to be inviscid and incompressible, Bernoulli’s equation is valid till the
front face of the disc and the pressure decreases, to a value p1. At the disc,
energy is added in the form of increase in pressure by an amount Δp while the
velocity remains the same as V1 through the disc (Fig.4.4a). After the disc the
pressure gradually returns to the atmospheric value of p . Bernoulli’s equation is
again valid behind the disc and the fluid velocity increases to a value Vj. The
changes in pressure and velocity are shown in Fig.4.4a.
Applying Bernoullis equation ahead and behind the disc gives :
where, A = area of disc = d2 ; d = diameter of the propeller
4
Alternatively, the thrust produced can also be obtained as the rate of change of
momentum of the stream i.e.
Vj - V
T=m (4.7)
Hence, T = ρ A V1 Vj - V (4.9)
The power input is the energy imparted to the fluid stream. This is the energy of
the stream far behind the disc minus the energy of the stream far ahead of the
disc. i.e.
efficiency Vj must be only slightly higher than V . Hence to get adequate amount
of thrust with high propeller efficiency a large mass of air should be given a small
velocity increment.
(iii)Propeller theories like blade element theory, and vortex theory take into
account effects of drag of blades, finite span of blade etc. For details of these
theories refer to chapter 6 of Ref.1.9.
Example 4.3
A propeller of diameter 1.8 m is mounted on an airplane. When
moving at a speed of 200 kmph it produces a thrust of 2070 N under standard
sea level conditions. Calculate the velocity of slip stream far behind the propeller
and the ideal efficiency of the propeller.
Solution :
Diameter of propeller = d = 1.8 m
Free stream velocity = V = 200 kmph = 55.56 m/s
Slipstream velocity = Vj
Vj - V
Consequently, Thrust = T = m
= ρ d2 j
V + V
m
4 2
Vj +55.56
Hence, 2070 = 1.225× ×1.82 Vj - 55.56
4 2
Or 1328.1 = Vj2 - 55.562
Or Vj = 66.45 m/s
2 2
Ideal propeller efficiency = = = 0.9107 = 91.07 %
Vj 66.45
1+ 1+
V 55.56
Answers :
Velocity of slip stream far behind propeller = 66.45 m/s = 239.22 kmph
Ideal propeller efficiency = 91.07 %
Chapter 4
Lecture 14
Engine characteristics – 2
Topics
= J (CT / CP ) (4.18)
This is because even though the engine is working and producing thrust, no
useful work is done when V is zero. This is like a person pressing an immovable
wall. He spends muscular energy to push the wall but the output and hence the
efficiency is zero as the wall does not move and no useful work is done.
Fig.4.5a Propeller efficiency ( ηp ) vs advance ratio (J) with pitch angle (β) as
parameter.
a maximum for a certain value of J and then decreases (Fig.4.5a). The maximum
value of ηp is seen to be around 80 to 85%. However, the value of J at which the
maximum of ηp occurs, depends on the pitch angle β . This indicates that for a
single pitch or fixed pitch propeller, the efficiency is high (80 to 85%) only over a
narrow range of flight speeds (Fig.4.5a). Keeping this behaviour in view, the
commercial airplanes use a variable pitch propeller. In such a propeller the entire
blade is rotated through a chosen angle during the flight and the pitch of all blade
elements changes. Such propellers have high efficiency over a wide range of
speeds. However, propellers with variable pitch arrangements are expensive and
heavy. Hence, personal airplanes, where cost of the airplane is an important
consideration, employ a fixed pitch propeller. As a compromise, in some designs,
propellers with two or three pitch settings are employed.
Figure 4.5b presents the variation of power coefficient ( CP ) vs J with β and CT
Fig.4.5b Power coefficient ( CP ) vs advance ratio (J) with pitch angle (β) and
This figure is designated as ‘Design chart’ and is used for selection of the
diameter of the propeller. A brief explanatory note on this topic is as follows.
Using defintions of J and CP , the parameter Cs , defined below, is obtained. It is
observed that this parameter does not involve the diameter (d) of the propeller.
J
Cs = = V (ρ / Pn2 )1/5
1/5
(4.21)
CP
Consequently, this parameter can be evaluated when the power output (P),
engine RPM(N) and flight condition viz. V and h are specified.
The design problem involves obtaining the value of J which would give the
maximum value of ηp for a specified value of Cs . This is arrived at in the
following manner.
values of J or β . For example, for β = 15o the values given in Table 4.1 are
obtained.
J CP Cs ηp
Similar calculations at β = 20o , 25o , 30o ,35o , 40o and 45o yield additional values.
From these values the curves for Cs vs ηp and Cs vs J at different values of β
can be plotted. These are shown in the upper and lower parts of Fig.4.5c. Based
on these plots, the dotted line in the lower part of Fig.4.5c gives the values of J
and β which would give maximum ηp . This line is designated as ‘Line of
the dotted line gives J = 0.74 and β = 20o . The upper part of the Fig.4.5c gives
ηp = 82% for the chosen value of Cs = 1.4.
From the value of J, the propeller diameter is obtained as d = V/(nJ) ; note that
the values of V and n are already known. Subsection 4.2.9 gives additional
details and example 4.4 illustrates the procedure to select the propeller diameter.
Fig.4.5d Thrust coefficient (CT) vs advance ratio (J) with pitch angle β as
parameter.
Fig.4.5 Typical characteristics of a two bladed propeller
(Adapted from Ref. 4.1)
Remark :
Reference 4.1 contains information on propellers with three and four
blades. Reference 3.7 chapter 16 contains information on six bladed propellers.
Additional information can be obtained from Ref.4.2 which is cited in chapter 17
of Ref.4.3.
4.2.9 Selection of propeller diameter for chosen application
A propeller is selected to give the best efficiency during a chosen flight
condition which is generally the cruising flight for transport airplanes. Some
companies may design their own propellers but it is an involved task. Hence, the
general practice is to use the standard propellers and the charts corresponding to
them. As a first step, the number of blades of the propeller is decided depending
on the amount of power to be absorbed by the propeller.
The designer of a new airplane generally chooses the diameter of the propeller
using the design chart (e.g. Fig.4.5c) appropriate to the propeller. Let us consider
a two bladed propeller. Following steps are used to select the diameter of a
propeller.
CL = W/ 0.5ρ Vc2 S . Obtain the corresponding CD from the drag polar of the
airplane.
(c) Obtain THP required during the flight using : THP = 0.5ρ VC3 SCD /1000
(d) Assume ηp = 0.8 .
(e) Obtain BHP = THP/0.8. Then RPM (N) which will give this power output at the
chosen hc with low BSFC is known from the engine curves e.g. Fig.4.2.
Calculate n = N/60.
1/5
(f) Calculate CS = V ρ / Pn2 .
(g) From the design chart like Fig.4.5c, obtain the value of J on the dotted line,
corresponding to the value of CS in step (f). Also obtain the value of β from the
same curve. Obtain the value of ηp from the upper part of the design chart.
(h) Since V, n and J are known, obtain propeller diameter (d) using : d = V/n J
(i) If the value of ηp obtained in step (g) is significantly different from the value of
0.8 assumed in step (d), then iterate by using the value of ηp obtained in step (g).
Example 4.4
Consider the case of Piper Cherokee airplane dealt with in Appendix A
and obtain the diameter of the propeller for this airplane. According to chapter 6
of Ref.1.9, the chosen speed and altitude for propeller design are 132 mph
(212.4 kmph or 59 m/s) and sea level standard conditions respectively. The
engine operates at 75% of the maximum power at an RPM of 2500.
The airplane has a two bladed propeller of standard design and hence Fig.4.5c is
applicable. From this figure, corresponding to CS of 1.38, the dotted line gives
J = 0.74 , β = 20o , ηp = 0.83.
Since the latest value of ηp is same as the value with which the steps were
Chapter 4
Lecture 15
Engine characteristics – 3
Topics
4.2.10 Procedure for obtaining propeller efficiency for given h,V, BHP
and N
4.2.11 Variations of THP and BSFC with flight velocity and altitude
4.2.12 Loss of propeller efficiency at high speeds
4.3 Gas turbine engines
4.3.1 Propulsive efficiency
4.3.2 Why turboprop, turbo fan and turbojet engines?
The steps required to obtain ηp depend on the type of propeller viz. variable pitch
propeller, constant speed propeller and fixed pitch propeller. The steps in the
three cases are presented below.
are as follows.
(a) Obtain the ambient density ρ for the chosen altitude.
(b) Obtain CP = P / ρ n3 d5 ; P is BHP in watts
(e) From the design chart for the chosen propeller (e.g. Fig.4.5c for a two
bladed propeller), obtain β which will give maximum efficiency. Obtain
corresponding ηp . Consequently,
(f) To get the thrust (T) at V = 0, obtain CT at J = 0 for a pitch setting which
would give high value of CT. In Fig.4.5d, it is seen that for a two bladed
propeller, CT at J = 0, is nearly maximum for β 30o . Having known CT, the
thrust(T) is given by :
T = ρ n2 d4 CT
The steps to obtain ηp are the same as mentioned in the previous case.
flight speeds.
Herein, the procedure suggested in the Appendix of Ref.4.1 is presented. It is
also illustrated with the help of example 4.5.
It is assumed that the propeller is designed for a certain speed, altitude, rpm
and power absorbed.
Let V0 = design speed (m/s)
N0 = design rpm ; n0 = N0 / 60
BHP0 = BHP of the engine under design condition (kW)
d = diameter of propeller (m)
J0 = Advance ratios under design condition = V0 / n0 d
β0 = design blade angle; this angle is fixed
The steps, to obtain the THP at different flight speeds, are as follows.
1. Obtain from propeller charts, CT and CP corresponding to J0 and β0 .
5. The assumption of constant torque (Q0) gives that N and P are related.
Note: Q0 = P0 / 2 π n0
This yields:
N CPO
= (4.24)
N0 CP
J N
V = V0 × × (4.25)
J0 N0
CP0 CT C
and T = T0 = K0 T (4.26)
CT0 CP CP
V0 59
J0 = = = 0.753
n0 d 41.67×1.88
From Fig.4.5d, CTO = 0.046
From Fig.4.5b, CPO = 0.041
0.1 0.133 0.104 0.065 1.589 0.629 0.793 6.21 1951 1983 0.17 12.15 71.23
0.2 0.266 0.104 0.065 1.606 0.636 0.792 12.49 1971 1993 0.33 24.61 74.60
0.3 0.398 0.102 0.062 1.631 0.657 0.811 19.05 2002 2027 0.49 38.14 77.83
0.4 0.531 0.093 0.060 1.545 0.683 0.827 25.91 1897 2067 0.62 49.15 79.28
0.5 0.664 0.082 0.058 1.420 0.712 0.844 33.05 1743 2109 0.70 57.61 82.29
0.6 0.797 0.070 0.059 1.306 0.765 0.875 41.12 1603 2187 0.77 65.91 85.60
0.7 0.930 0.055 0.046 1.185 0.884 0.900 51.55 1455 2350 0.81 75.00 92.60
0.8 1.062 0.040 0.036 1.099 1.126 1.061 66.50 1349 2653 0.83 89.71 108.1
Fig.E 4.5 Variations of thrust (T) and thrust horse power (THP) with velocity(V)
(a) T vs V (b) THP vs V
Answers :
The variations of T and THP with V are given in table below.
V(m/s) 0 6.21 12.49 19.05 25.91 33.05 41.12 51.55 66.50
T (N) 1927 1951 1971 2002 1897 1743 1603 1455 1349
THP(kW) 0 12.15 24.61 38.14 49.15 57.61 65.91 75.00 89.71
BHP(kW) - 71.23 74.10 77.83 79.28 82.29 85.60 92.60 108.1
N (RPM) 1971 1983 1993 2027 2067 2109 2187 2350 2653
4.2.11 Variations of THP and BSFC with flight velocity and altitude
As mentioned earlier,THP equals ηp × BHP . Thus, the variations of THP with V
and h depends on variations of ηp and BHP with V and h. In this context, the
(iii) The propeller efficiency ηp depends on BHP, h, V, n and β . For a variable
pitch propeller ηp remains nearly constant over a wide range of flight speeds.
Thus for an airplane with variable pitch propeller, the THP vs V curve for a
chosen RPM and h remains flat over a wide range of flight speeds. A typical
variations of THP with V, at chosen ‘RPM(N)’ and with ‘h’ as parameter are
shown in Fig.4.6.
From the engine charts the fuel flow rate and BSFC are known at chosen
MAP & N. From these values the BSFC at the chosen MAP & N, can be
calculated using Eq.(4.1d) . See section 6 of Appendix A for typical calculations.
equal to:
VRtip = { V 2 + (2 π n R)2}1/2, where R is the radius of the propeller.
When the Mach number corresponding to VRtip exceeds the critical Mach number
for the airfoil used on the propeller, the drag coefficient of the airfoil would
increase and the lift coefficient would decrease (see subsection 3.3.3).
Consequently, the efficiency of the propeller would decrease. This loss of
efficiency can be delayed to higher flight Mach numbers by use of advanced
propellers. These propellers have swept blades and are being used on turboprop
airplanes up to flight Mach number of 0.7. Figure 4.7a shows one such propeller
placed in a wind tunnel and Fig.4.7b shows another propeller mounted on
ATR 72 airplane.
stream far behind the propeller(see subsection 4.2.7). Hence, the propulsive
efficiency of a propeller which was called ideal efficiency of propeller, is also
given by Eq.(4.29), which is same as given by Eq.(4.13).
The variation of propulsive efficiency with flight speed provides the reason for
use of turboprop, turbofan and turbojet engines in airplanes operating at different
range of flight speeds.Consider the variation of propulsive efficiency with flight
speed. For this purpose, a subsonic jet engine with convergent nozzle is
considered. In this case, the Mach number at the exit, would be unity and the
temperature of the exhaust gases would be around 600 K. Under these
conditions, Vj, the velocity of jet exhaust would be around 500 m/s. Using
Eq.(4.29), the values of propulsive efficiency obtained at different flight speeds
( V ) are given in the Table 4.2.
Vj / V 5 4 3 2 1.5 1.25
Table 4.2 Variation of propulsive efficiency with flight speed for Vj = 500 m/s
Remarks:
i) Turboprop engine
It is seen from Table 4.2 that ηp will be low if a pure jet engine is used at
low speeds. An analysis of Eqs.(4.28 and 4.29) points out that for having
adequate thrust and high propulsive efficiency at low flight speeds, a small
increment in velocity should be given to a large mass of air. This is effectively
done by a propeller. Thus for airplanes with flight Mach number less than about
0.5, a turbo-prop engine is used (Fig.4.9). In this case, the turbine drives the
compressor and also the propeller through a gearbox (Fig.4.9). The gear box is
needed because the turbine r.p.m. would be around 15000-20000 whereas, the
propeller rotates at about 3000 r.p.m.
For practical reasons, the expansion of the gases coming out of the combustion
chamber is not allowed to take place completely in the turbine and a part of the
expansion is carried out in the nozzle. Hence, in a turboprop engine, about 80 to
90% of the total output is produced through the propeller and the rest 20 to 10%
as output from the jet coming out of the nozzle.
Chapter 4
Lecture 16
Engine characteristics – 4
Topics
4.3.3 Characteristics of a typical turboprop engine
4.3.4 Characteristics of a typical turbofan engine
4.3.5 Characteristics of a typical turbojet engines
4.4 Deducing output and SFC of engines where these characteristics are
not available directly
4.5 A note on choice of engines for different range of flight speeds
where SHP = shaft horse power available at propeller shaft in kW,ηp = propeller
efficiency and Tj = jet thrust
The total output of a turbo-prop engine, also called ‘Equivalent shaft horse
power (ESHP)’, is defined as :
ESHP = SHP + {Tj V / (0.8x1000) } (4.31)
Note : (i) For the purpose of defining ESHP, the value of ηρ is taken as 0.8 in
Eq.(4.31). The ESHP and SHP are in kW.
(ii) Equation (4.31) would not be able to account for the contribution, to ESHP, of
the thrust produced when the flight velocity (V) is zero or the static condition. For
this case and when V < 100 knots (or 185 kmph), the convention is to define
ESHP as follows (Ref.4.3, chapter 14).
ESHP = SHP + (Tj / 14.92) (4.31a)
where ESHP and SHP are in kW and Tj is in N.
being the area of intake, and the velocity at the intake) increases with flight
speed and (b) the pressure rise due to the deceleration of the flow in the inlet
diffuser also increases with flight Mach number.
Figure 4.11 also shows the influence of ambient temperature on power output. It
is observed that there is a significant fall in ESHP as the ambient temperature
rises.
From the curves regarding fuel flow rate in Fig.4.11, the BSFC can be obtained
at various speeds and altitudes as:
BSFC = (Fuel flow/hr) / ESHP
Remark:
Reference 3.9 Appendix E.3 gives performance curves for a large turboprop
engine with sea level static power of 6500 HP. It may be noted that the ‘Sea level
static power’ is the engine output at sea level at zero velocity. Reference 1.9,
chapter 6 gives characteristics of an engine of around 1700 HP.
cycle efficiency ηt (b) Combustion efficiency ηc (c) mechanical efficiency
ηm and (d) propulsive efficiency ηp . The thermodynamic efficiency depends
on the thermodynamic cycle on which the engine operates. The details regarding
estimation of ηt are available in books on thermodynamics. However, it is of the
density ratio and the suffix ‘sl’ denotes a quantity at sea level.
For a turbo-prop engine (from Ref 1.10 chapter 3), P/Psl σ 0.7 . From
Ref.3.15, chapter 3, (T/Tsl) for turbofan and turbojet engines is also roughly
proportional to σ 0.7
3. Weight of the engine:
The weight of the engine contributes to the gross weight of the airplane and
hence it should be as low as possible.This quantity is indicated by the ratio Wpp/T
or Wpp/BHP, where WPP is the weight of the power plant. This ratio depends on
the type of engine and the engine rating; it (ratio) decreases as the rating
increases. Based on data in Ref.1.15, it can be mentioned that the weight per
unit BHP for a piston engine is around 9N/kW for an engine with a rating of
around 150 kW and about 6N/kW for a rating of around 500 kW. For a turboprop
Chapter 4
References
Chapter 4
Exercises
4.1) What are the different types of engines used on airplanes? State the
speed/Mach number range in which they are used.
4.2) Sketch a typical BHP vrs altitude curve for a piston engine. Why does the
power output of a piston engine decrease rapidly with altitude? Supercharger is
needed to delay this loss of power to higher altitudes. Look for information on
supercharger from books (e.g. Ref.1.9) and internet (www.google.com).
4.3) What are the essential differences between turboprop, turbofan and turbojet
engines? Derive an expression for the propulsive efficiency and justify the range
of flight Mach numbers in which these engines are used.
4.4) A propeller of 2 m diameter is mounted on an airplane flying at a speed of
216 kmph. If the velocity of air far behind the propeller be 81 m/s, calculate the
propulsive efficiency and the thrust developed by the propeller.
[Answers: ηp = 85.1%, T = 5695 N]
4.5) Neatly sketch the following:
(a) variation of propeller efficiency vs flight velocity with propeller pitch angle as
parameter.
(b) Variation of thrust vs. Mach number with altitude as parameter for a
turbofan engine.
Chapter 5
Lecture 19
Topics
techniques have also been improved to achieve smooth surface finish. High
of airplanes. The reciprocal of (CD / CL) is (CL / CD). It is called lift-drag ratio
power or thrust required is equal to the maximum available engine output (point
A in Figs.5.5 & 5.6a). This speed is called the ‘Maximum speed(Vmax)’. Similar
thrust required increases and there is a speed at which the power or thrust
required is equal to the available power or thrust - point D’ in Fig.5.5 and point C’
in Fig.5.6b. Figure 5.6b is drawn separately from Fig.5.6a to show the points C
and C’ clearly.
Thus, the minimum speed can be limited by available thrust or power output. It is
denoted by (Vmin)e. However, in level flight the requirement of lift equal to weight
should also be satisfied(Eq.5.1). Hence, level flight is not possible below stalling
speed. Thus, two factors viz. the thrust or power available and the stalling, limit
the minimum flight speed of an airplane. Satisfying both these requirements, the
minimum speed of the airplane at an altitude will be the higher of the two speeds
viz. (Vmin)e and VS.
Typical variations of Vmax, (Vmin)e and VS are shown for a jet engined airplane in
Fig.5.9. The details of the calculations are given in Appendix B. Similarly, typical
variations of these speeds in case of a piston engined airplane are shown in
Fig.5.10 with details of calculation given in Appendix A. The following
observations are made.
(i)For a jet airplane Vmax may slightly increase initially with altitude and then
decrease. However, there is an altitude at which the thrust required curve is
tangential to the thrust available curve and flight is possible only at one speed.
This altitude is called ‘Ceiling’ and denoted by hmax. Above hmax the thrust
available is lower than the minimum thrust required and level flight is not possible
as the requirement of T = D cannot be satisfied.
6000
5000
4000
Vs
3000
Vmax
(Vmin)e
2000
1000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Velocity (m/s)
(ii)The minimum speed of a jet airplane is the stalling speed (Vs) at low altitudes.
However, near the ceiling, the minimum speed is that limited by the thrust
available i.e. (Vmin)e.
(1) Choose an altitude ‘h’. Let Ta be the thrust available in the range of speeds
Hence,
Ta CD CDO
= = +KCL
W CL CL
T
Or KC2 - a CL + CDO = 0 (5.25)
L W
Equation (5.25) is a quadratic in CL. Its solution gives two values of CL at which
level flight with the given thrust is possible. Let these values of CL be denoted as
CL1 and CL2. Then, the corresponding flight speeds, V1 and V2, are given as:
1 1
2W 2 2W 2
V1 = and V2 = (5.26)
ρSCL1 ρSCL2
1 2KW 2
where, A = ρSCDO , B = Ta and C =
2 ρS
For given value of thrust (Ta), Eq.(5.27) also gives two solutions for level flight
Let V1 be the higher among V1 and V2.Then, V1 is the maximum speed and V2 is
the minimum speed, based on engine output i.e. (Vmin)e. The higher of (Vmin)e
and the stalling speed (Vs) will be the minimum speed at the chosen altitude.
Mach number then CDO and K would need correction and revised calculation,
would be required.
ii) Obtain, from the engine charts, the thrust available at V1 . Let it be denoted by
Ta1. If the thrust available (Ta), assumed at the start of the calculation(step 1), is
significantly different from Ta1, then the calculations would have to be revised
with new value of Ta. However, it is expected that the calculations would
Chapter 5
Performance analysis I – Steady level flight
(Lectures 17 to 20)
Keywords: Steady level flight – equations of motion, minimum power required,
minimum thrust required, minimum speed, maximum speed; stalling speed;
equivalent airspeed.
Topics
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Subdivisions of performance analysis
5.1.2 Importance of performance analysis
5.1.3 Approach in performance analysis
5.2 Equations of motion for steady level flight
5.3 Stalling speed
5.4 Equivalent airspeed
5.4.1 Airspeed indicator
5.5 Thrust and power required in steady level flight – general case
5.6 Thrust and power required in steady level flight when drag
polar is independent of Mach number
5.7 Thrust and power required in steady level flight – consideration of
parabolic polar
5.8 Influence of level flight analysis on airplane design
5.9 Steady level flight performance with a given engine
5.10 Steady level flight performance with a given engine and parabolic
polar
5.10.1 Airplane with jet engine
5.10.2 Parameters influencing Vmax of a jet airplane
5.10.3 Airplane with engine-propeller combination
5.11 Special feature of steady level flight at supersonic speeds
References
Exercises
Chapter 5
Lecture 17
Topics
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Subdivisions of performance analysis
5.1.2 Importance of performance analysis
5.1.3 Approach in performance analysis
5.2 Equations of motion for steady level flight
5.3 Stalling speed
5.4 Equivalent airspeed
5.4.1 Airspeed indicator
5.5 Thrust and power required in steady level flight – general case
5.1 Introduction:
During its normal operation an airplane takes –off, climbs to the cruising
altitude, cruises at almost constant altitude, descends and lands. It may also fly
along curved paths like turns, loops etc. The flights along curved paths are also
called manoeuvres. Analyses of various flights are the topics under the
performance analysis. A revision of section 1.6 would be helpful at this stage.
5.1.1 Subdivisions of performance analysis
Performance analysis covers the following aspects.
I) Unaccelerated flights:
(a) In a steady level flight an airplane moves with constant velocity at a constant
altitude. This analysis would give information on the maximum level speed and
minimum level speed at different altitudes.
(b) In a steady climb an airplane climbs at constant velocity. This analysis would
provide information on the maximum rate of climb, maximum angle of climb and
maximum attainable altitude (ceiling).
1 2W 3 CD
Or Pr (5.4)
1000 ρ S C3/2
L
Remarks:
i) Equations (5.1) to (5.4) are the basic equations for steady level flight and would
be used in subsequent analysis of this flight.
ii) To fly in a steady level flight at chosen values of h and V, the pilot should
adjust the following settings.
(a) The angle of attack of the airplane to get the desired lift coefficient so that the
lift(L) equals the weight(W).
speed decreases. Since CL cannot exceed CLmax, there is a flight speed below
which level flight is not possible. The flight speed at which CL equals CLmax is
It is evident from Eq.(5.5) that Vs increases with altitude since the density (ρ)
airplane and a typical jet airplane are presented in Figs.5.3a and b respectively.
Appendices A & B give the details of calculations.
Remark:
The maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) depends on the flap deflection (δf). Hence,
Vs will be different for the cases with (a) no flap (b) flap with take-off setting (c)
flap with setting for landing. Figure 5.3a presents the variations of stalling speed,
with altitude, for four cases viz. with no flap and with three different flap settings.
Fig.5.3a Variations of stalling speed with altitude for a low speed airplane
2W
Ve = Vσ1/2 = (5.6)
ρoSCL
Remarks:
i) From Eq.(5.6) it is evident that for a given wing loading (W/S), the equivalent
airspeed in steady level flight is proportional to 1/CL1/2 and is independent of
altitude. Thus the stalling speed, for a given airplane configuration, when
expressed as equivalent airspeed is independent of altitude.
ii) To avoid confusion between equivalent airspeed ( Ve ) and the actual speed of
the airplane relative to the free stream (V), the latter is generally referred to as
true airspeed.
5.4.1 Airspeed indicator
The equivalent airspeed is also significant from the point of view of
measurement of speed of the airplane using Pitot-static system. It may be
recalled from the topics studied in fluid machanics that a Pitot-static tube senses
the Pitot (or total) pressure (pt) and the static pressure ( ps ). The difference
equation.
1 2 M2 M4
p t -ps = ρV 1+ + +.... ; M = V /a, a = speed of sound (5.6a)
2 4 40
Thus, at low speeds (M < 0.2),
1
p t - ps ρ V2
2
It may be pointed out that, in the case of an airplane, the air is stationary and the
airplane is moving. Hence, the quantity V in the above expressions, equals the
constant value.
At subsonic speeds, when the compressibility effects become significant,
the airspeed indicator mechanism is calibrated to indicate ‘Calibrated airspeed
(Vcal)’, based on the following equation which is a simplified form of Eq.(5.6a).
1 2
1 Vcal
2
CD 1 2W 3 CD
Tr = W and Pr = .
CL 1000 ρS C3/2
L
number. The relationship between CD and CL, the drag polar, is already known
drag polar. It (drag polar) may be given in the form of Eqs.(3.45) or (3.49). The
drag polar can also be given in the form of a graph or a table.
vi) Knowing CD, The thrust required (Tr) and power required (Pr) can now be
Chapter 5
Lecture 18
Topics
5.6 Thrust and power required in steady level flight when drag
polar is independent of Mach number
5.7 Thrust and power required in steady level flight – consideration of
parabolic polar
5.6 Thrust and power required in steady level flight when drag polar is
independent of Mach number
When the Mach number is less than about 0.7, the drag polar is generally
3/2
independent of Mach number. In this case, CD / CL and CD / CL can be
calculated for different values of CL. The curves shown in Figs.5.4a and b are
3/2
obtained by plotting CD / CL and CD / CL as functions of CL. From these curves
by CLmd as the drag is minimum at this CL. The power required is minimum when
3/2
CD / CL is minimum. The CL at which this occurs is denoted by CLmp . Thus in
2W 3 CD
Prmin = (5.8)
ρS C3/2
L min
3/2
Fig.5.4b Variation of CD / CL with CL
The speeds, at which the drag and the power required are minimum, are denoted
by Vmd and Vmp respectively. The expressions for Vmd and Vmp are:
2W 2W
Vmd = , Vmp = (5.9)
ρSCLmd ρS CLmp
Note:
i) CLmd and CLmp are not equal and the corresponding speeds are different. As the
density occurs in the denominator of Eq.(5.9), it implies that Vmd and Vmp
(CD / C L 3/2)min are also independent of Mach number. From Eqs.(5.7) and (5.8) it
is seen that Trmin is independent of altitude whereas Prmin increases with altitude
1/2
in proportion to 1/ σ .
iii) It is also observed in Fig.5.4a that a line drawn parallel to the X-axis cuts the
curve at two points A and B. This shows that for the same value of CD / CL or the
thrust {Tr = W(CD / CL) }, an airplane can have steady level flight at two values of
lift coefficients viz. CLA and CLB. From Eq.(5.2) each value of CL corresponds to a
velocity. Hence for the same amount of thrust, in general, flight is possible at two
speeds (VA and VB). These speeds are:
1/2 1/2
VA= (2W / ρSCLA) , VB = (2W / ρSCLB) (5.9a)
Similarly, from Fig.5.4b it is observed that with the same power, in general, level
flight is possible at two values of lift coefficient viz. CLA and CLB and
iii) Typical variations of thrust required with flight speed and altitude are shown in
Fig.5.5. Following interesting observations are made in this case where the drag
polar is independent of Mach number. From Eq.(5.7) the minimum drag depends
Hence, the thrust required curves at various altitudes have the same minimum
thrust at all altitudes and the curves have a horizontal line, corresponding to
T = Trmin , as a common tangent (see Fig.5.5). This feature should be kept in
mind when thrust required curves for subsonic airplanes are plotted.
Fig.5.5 Thrust required and thrust available for subsonic jet airplane
iv) Typical variations of power required with flight speed and altitude are shown
in Fig.5.6a. Interesting observations are made in this case also. From Eq.(5.8)
the minimum power required (Prmin) depends on W3/2 , (CD/CL3/2)min and ρ-1/2 .
From Eq.(5.9) it is observed that Vmp depends on ρ-1/2 . Noting that for airplanes
with piston engine or turboprop engine, the flight Mach number is less than 0.7,
the drag polar is independent of Mach number. However, due to dependence on
ρ-1/2 , the Prmin and Vmp increase with altitude (Fig.5.6a) . It may be added that
the slope of a line, joining a point on the Pr vs V curve and the origin, is Pr / V or
Tr. However, as pointed out earlier, Tr has a minimum value (Trmin) which is
In Eq.(5.12) the first term (½) ρ V2 S CD0 is called ‘Parasite drag’. The second
2 2
term 2 K W / (ρV S) is called ‘Induced drag’. Typical variations of the parasite
drag, induced drag and total drag are shown in Fig.5.7.
equal to each other (Fig.5.7). This can be verified by differentiating Eq.(5.12) with
respect to V and equating it to zero i.e.
From Eq.(5.14) it is observed that when V equals Vmd , the parasite drag and
induced drag both are equal to W (CD0 K)1/2. This is also shown in Fig.5.7.
1 1
Pr = ρ V3 S [CD0 + KCL2 ]
1000 2
1 1 W
Or Pr = ρ V3 S [CD0+ K ( )2 ]
1000 2 2
1 ρV S
2
1 1 KW2
Or Pr = ρV3S CD0 + (5.15)
2000 500 ρVS
The first term in Eq.(5.15) is called ‘Parasite power’ and the second term is called
‘Induced power’. The variations with flight velocity (V) of induced power, parasite
power and the total power required are shown in Fig.5.8.
It is observed that the minimum power occurs at a speed, Vmp , at which the
induced power is three times the parasite power. This can be verified by
differentiating Eq.(5.15) with respect to V and equating it to zero. The verification
is left as an exercise to the student.
1/2 1/4
2W K
Vmp = (5.16)
ρS 3CDo
1/2 1/4
1 2W3 256
Prmin = C K3 (5.17)
ρS Do
1000 27
KCDO
CDmd = CDO + = 2CDO (5.21)
K
Equation (5.21) shows that when Tr equals Tmin, both parasite drag coefficient
and induced drag coefficient are equal to CDO . Hence under this condition, the
2
parasite drag and induced drag both are equal to (1/2)ρ V S CDO .
Further,
CD C 2CDO 1
= Dmd = = 2 (CDO K) 2 (5.22)
CL min CLmd CDO / K 2
1
2W 1/2
Trmin = 2 W (CDO K)1/2 and Vmd = ( ) (K / CDO )1/4 ,
ρS
which are the same as Eqs.(5.14) & (5.13).
(ii) Exercise 5.4 gives expressions for Tr in terms of V/Vmd and Trmin.
(iii) Similarly, expressions given in Eqs.(5.16) and (5.17) can be obtained in the
following alternate manner.
1/2
1 2W 3 CD
Pr =
1000 ρS C3/2
L
3/2
Hence, Prmin occurs when CD/CL is minimum. For a parabolic polar
CD C
= DO + K C1/2
L
C3/2 C3/2
L L
Therefore,
d CD / C3/2
L = -3 C DO
+
1 K
dCL 2 C 5/2 2 C 21
L L
Equating the R.H.S. to zero, the value of CL at which the power required is
3K CDO
CDmp = CDO + = 4 CDO (5.24)
K
Equation (5.24) shows that when Pr equals Prmin the parasite drag coefficient is
equal to CDO and the induced drag coefficient is equal to 3 CDO . Consequently,
3
the parasite power is (1/2) ρ V S CDO and induced power is 3 times of that.
Hence,
1/4
CD 4CDO 256
= = CDO K 3 (5.24a)
C3/2 (3CDO / K)3/4 27
L min
2W
1/2 1/2 1/4
2W K 1
Vmp = = = Vmd 0.76 Vmd (5.24b)
ρSCLmp ρS 3 CDO 31/4
The above expression for Vmp is the same as in Eq.(5.16).
Example 5.1
An airplane weighing 100,000 N is powered by an engine producing
20,000 N of thrust under sea level standard conditions. If the wing area be
25 m2 , calculate (a) stalling speeds at sea level and at 10 km altitude,
(b) (CD / CL)min, (CD / CL3/2 )min, Trmin, Prmin, Vmd and Vmp under sea level
conditions.
Assume CLmax = 1.5, CD = 0.016 + 0.064 CL2 .
2W
a) VS = ,
ρSCLmax
3
at s.l. ρ = 1.225 kg/m ,
3
at 10 km = 0.413 kg / m
2 × 100000
Hence, at sea level, VS = = 66 m/s = 237.6 kmph
1.225 × 25 × 1.5
2 × 100000
At 10 km altitude, VS = = 113.6 m/s = 409.0 kmph.
0.413 × 25× 1.5
CD0
b) CLmd = = 0.016/0.064 = 0.5
K
CDmd = 2 CDO = 0.032
2 ×100000
Vmp = = 86.30 m/s = 310.7 kmph
1.225× 25 ×0.866
1/4
Note: Vmp = Vmd / 3
Prmin =
1
1000
2W 3
ρS
CD / C3/2 =
1
L min 1000 2 × 1000003
1.225 × 25
× 0.0794 = 641.5 kW.
Chapter 5
Lecture 20
Topics
1 2W 2
Ta = ρ V S CDO K 2
2
(5.27)
2 ρV S
or AV4 – BV2 + C = 0
1 2KW 2
where, A = ρSCDO , B = Ta and C = . (5.27a)
2 ρS
S
Or Vmax = (5.27c)
ρCDO
Equation (5.27c) shows that Vmax depends on thrust to weight ratio ( Ta /W), wing
loading (W/S), CDO , K and ρ .The maximum speed (Vmax) increases with increase
of ( Ta /W) and (W/S) and decreases with increase of CDO and K. The term ‘ ρ ’ in
the thrust output decreases as σ 0.7 . Taking this into account, Eq.(5.27c) indicates
that Vmax would increase slightly upto a certain altitude as shown in Fig.5.9.
The trend of Vmax, decreasing after a certain altitude, observed in Fig.5.9, can be
explained as follows.
From atmospheric characteristics (Chapter 2), it is observed that, with the
increase of altitude the speed of sound decreases. Thus for a given Vmax the
Mach number corresponding to it would increase with altitude. When the Mach
number exceeds the critical Mach number, CDO & K would no longer be constant
but actually increase. This would result in lowering of Vmax as compared to that
obtained with constant values of CDO and K. In section 4.2 of Appendix ‘B’ the
values of Vmax at different altitudes are obtained by a graphical procedure which
takes into account the changes in CDO and K when Mach number is greater than
0.8.
5.10.3 Airplane with engine-propeller combination
The steps to calculate Vmax and (Vmin)e in this case, are as follows.
(1) Assume an altitude ‘h’. Let Pa be the THP available in kW at this altitude.
1 1 KW2
Pr = Pa = ρ V3 S CDO +
2000 500 ρVS
4
or A1V – B1V + C1 = 0 (5.28)
1 1 KW 2
where, A1 = ρSCDO , B1 = Pa , C1 = .
2000 500 ρS
Equation (5.28) is not a quadratic. An iterative method of solving Eq.(5.28) is
given in example 5.3. Equation (5.28) has two solutions V1 and V2. The higher of
these two gives Vmax and the lower value gives (Vmin)e. The minimum speed at
Remark:
Obtain power available at V1 calculated above and denote it by Pa1. If Pa
iterations.
Example 5.2
For the airplane in example 5.1 obtain the maximum and minimum speed in
steady level flight at sea level.
Solution:
The given data are :
0.016
0.2 = + 0.064 CL
CL
Or 0.064 C2 - 0.2 CL + 0.016 = 0
L
Solving the above equation gives: CL = 3.04 and 0.0822. The corresponding
speeds are :
2 ×100000
Vmax = = 281.8 m/s
1.225× 25 × 0.0822
2 ×100000
and ( Vmin )e = = 45.4 m/s
1.225× 25 × 3.04
assumption let us assume Mcruise = 0.8 and obtain ΔCDO and ΔK from Eqs.3.50a
Using this polar and revising the calculations, gives: Vmax = 281.3 m/s
This revised value of Vmax is very close to the value of 281.8 m/s obtained earlier
Example 5.3
A piston-engined airplane has the following characteristics.
From Eq.(5.15):
1 2K W 2
Pa = Pr = ρV 3S CDo +
2000 1000 ρSV
1 3 2 0.055 ×110002
Or 85.5 = × 0.909 × 11.9× 0.032×V + ×
2000 1000 0.909 × 11.9 × V
1230.5
= 1.731 x 10-4 V3 + (5.28a)
V
Equation (5.28a) is not a quadratic. However, it can be solved for Vmax and (Vmin)e
by an iterative procedure.
Solution for Vmax:
When solving for V max, by an iterative procedure, it is assumed that the first
To obtain the 2nd approximation, substitute Vmax1 in the second term on RHS of
Eq.(5.28a). Note that this term was ignored in the first approximation.
1230.5
85.5 = 1.731 x 10-4 Vmax2
3
+
79.05
Or V max2 = 73.93 m/s
To obtain the 3rd approximation, substitute Vmax2 in the second term on RHS of
Eq.(5.28a), i.e.
1230.5
85.5 = 1.731 × 10-4 Vmax3
3
+
73.93
Or Vmax3 = 73.54 m/s
To obtain the 4th approximation, substitute Vmax3 in the second term on RHS of
Eq.(5.28a), i.e.
Since the 3rd and 4th approximations are close to each other, Vmax is taken as
73.51 m/s.
Solution for (Vmin)e:
When solving for (Vmin)e, by an iterative procedure, it is assumed that the first
approximation Vmin e1 , is obtained by retaining only the term containing the
To obtain the 2nd approximation, substitute (Vmin)e1 in the first term on RHS of
Eq.(5.28a). Note that this term was ignored in the first approximation.
1230.5
85.5 = 1.731× 10-4 × 14.43 +
(Vmin )e2
2W 2 × 11000
Vs = = = 38.2m/s
ρSCLmax 0.909×11.9 ×1.4
Answers:
At 3 km altitude:
Vmax = 73.51 m/s = 265.0 kmph , Vmin = 38.20 m/s = 137.4 kmph
The thrust available also increases but the increase is not as fast as that
of Tr and the thrust available and thrust required curves may intersect at many
Chapter 5
References
5.1 Pallett, E.H.J. “Aircraft instrument integrated systems” 3rd Edition, Longman
Science & Technology, (1992).
5.2 Illman, P.E. “The pilot’s handbook of aeronautical knowledge“ 3rd Edition,
Tab books division of McGraw Hill (1995).
5.3 Perkins, C.D. (Editor) “AGARD Flight test manual, Vol.I – Performance”
Pergamon Press (1959).
Chapter 5
Exercises
5.1 Obtain the maximum speed and minimum speed in steady level flight at sea
level for the following airplane:
5.3 An airplane stalls at M=0.2 at sea level. What will be the Mach number and
equivalent airspeed when it stalls at 5 km altitude? Compare the thrust required
to maintain level flight near stall at the two altitudes. Assume the weight of the
airplane to be same at the two altitudes.
5.4 (a) Show that the thrust required in steady level flight at a speed V for an
airplane with parabolic drag polar is given by:
V 2 AW
Tr = D = AW ( ) +
Vmd (V / Vmd )2
1/2
where, Vmd = speed for minimum drag, W = weight of airplane and A = (CD0 K) .
(b) Also show that if V = m Vmd , then the thrust required (Tr) in terms of the
= m2 +m-2
Tr 1
Trmin 2
Chapter 6
Performance analysis II – Steady climb, descent and glide
(Lectures 21,22 and 23 )
Keywords: Steady climb – equations of motion, thrust and power required;
maximum rate of climb; maximum angle of climb; absolute ceiling; service ceiling;
glide – equations of motion, minimum angle of glide, minimum rate of sink;
hodographs for climb and glide.
Topics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Equations of motion in steady climb
6.3 Thrust and power required for a prescribed rate of climb at a given
flight speed
6.4 Climb performance with a given engine
6.4.1 Iterative procedure to obtain rate of climb
6.5 Maximum rate of climb and maximum angle of climb
6.5.1 Parameters influencing (R/C)max of a jet airplane
6.5.2 Parameters influencing (R/C)max of an airplane with engine-propeller
combination
6.6. Climb hydrograph
6.7. Absolute ceiling and service ceiling
6.8 Time to climb
6.9 Steady descent
6.10 Glide
6.10.1 Glide performance – minimum angle of glide, minimum rate of sink
and maximum range and endurance in glide.
6.11 Glide hodograph
Exercises
Chapter 6
Lecture 21
Topics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Equations of motion in steady climb
6.3 Thrust and power required for a prescribed rate of climb at a given
flight speed
6.4 Climb performance with a given engine
6.4.1 Iterative procedure to obtain rate of climb
6.1. Introduction
In this chapter the steady climb, descent and glide are dealt with. A glide
is a descent with thrust equal to zero. The approach in this chapter is as follows.
(a) Present the forces acting on the airplane in the chosen flight,
(b) Write down equations of motion using Newton’s second law,
(c) Derive expressions for performance items like rate climb, angle of climb.
(d) Obtain variation of these with flight velocity and altitude.
6.2 Equations of motion in a steady climb
During a steady climb the center of gravity of the airplane moves at a
constant velocity along a straight line inclined to the horizontal at an angle γ
(Fig.6.1). The forces acting on the airplane are shown in Fig.6.1.
Since the flight is steady, the acceleration is zero and the equations of motion in
climb can be obtained by resolving the forces along and perpendicular to the
flight path and equating their sum to zero i.e.
T – D – W sin = 0 (6.1)
L – W cos = 0 (6.2)
Hence, sin = (T- D / W) (6.3)
From the velocity diagram in Fig.6.1, the vertical component of the flight velocity
(Vc) is given by:
The vertical component of the velocity (Vc) is called rate of climb and also
denoted by R/C. It is also the rate of change of height and denoted by (dh / dt).
Hence,
T-D
Vc = R/C = dh/dt = Vsin = V (6.5)
W
Rate of climb is generally quoted in m/min.
Remarks :
i) Multiplying Eq.(6.1) by flight velocity V, gives:
dh d
T V = D V + W V sin = D V + W Vc = DV + mg = DV + mgh (6.6)
dt dt
d
In Eq.(6.6) the terms ‘TV’, ‘DV’ and ‘ mgh ’ represent respectively, the power
dt
available, the energy dissipated in overcoming the drag and the rate of increase
and (Vmin)e , the power (or thrust ) available is equal to the power (or thrust)
required to overcome the drag (see points D and D’ in Fig.5.5 and points C and
C’ in Fig.5.6b). Hence, the rate of climb will be zero at these speeds. The climb is
possible only at flight speeds in between these two speeds viz. Vmax and (Vmin)e.
It is expected that there will be a speed at which the rate of climb is maximum.
This flight speed is denoted by V(R/C)max and the maximum rate of climb is
denoted by (R/C)max. The flight speed at which the angle of climb () is maximum
is denoted by V max.
ii) In a steady level flight, the lift is equal to weight but in a climb, the lift is less
than weight as cos is less than one, when is not zero. Note that when an
airplane climbs vertically, its attitude is as shown in Fig.6.2. It is observed that in
this flight, the resolution of forces along and perpendicular flight direction gives:
L = 0, T = D + W
These expressions are consistent with Eqs.(6.1) and (6.2) when = 90o is
substituted in them. Note that in this flight the thrust is more than the weight.
6.3 Thrust and power required for a prescribed rate of climb at a given
flight speed
Here it is assumed that the weight of the airplane (W), the wing area (S) and the
drag polar are given. The thrust required and power required for a chosen rate of
climb (Vc) at a given altitude (h) and flight speed (V) can be obtained, for a
general case, by following the steps given below. It may be pointed out that the
lift and drag in climb are different from those in level flight. Hence, the quantities
involved in the analysis of climb performance are, hereafter indicated by the
suffix ‘c’ i.e. lift in climb is denoted by Lc
γ = sin-1 (Vc / V)
Lc = W cos γ (6.7)
Lc W cos
CLc = = (6.8)
1 2 1 ρ V 2S
ρV S 2
2
iv) Obtain the flight Mach number; M = V/a ; a = speed of sound at the chosen
altitude.
v) Corresponding to the values of CLc and M, obtain the drag coefficient in climb
(CDC) from the drag polar. Hence, drag in climb (Dc) is given by:
2
Dc = (1/2 ρV S CDC) (6.9)
T V
Prc = rc in kW (6.11)
1000
Example 6.1
An airplane weighing 180,000N has a wing area of 45 m2 and drag polar given
by CD = 0.017 + 0.05 CL2 . Obtain the thrust required and power required for a
Solution:
The given data are:
Using Eq.(6.7), the lift during climb (Lc) = W cos = W (1-sin2 )1/2
1
= W 1-(Vc /V)2
2
(6.12)
1
W 1-(Vc /V)2
2
KW 2 Vc
2
2 1
Dc = (1/2) ρ V S (CDO+K C2 ) = ρ V 2 S CDO + 1- (6.14)
Lc 2 1 ρV 2S V
2
From Eq.(6.10), the thrust required in climb (Trc) is given by :
W Vc
Trc = W sin γ + Dc = + Dc
V
Substituting for Dc , yields :
KW 2 Vc
2 WV
1
Trc = ρ V 2 S CDO + 1- + c (6.15)
2 1 ρV 2S V
V
2
2
Vc V
or A -B c + C =0 (6.16)
V V
KW 2 1 2KW 2
where, A = , B = W and C = T - ρV 2SCDO - (6.17)
1 ρ V2 S 2 ρV 2S
2
Equation (6.16) is a quadratic in (Vc / V), and has two solutions. The solution
which is less than or equal to one, is the valid solution because Vc / V equals
sin γ and sin γ cannot be more than one. Once (Vc / V) is known, the angle of
climb and the rate of climb can be immediately calculated. This is illustrated in
example 6.2.
Example 6.2.
For the airplane in example 6.1, obtain the angle of climb and the rate of climb at
a flight speed of 400 kmph at sea level, taking the thrust available as 45,000 N.
Solution:
KW 2 Vc
2 WV
1 2 1- + c
From Eq.(6.15), Trc = ρ V S CDO +
2 1 ρV 2S V
V
2
2
V V
Simplifying, c - 37.82 c + 7.24 = 0
V V
Solving the above quadratic gives : ( Vc / V) = 37.62, 0.192.
Since sin cannot be larger than unity, the first value is not admissible.
Answers:
thrust horse power (THPa). The need for an iterative solution can be explained as
follows.
T - Dc
From Eq.(6.10), sin = a (6.18)
W
To calculate sin , the drag in climb (Dc) should be known. The term Dc
depends on the lift in climb (Lc). In turn Lc is W cos , but cos is not known in
the beginning.
To start the iterative procedure, it is assumed that the lift during climb (Lc) is
Hence, the first approximation to the angle of climb (1) is given by:
Ta - D1
sin 1 = (6.19)
W
In the next iteration, put L = W cos 1 and carry out the calculations and get a
second approximation to the angle of climb (2). The calculations are repeated till
the values of after consecutive iterations are almost the same. Once the angle
is known, Vc is given as V sin .
It is observed that the convergence is fast and correct values of and Vc are
obtained within two or three iterations. This is due to the following two reasons.
(a)When is small (i.e. less than 10o), cos is almost equal to one, and the
approximation, L = W, is nearly valid. (b) When is large the lift dependent part
of the drag, which is affected by the assumption of L W , is much smaller than
Ta . Consequently, the value of given by Eq.(6.18) is close to the final value.
Solution:
section 6.4.1.
1
1st approximation: L W = ρ V 2S CL1
2
60330 × 2
Hence, CL1 = = 0.615
1.225× 50 × 50 × 64
CD1: By interpolating between the values given in the above table, the value of
Ta - D1
From Eq.(6.19) : sin 1 =
W
10000 - 4030
Or sin 1= = 0.099
60330
Or 1 = 5o 41
cos 1 = 0.995
2nd approximation:
L = W cos 1 = 60330 0.995 = 60036 N
60036 × 2
CL2 = = 0.612
1.225 × 50 × 50 × 64
From above table CD2 is 0.0408 corresponding to CL2 of 0.612.
10000 - 4010
sin 2= = 0.0993
60330
The two approximations, Vc1 and Vc2 are fairly close to each other. Hence, the
Remark:
In the present example, is small (5041’) hence 2nd iteration itself gives
the correct value. For an interceptor airplane which has very high rate of climb
(about 15000 m/min) few more iterations may be needed.
Chapter 6
Lecture 22
Topics
required in level flight. Hence climb is not possible at this speed. Similar is the
case at (Vmin)e limited by engine output (Figs.6.3a and 6.4a). For the same
reasons, at Vmax and (Vmin)e the angle of climb () is also zero (Figs.6.3b and
6.4b). It may be recalled from subsection 5.9, that at low altitudes the minimum
speed is decided by stalling and hence the calculations regarding the rate of
climb and the angle of climb are restricted to flight speeds between Vmin and
Vmax.
ii) The speed at which R/C is maximum is denoted by V(R/C)max, and the speed at
which γ is maximum is called Vmax . Figures 6.3c and d and Fig.6.4c show the
variation of these speeds with altitudes for a jet transport and a piston engined
airplane respectively. It may be noted that V(R/c)max and Vmax are different from
each other. For a jet airplane V(R/c)max is higher than Vmax at low altitudes . The
two velocities approach each other as the altitude increases. For a piston
approach each other as the altitude increases. These trends can be explained as
follows.
From Eqs.(6.3) and (6.4), it is observed that is proportional to the excess thrust
i.e. (Ta - Dc) and the rate of climb is proportional to the excess power i.e.
(TaV – DcV). It may be recalled that for a piston engined airplane the power
available remains roughly constant with velocity and hence, the thrust available
(Ta = Pa / V) will decrease with velocity. On the other hand, for a jet airplane the
thrust available is roughly constant with velocity and consequently the power
available increases linearly with velocity (see exercise 6.3). The differences in
the variations of Ta and Pa with velocity, in the cases of jet engine and piston
induced drag, the lift (L) is taken equal to weight. See comments at the end of
section 6.4.1 for justification of this approximation.
With these assumptions, the expression for drag simplifies to that in the level
flight i.e.
1 2 1 2
2W
2
D = ρ V SCD = ρ V S CDO + K 2
2 2 ρSV
Hence,
T -D
VC = V a
W
1 2
Ta 2 ρV 2K W
Or Vc = V - CDO -
W W/S ρV 2 S
T 1 2K W
Or VC = a V - ρV 3 W/S CDO -
-1
(6.20)
W 2 ρV S
2 Ta /W W/S 4K W/S
2
4 2
V(R/C)max - V(R/C)max - =0 (6.22)
3ρCDO 3ρ2CDO
1
Noting from Eq.(3.56) that L/D max =
2
, yields:
4 CDO K
2 Ta /W W/S W/S
2
4 2
V(R/C)max - V(R/C)max - = 0
L/D max
2 2
3ρCDO 3ρ2CDO
Thus,
1
2
Ta /W W/S 3
V(R/C)max = 1± 1+
3ρC L
2
Ta /W
DO 2
D max
Hence,
1
T /W W/S 2
1 + 3
VR/Cmax = a 1+ 2
L/D max Ta /W
3ρCDO 2
1
T /W W/S Z 2
= a , (6.23)
3ρCDO
3
where, Z = 1 + 1+ (6.24)
Ta /W
2 2
L/D max
1
T /W W/S T 1 Ta /W W/S ZC
Z 2 2 W/S K 3ρCDO
R/C max = a a
× - ρ
DO
-
3ρCDO W 2 3ρCDO W/S ρ Ta /W W/S Z
1
T /W W/S Z 2 Ta Z 6KCDO
Or R/C max = a - Ta /W -
3ρCDO W 6 Ta /W Z
W/S Z
1/2
Ta
3/2 Z 3
= 1- - (6.25)
3ρCDO W 6 2 T /W 2 L/D 2 Z
a max
Remarks:
The following observations can be made based on Eqs.(6.23) to (6.25)
(i) In Eq.(6.24), the quantity Z appears to depend on (L/D)max and ( Ta /W). In this
context it may be noted that for jet airplanes (a) the value of (L/D)max would be
around 20 and (b) the value of ( Ta /W) would be around 0.25 at sea level and
around 0.06 at tropopause. With these values of (L/D)max and ( Ta /W), Z would be
However, in Eqs.(6.23) and (6.25) the terms involving Z, appear as Z1/2 or Z/6.
Hence, the dependence of VR/Cmax and R/C max on Z does not appear to be of
and CDO. It may be recalled from section 4.5 that for a turbofan engine, Ta
be pointed out that the Mach number corresponding to V(R/C)max, should always
be worked out and corrections to the values of CDO and K be applied when this
Mach number exceeds Mcruise. Without these corrections, the values of
R/C max obtained may be unrealistic.
(iv) Figure 4.12 shows typical variations of thrust vs Mach number with altitude as
parameter. It is observed, that the thrust decreases significantly with Mach
number for altitudes equal to or less than 25000 (7620 m). Thus, the
assumption of thrust being constant with flight speed is not a good approximation
for h 25000 .
6.5.2 Parameters influencing (R/C)max of an airplane with engine-propeller
combination
In this subsection the simplified analysis is carried out for climb performance of
an airplane with engine-propeller combination.
From Eq.(6.5)
V T-D TV - DV
VC = R/C = =
W W
1 3
DV = Power required to overcome drag = ρV SCD
2
Following assumptions are made to simplify the analysis and obtain parameters
which influence (R/C)max are V(R/C)max in this case.
(a) Drag polar is parabolic with CDO and K as constants.
(b) L = W for estimation of induced drag.
(c) Power available is constant with flight speed (V).
Consequently,
1 3 2W
2
DV = ρV S CDO +K 2
(6.26)
2 ρSV
1 1
2W 2
K 4
VR/Cmax = Vmp = (6.27)
ρS 3CDO
Substituting V(R/C)max from Eq.(6.27) in Eq.(6.5) gives:
1000ηp Pa VR/Cmax
2
1 2W
R/C max = - ρ V 2
R/C max SCDO + K
ρSV2R/Cmax
W W 2
1000ηp Pa 1 2 K W 2K W/S
ρ W/S CDO
-1
= - VR/Cmax +
ρ 3CDO S ρ 2 K/ 3C
W 2 DO
W/S
ρ
(6.28)
1
Noting that L/D max = , and
2 CDOK
1/ 3 + 3
= 1.155, yields :
2
1000ηp Pa 1.155
R/C max = - V (6.29)
W L/D max R/Cmax
Substituting for V(R/C)max from Eq.(6.27) yields :
1000ηp Pa 2 K 1/2 1.155
R/C max = - W/S (6.30)
W ρ 3 CDO L/D max
Remarks:
(i) From Eq.(6.27) it is observed that V(R/C)max increases with wing loading (W/S).
increase. However, the second term on the right hand side of this equation
indicates that (R/C)max decreases with increase of wing loading. This trend is
opposite to that in the case of jet airplanes. Thus, for a specified (R/C)max , the
wing loading for an airplane with engine-propeller combination should be rather
low, to decrease the power required.
(iii) The first term in Eq.(6.30) involves ηp and Pa. From subsection 4.2.2 it is
noted that Pa is nearly constant with flight speed (V). However, the assumption
of ηp being constant with V is roughly valid only when the airplane has a variable
pitch propeller. For a fixed pitch propeller ηp varies significantly with V (Fig.4.5a)
and the assumption of Pa being constant with V is not appropriate in this case.
Chapter 6
Lecture 23
Topics
is noted that Vc and Vh are the components of the flight velocity (V) (see
Fig.6.1).
A line from the origin which is tangent to the hodograph gives the value of max
increases. The altitude at which the (R/C)max is zero is called ‘Absolute ceiling’. It
is denoted by h max. At this altitude level flight is possible only at one speed(see
sec. 5.9).
Near absolute ceiling, the rate of climb is very small and the time to climb
becomes very large.It is not possible to reach the absolute ceiling (see remark (ii)
different altitudes are plotted as shown in Figs.6.3e and 6.4d. Subsequently, the
(R/C)max vs h curve is extrapolated till (R/C)max= 0. The altitude at which (R/C)max
equals zero is the absolute ceiling. The altitude at which (R/C)max equals 100
ft/min (30.5 m/min) is the service ceiling. From Fig.6.3e and Appendix ‘B’ the
absolute ceiling and service ceiling for the jet transport are 11.95 and 11.71 km
respectively. From Fig.6.4d and Appendix A the values of these ceilings for a
piston engined airplane are 5.20 and 4.61 km respectively.
6.8 Time to climb:
From the knowledge of the variation of rate of climb with altitude, the time
required (t) to climb from an altitude h1 to h2 can be calculated as follows.
dh dh
Vc = or dt =
dt Vc
h2
dh
Hence, t = Vc
(6.31)
h1
The rate of climb (Vc) in Eq.(6.31) depends on the speed and altitude at which
the climb takes place. The appropriate values of Vc can be taken from plots
using steady climb analysis will need to be appropriately corrected for the
acceleration (see section 8.3.2 on accelerated climb).
ii) As an exercise the student should plot the height (h) on y-axis and the time to
climb (t) on x-axis. It is observed that this curve reaches the absolute ceiling
(hmax) in an asymptotic manner. In other words, the time taken to reach absolute
1/2 1/2
2L 2W
V
ρ SCL ρSCL
1/2
DV DV 2W CD
and Vd = (6.41)
W L ρS C3/2
L
Remarks:
i) Multiplying Eq.(6.31) by V gives:
W V sin -D V = 0
Or W Vd – D V = 0
dh
W - DV = 0 (6.42)
dt
From Fig.6.6 it is to be noted that ‘V’ is along the glide path and hence in the
downward direction. Consequently in Eq.(6.42) dh/dt is negative as the altitude
is decreasing. As a result, the potential energy of the glider decreases with time.
This loss of potential energy is utilized to provide for the energy required to
overcome the drag (the second term in Eq.6.42). Hence, for a glider to stay aloft,
it must be brought to a certain height and speed before it can carry out the glide.
This is done by launching the glider by a winch or by towing the glider by another
powered airplane.
6.10.1 Glide performance – minimum angle of glide and minimum rate of
sink and maximum range and endurance in glide
The performance in a glide is stated in terms of the following four quantities.
(a) Minimum angle of glide (γmin) (b) Minimum rate of climb ((R/S)min or Vdmin).
Gliders with very low rate of sink (around 0.5 m/s) are called ‘Sail planes’. From
Eq.(6.41) it is observed that a low rate of sink is achieved by (a) low wing loading
(b) low CDO with smooth surface finish and (c ) large aspect ratio (16 to 20) to
reduce K. Note from Eq.(5.24a ) that ( CD / C3/2 )min depends on C1/4 and K3/4.
L DO
If a glider is left at a height ‘h’ above the ground, then the horizontal distance
covered in descending to the ground is called ‘Range in glide’ and denoted by
Rglide. Assuming γ to be constant during the glide, the range in glide can be
expressed as:
h h C
Rglide = = h L (6.43)
tan CD
Eglide equals (h / Vd). The quantity Eglide would be maximum when the descent
are different .
Example 6.4
and e = 0.87. Determine (a) the minimum angle of glide, minimum rate of sink
and corresponding speeds under sea level standard conditions (b) the greatest
duration of flight and the greatest distance that can be covered when glided from
a height of 300 m. Neglect the changes in density during glide.
Solution:
C2 1
(a) CD = CDO + L = 0.012 + C2 = 0.012 + 0.023 CL2
Ae 3.14 × 16 ×0.87 L
Hence,
Longest time taken in descending from 300 m to sea level (Eglide)max is (note R/S
Note:
The rate of sink, in a flight when the greatest distance is covered, is higher than
the minimum rate of sink. Hence, the time of flight will be shorter in this case than
in a flight for longest endurance in glide. From the above data, the student may
h2
dh
Eglide = Vd
; (6.44)
h1
where Vd is the rate of descent corresponding to an altitude ‘h’.
Chapter 6
Exercises
6.1 An airplane powered by a turbojet engine weighs 180,000 N, has a wing area
climb of 1200 m/min is obtained at a speed of 150 m/s. Calculate the rate of
climb at the same speed when a rocket motor giving an additional thrust of
10,000 N is fitted to the airplane.
(Answer: 1702 m /min.)
6.2 A glider having a wing loading of 185 N / m2 has the following drag polar.
Obtain the minimum rate of sink, minimum angle of glide and corresponding
speeds at sea level.
3/2
(Hint: Obtain CD / CL and CD / CL from the given data, plot them, obtain
6.3 Consider a subsonic jet airplane. Assume that (a) thrust available (Ta) is
roughly constant, (b) L ≈ W in climb or the drag in climb (D) is roughly equal to
the drag in level flight and (c) the drag polar is parabolic. With these
assumptions and from exercise 5.4 which gives:
V 2 AW
D = A W( ) + , A = CDOK,
Vmd (V/Vmd )2
Ta T
± ( a )2 +12A 2
V
= W W
Vmd (R/C)max 6A
Further taking CDO = 0.016 and K = 0.05625 or A = 0.03 obtain the following
table.
V V
tends to 1. At absolute ceiling = 1 but
Vmd (R/C)max Vmd (R/C)max
(R/C)max is zero !.
Chapter 7
Performance analysis III – Range and endurance
(Lectures 24-26)
Keywords: Range; endurance; safe range; gross still air range; Breguet
formulae; cruising speed and altitude; cruise climb; effect of wind on range.
Topics
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Definitions of range and endurance
7.2.1 Safe range
7.2.2 Head wind, tail wind, gust and cross wind
7.2.3 Gross still air range (GSAR)
7.3 Rough estimates of range and endurance
7.4 Accurate estimates of range and endurance
7.4.1 Dependence of range and endurance on flight plan and remark on
optimum path
7.4.2 Breguet formulae for range and endurance of airplanes with engine-
propeller combination and jet engine
7.4.3 Discussion on Breguet formulae – desirable values of lift coefficient
and flight altitude
7.4.4 Important values of lift coefficient
7.4.5 Influence of the range performance analysis on airplane design
7.5 Range in constant velocity - constant altitude flight (Rh,v)
7.6 Cruising speed and cruising altitude
7.7 Cruise climb
7.8 Effect of wind on range and endurance
References
Excercises
Chapter 7
Lecture 24
Topics
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Definitions of range and endurance
7.2.1 Safe range
7.2.2 Head wind, tail wind, gust and cross wind
7.2.3 Gross still air range (GSAR)
7.3 Rough estimates of range and endurance
7.4 Accurate estimates of range and endurance
7.4.1 Dependence of range and endurance on flight plan and remark on
optimum path
7.1 Introduction
is the time for which an airplane can remain in air with a given amount of fuel. It
is measured in hours. The above definition of range is very general and terms
like safe range and gross still air range are commonly used. These terms include
details of the flight plan and are explained in the subsequent subsections.
called ‘Head wind’. When Vw is in the same direction as the flight direction, it is
called ‘Tail wind’ (Fig.7.1a). In the presence of wind, the velocitiy of the airplane
with respect to air (Va) and that with respect to ground (Vg) will be different. For
the head wind case, Vg = Va - Vw, and for the tail wind case, Vg = Va + Vw.
(b) Gust: When the velocity of the air mass is perpendicular to flight path and
along the vertical direction, it is called gust. Here the velocity of gust is denoted
by Vgu (Fig.7.1b). This type of air movement would result in a change of the
(c ) Cross wind: When the velocity of the air mass is perpendicular to flight path
and parallel to the sideward direction, it is called ‘Cross wind’. Here it is denoted
by ‘v’ (Fig.7.1c).
Fig.7.1b Gust
and then it carries out a chosen flight plan in still air, till the fuel is exhausted.
The horizontal distance covered in this flight is called ‘Gross still air range’. In the
subsequent discussion the range will mean gross still air range.
Remark:
As a guideline G.S.A.R. is roughly equal to one and a half times the safe range.
consumption during the flight are known, then the rough estimates of range (R)
and endurance (E) are given as follows.
R = Wf x (km / N of fuel)average (7.1)
Since the average speed is 800 kmph, the distance covered in 1 hr is 800 km.
Noting that the fuel consumed in 1 hr is 10,800 N, gives:
(km / N of fuel)average = 800/10800.
800
Consequently, R = 36000 × = 2667km and
10800
1
the endurance E = 36000 x = 3.33 hrs.
10800
7.4 Accurate estimates of range and endurance
For accurate estimates of range and endurance, the continuous variation
of the weight of the airplane during the flight and consequent changes in the
following quantities are considered.
(a) The thrust required (or power required),
(b) TSFC (or BSFC) and
(c) Flight velocity and lift coefficient.
It may be recalled from subsection 4.2.4, that is the specific fuel consumption
(SFC) of an engine delivering shaft horse power to a propeller is denoted by
BSFC and the SFC of a jet engine is denoted by TSFC. The units of BSFC and
TSFC are respectively N/kW-hr and N/N-hr (or hr -1).
The steps to accurately estimate the range and endurance are as follows.
Let W be the weight of the airplane at a given instant of time and Wfi be the
weight of the fuel consumed from the beginning of the flight up to the instant
under consideration.
Then, W = W1 - Wfi (7.3)
Let dR and dE be the distance covered in km and the time interval in hours
respectively, during which a small quantity of fuel dWf is consumed. Then,
Following Ref.1.5, chapter 4, the Eqs.(7.4) and (7.5) are rewritten as:
km/hr
dR = dWf (7.6)
N of fuel /hr
It may be pointed out that (a) km/hr = 3.6 x V, where V is the flight speed in m/s.
(b) the fuel / hr in Newtons is equal to BSFC x BHP for an airplane with engine-
propeller combination and equal to TSFC x T for a jet airplane.
Hereafter, the airplane with engine-propeller combination is referred to as “E.P.C”
and the jet airplane as “J.A” Note that in the case of an engine-propeller
combination, the engine could be a piston engine or a turboprop engine and in
the case of a jet airplane the engine could be a turbofan or a turbojet engine.
Equations (7.6) and (7.7) can be rewritten as :
3.6 V
dR = dWf For E.P.C. (7.8)
BSFC × BHP
3.6 V
and dR = dWf For J.A. (7.8a)
TSFC × T
dWf
dE = For E.P.C. (7.9)
BSFC × BHP
dWf
and dE = For J.A. (7.9a)
TSFC × T
Recall from section 5.2 that in a level flight,
1 1
C 1 2W 2 2W 2
T = D = W D , L = W = ρV 2SCL , V = = (7.10)
CL 2 ρS CL σ ρ0 S CL
W 1/2
V = 1.278 ( ) . (7.11)
σ SCL
Substituting for T and V from Eqs.(7.10) and (7.11), the expression for BHP is:
BHP =
1 TV
=
1
ηp 1000 782.6
1
W 3/2 / ηp (σ S) 2 CD / CL3/2
(7.12)
During the analysis of range, the rate of change of weight of the airplane is only
due to the consumption of fuel. Hence,
dWf = - dW
Substituting for V, BHP, T and dWf in Eqs. (7.8),(7.8a),(7.9) and (7.9a) gives:
- 3600 ηp dW
dR = For E.P.C. (7.13)
BSFC × W (CD /CL )
- 4.6 dW
and dR = For J.A. (7.13a)
TSFC (σ S W)1/2 (CD /C1/2 )
L
782.6 ηp (σ S)1/2dW
dE = - For E.P.C. (7.14)
BSFC × W 3/2 CD /C3/2
L
-dW
and dE = For J.A (7.14a)
TSFC × W CD /CL
Let W2 be the weight of the airplane at the end of the flight. Integrating
Eqs.(7.13), (7.13a), (7.14) and (7.14a), the range and endurance are given as:
W2 W2
3600 ηp dW
R= dR = -
BSFC × W (CD /CL )
For E.P.C. (7.15)
W1 W1
W2
- 4.6 dW
and R = 1 1
For J.A (7.15a)
W1 TSFC (σ S W) (CD /C )
2 2
L
W2 W2
782.8 ηp (σ S)1/2 dW
E= dE = -
BSFC × W 3/2 3/2
(CD /C )
For E.P.C. (7.16)
W1 W1 L
W2
- dW
and E= TSFC × W (CD /CL )
For J.A. (7.16a)
W1
The problem of optimization is to find out the path that will maximize the integral.
The branch of Mathematics which deals with optimization of integrals is called
‘Calculus of variation’. This topic is outside the scope of the present introductory
course. Interested reader may refer, chapter 20 of Ref.7.1.
Remark:
It can be shown, using calculus of variation, that if the specific fuel consumption,
propeller efficiency and altitude are assumed constant, then the maximum range
is obtained in a flight with constant lift coefficient. With these assumptions
Eqs.(7.15),(7.15a),(7.16) and (7.16a) become easy to integrate. The expressions
for range and endurance, obtained with these assumptions, are called ‘Breguet
formulae’. These are derived in the next subsection. It may be pointed out that
Breguet was a French pioneer in aeronautical engineering.
Chapter 7
Lecture 25
Topics
7.4.2 Breguet formulae for range and endurance of airplanes with engine-
propeller combination and jet engine
7.4.3 Discussion on Breguet formulae – desirable values of lift coefficient
and flight altitude
7.4.4 Important values of lift coefficient
7.4.2 Breguet formulae for range and endurance of airplanes with engine-
propeller combination and jet engine
The derivations of these formulae are based on the assumptions that during
the flight:
(i) BSFC or TSFC is constant
(ii) p is constant for engine propeller combination (E.P.C).
(iii) altitude is constant
(iv) CL is constant and
(v) flight Mach number is below critical Mach number so that the drag polar is
independent of Mach number.
With, these assumptions, certain terms in Eqs.(7.15) and (7.15a) can be taken
outside the integral and the equations reduce to:
w2
3600 ηp dW
R = -
BSFC (CD /C ) w
W
For E.P.C
L 1
W2
- 4.6 dW
and R =
TSFC(σS)1/2 (CD /C1/2 ) W W1/2
For J.A.
L 1
Hence,
8289.3 ηp W
R= log10 1 For E.P.C. (7.17)
BSFC (CD /CL ) W2
1/2
9.2 W1 1/2 W2 For J.A.
and R = ( ) 1- (7.17a)
1/2
TSFC(CD /C ) σS W
1
L
Similarly, from the above assumptions, Eqs.(7.16) and (7.16a) reduce to :
W2
782.6 ηp (σ S)1/2 dW
E = - For E.P.C
BSFC × CD / C3/2 W W
L 1
3/2
W2
1 dW
and E = -
TSFC(CD / CL ) W
For J.A.
W1
Hence,
1565.2 ηp σS 1/2 1/2
E = [ ] W - W1/2 For E.P.C. (7.18)
BSFC × CD /C3/2
L W1
2 1
2.303 W1
and E = log 10 For J.A. (7.18a)
TSFC (CD / CL ) W2
7.4.3 Discussion of Breguet formulae – desirable values of lift coefficient
and flight altitude
The following conclusions can be drawn from the above expressions for
range and endurance viz. Eqs.7.17, 7.17a, 7.18 and 7.18a.
(1) For range and endurance to be high, it is evident that p should be high and
fact, that with BSFC being assumed constant, the rate of fuel consumption per
hour would be minimum, in this case, when the power required is minimum.
minimum or CL = CLmd. This can be understood from the fact that the range, in
This can be understood from the fact that with TSFC being assumed constant,
the fuel flow rate per hour would be minimum when the thrust required is
minimum.
1/2
From Eq.(7.17a) the range, in this case is maximum when CD/CL is minimum.
This can be understood from the fact that the range, in this case, is proportional
1/2
to (V / T) or C1/2
L /CD . The CL corresponding to (CD/CL )min is denoted here by
CLmrj.
(4) Desirable values of flight altitude : Equation (7.17a), also shows that for a jet
airplane, the range would be high, when (a) the wing loading (W/S) is high and
(b) density ratio () is low or the altitude is high. Hence, the jet airplanes have
wing loading of the order of 4000 to 6000 N/m2, which is much higher than that
2
for the low speed airplanes which have a wing loading of 1000 to 2500 N/m . The
jet airplanes also cruise at high altitude (10 to 12 km) which is not much below
the ceiling altitude of 12 to 14 km for these airplanes.
From Eq.(7.18) it is observed that the endurance of an airplane with engine-
propeller combination is high when (a) the wing loading is low and (b) is high or
flight takes place near sea level.
It may be added that the final wing loading chosen for an airplane is a
compromise between requirements of cruise, climb, take-off and landing. The
take-off and landing distances increase in direct proportion to the wing loading
(subsections 10.4.5 and 10.5.3), and hence, a high wing loading is not desirable
from this point of view.
Remarks:
i) If the drag polar is parabolic, an expression for CLmrj can be derived as follows.
CD = CDO + K C2
L
C C
Hence, D = DO + K C3/2
L
C1/2 C1/2
L L
1/2
d(CD / C ) C 3
L = DO C-3/2 + K C1/2 = 0
dCL 2 Lmrj 2 Lmrj
1/2
Or CLmrj = (CDO / 3K)
are shown in Fig.7.2. The importance of these values of lift coefficient can be
reemphasized as follows.
(i) The maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) decides the stalling speed which is one of
the criterion for the minimum speed of the airplane. It also affects the minimum
radius of turn (see subsection 9.3.3) and the take-off and landing distances (see
subsections 10.4.5 and 10.5.3)
(ii) The lift coefficient corresponding to minimum power required (CLmp) influences
the performance of airplanes with engine-propeller combination. It decides the
flight speeds corresponding to maximum rate of climb, minimum rate of sink and
maximum endurance of these airplanes.
(iii) The lift coefficient corresponding to minimum thrust required ( CLmd ) is also
the value of CL at which (L/D) is maximum. From Fig.7.2 it is observed that the
slope of a line joining the origin to a point on the curve, is equal to (CL/ CD). At,
CL = CLmd this line, from the origin, is tangent to the drag polar and has the
maximum slope (Fig.7.2). The value of CLmd decides the flight speed for
maximum range of an airplane with engine-propeller combination and the
maximum endurance of a jet airplane.
Example 7.2
An airplane having an engine-propeller combination weighs 88,290 N and
2
has a wing area of 45 m . Its drag polar is given by: CD = 0.022 + 0.059CL2.
Obtain the maximum range and endurance at sea level in a steady level flight at
a constant angle of attack from the following additional data.
Weight of fuel and oil = 15,450 N, BSFC = 2.67 N/kW-hr,
propeller efficiency (p) = 85%.
Note: Along with the fuel, the lubricating oil is also consumed and this fact is
taken into account in this example, by specifying the weight of the oil along with
the weight of fuel.
Solution:
W1 = 88290 N, W2 = 88290 – 15450 = 72840 N
Since BSFC, p and CL are constant, the maximum range and endurance occur
1/2
C Lmp = (3CDO/K) = (3 x 0.022/0.059)1/2 = 1.058, CDmp = 4 CDO = 0.088
change as the fuel is consumed. In the present case, the following results
illustrate the changes.
Velocity at the beginning of the flight:
= 260.7kmph.
Velocity at the end of flight:
= 2W2 /ρ S CLmd
1/2
ηp σS
1/2 1/2
Emax =
1565.2 W1 -1
W2
BSFC CD /C3/2 W1
L min
above, it can be shown that the speeds at the beginning and end of the flight for
Emax are 197.8 kmph and 179.7 kmph respectively. The power outputs required
at the beginning and the end of this flight are 402.8 kW and 302.0 kW
respectively.
Example 7.3
A jet airplane has a weight of 922,140 N and wing area of 158 m2. The
weight of the fuel and oil together is 294,300 N. The drag polar is given by:
CD = 0.017 + 0.0663 C2
L
Obtain the maximum range in constant CL flight at an altitude of 10 km assuming
1/2
0.017
CLmrj = = 0.292
3 × 0.0663
From Eq.(7.17a):
1/2 W 1/2
9.2 W1 1 - 2
Rmax =
TSFC × CD /C1/2
L σS
W1
9.2 922140
1/2 922140 - 294300 1/2
= × 1 - = 5317 km
0.95 × 0.04192 0.3369 × 158 922140
Remarks:
i)The flight velocity corresponding to a CL of 0.292 at an altitude of 10 km is equal
1/2
to: [2 x 922140 / (158 x 0.413 x 0.292)] = 311.1 m/s.
The speed of sound at 10 km is 299.5 m/s. Thus the Mach number at this speed
would be 311.1/299.5 = 1.04. This value is definitely higher than the critical Mach
number of the airplane. Consequently, the prescribed drag polar is not valid. The
CD will actually be much higher and the range much lower.
As an alternative, let the critical Mach number be taken as 0.85 and the range be
calculated in a flight at constant CL which begins at this Mach number.
922140
1/2 922140-294300 1/2
1-
9.2
= × 4975 km .
0.95 × 0.0448 0.3369×158 922140
(ii) The data given in this example, roughly corresponds to that of Boeing 727,
the famous jetliner of 1970’s. The value of TSFC corresponds to engines of that
period. The value of K equal to 0.0663 includes the change in K, when Mach
number lies in the transonic range.
Chapter 7
Lecture 26
Topics
1 CL
R V
TSFC CD
Since, high speed airplanes fly in lower stratosphere, where speed of sound is
constant,
1 CL
R M (7.19)
TSFC CD
1 CL
The quantity M can be referred to as figure of merit (FM) for the
TSFC CD
following reasons.
(a) A low value of TSFC in an indicator of high engine efficiency and (b) A high
value of (CL/CD) is an indicator of high aerodynamic efficiency.
The figure of merit provided guidelines when the supersonic airplane
Concorde was being designed in early 1960’s.The subsonic jets of that period
like Boeing 707 would fly around M = 0.8, have (L / D)max around 16 and TSFC
around 0.9. These values would give the FM of 0.8x16/0.9 or 14.2. If Concorde
were to compete with subsonic jets, it needed to have a similar value of FM. The
fighter airplanes of that period flying at Mach number of two had TSFC of 1.5 and
(L/D) max of 5. This would give FM of (2 x 5) /1.5 = 6.66 which was far too low as
compared to that for subsonic airplanes. Hence the targets for Concorde, which
was being designed for a Mach number of 2.2, were fixed at (L/D) max of 7.5 and
TSFC of 1.2. This would give FM of 2.2(1/1.2) x 7.5 = 13.75, which was
comparable to the FM of subsonic airplanes. However, to achieve a TSFC of 1.2
at M =2.2, a large amount of research was carried out and the Olympus engine
used on Concorde was developed jointly by Rolls-Royce of U.K. and SNECMA of
France. Similarly, to achieve an (L/D) max of 7.5 at M = 2.2 needed a large amount
would cause surface temperatures of around 300oC at which the strength and
modulus of elasticity of aluminum will be significantly reduced.
Fig.7.3 Concorde
(Source: www.airplane-pictures.net)
The B787 (Fig.7.4) being brought out by Boeing and called ‘Dream liner’ has
M = 0.85, (L/D) max of 22 and TSFC of 0.54 hr-1. These values of (L/D) max and
However, it is more convenient for the pilot to fly the airplane at a constant speed
or Mach number. He just needs to keep an eye on the airspeed indicator or
Machmeter and adjust other parameters like the angle of attack and engine
setting.
To derive an expression for range in level flight at constant speed (Rh,v),
Tr = thrust required
1 2K W 2 KW 2
Tr = ρ V 2 S CDO + = q S CDO + ; q = 1 ρ V2
2 ρ V2 S qS 2
Note: The dynamics pressure (q), is constant in a constant velocity and constant
altitude flight.
Substituting for Tr in Eq.(7.20) gives:
w2
3.6 V - dW K
Rh v =
1
TSFC q S CD0 2
where, a =
q2 S2 CD0
w 1 1+aW
3.6 V
Or Rh v = [tan-1 a W1 - tan-1 a W2 ] (7.20a)
1
qS CD0TSFC a
Hence, W2 = W1(1-) ;
KW 2 KW12
D1 = qSCD1 = qS CDO + 2 12 = qSCDO +
qS qS
W1 W
CL1 = CL at start of flight = = 1
2
1 ρV S qS
2
1
Emax =
2 K CD0
Noting that ,
θ -θ
tan -1 θ1 - tan -1
θ2 = tan -1 1 2 ,
1 + θ1 θ2
Equation (7.20a) can be rewritten as :
3.6 V -1
aW1 - aW2
Rh,v = tan
TSFC qSCDO
K 1+aW1W2
qS CDO
3.6V a W1 - W2
= tan -1
TSFC KCDO K W12
2 2
1 + 1- ζ
C DO q S
K W1
ζ
7.2Emax V -1 CDO qS
= tan
TSFC K W12
2 2
1+ 1- ζ
CDO q S
Multiplying the denominator and numerator of the terms in square brackets by
qSCDO gives :
7.2Emax V KCDO W1 ζ
Rh,v = tan -1
TSFC KW12 KW12
qSCDO + - ζ
qS qS
7.2Emax V KC W ζ
= tan -1 DO 1
2
TSFC W1
D1 - K qS ζ
Dividing the numerator and denominator of the term in square brackets by D1,
gives :
W
KCDO 1 ζ
7.2Emax V D1
Rh,v = tan -1
TSFC W1 W1
1 - K ζ
qS D1
7.2Emax V E1ζ
Or Rh,V = tan -1 (7.21)
TSFC 2Emax 1-K CL1 E1 ζ
W2
3600 ηp dW
Rh v =
1 BSFC T
(7.22)
W1
Assuming BSFC and ηp to be constant and the drag polar as parabolic i.e.
2KW 2
ρ V 2 S CDO +
1
T= and substituting in Eq.(7.22) gives:
2 ρSV 2
7200 ηp E1 ζ
Rh v = Emax tan-1 (7.23)
1
BSFC 2Emax (1-KCL1 E1ζ)
Remarks:
i) Comparing the ranges in the constant velocity and constant CL flights, Ref.1.1,
chapter 9, shows that the maximum range in a constant velocity flight is only
slightly lower than that in a constant CL flight.
ii) In actual practice BSFC (or TSFC) and ηp may vary during the cruise. If
the combination at which the maximum range is obtained. To arrive at the values
of Vcr and hcr the range is calculated at various speeds at a number of altitudes
and the plots as shown in Fig.7.5 are obtained. The dotted line in Fig.7.5 is the
envelop of all the curves. The speed and altitude at which the maximum of this
envelop occurs is called the most economical cruising speed and altitude. In
some cases this speed is rather low and a higher cruising speed may be chosen
from other considerations like, shorter flight time and speed appeal. i.e. a faster
airplane may be more appealing to the passengers even if it consumes more fuel
per kilometer of travel.
W2
-3.6 V dW
R=
W CD
(7.24)
1 TSFC W
CL
The TSFC is generally assumed to be constant during the flight. Further
simplifications are needed to carry out the integration in Eq.(7.24). In the
constant altitude - constant CL flight considered in subsection 7.4.2, as the name
suggests, the lift coefficient (CL) is assumed constant during the flight. In this
1 2
case, to satisfy the requirement of L = W = ρV SCL , the flight velocity is
2
decreased as the weight of the airplane decreases due to consumption of fuel
(see example 7.2). In the constant altitude – constant velocity flight, considered
in section 7.5, the flight speed (V) is held constant during the flight. In this case,
CL decreases as the fuel is consumed.
Equation (7.24) suggests a third possibility, other than the above two cases, of
both V and CL being held constant during the flight.In this case, to satisfy
1 2
L=W= ρV SCL , it has been suggested that the airplane be allowed to climb
2
slowly such that the decrease of atmospheric density ρ with altitude
The flight is called ’Cruise climb’ as the altitude continuously increases during the
flight.
Remarks:
(i) Exercise 7.3 would show that for a jet airplane with Wf / W1 = 0.2 and starting
the cruise climb at h = 11 km, the range would be 5141 km and the change of
flight altitude between the end and the start of cruise climb would be only
1.415 km. Thus, it is observed that the change in the altitude between the start
and end of cruise climb is very small as compared to the distance covered and
the level flight equations (L = W and T = D) are valid.
(ii) It can be shown (Ref.1.1, chapter 5) that the range in a cruise climb is higher
than that in level flight at the altitude where the cruise climb begins.
(iii) In actual practice continuous increase in altitude may not be permitted by Air
Traffic Regulations. As an alternative, a stepped climb approximation may be
used i.e. the flight path is divided into segments of constant altitude flights with
stepped increase in altitude after certain distance.
(iv)In a cruise climb the thrust required would be
2
T = D = (1/2) ρV SCD
Since, the flight velocity and CL (and hence CD) are held constant, the thrust
required will be proportional to ambient density (ρ). It may be pointed out that in
lower stratosphere the engine output (thrust available) is also proportional to the
ambient density. Thus, in a cruise climb in lower stratosphere the thrust setting
required is also constant and it becomes a very convenient flight – the pilot has
just to set the Mach number and then the autopilot will take care of the flight.
7.8 Effect of wind on range and endurance
In the foregoing discussion, it was assumed that the airplane moves in a
mass of air which is stationary with respect to the ground. However, in many
situations the air mass has a velocity with respect to the ground and the airplane
encounters head wind or tail wind. (see subsection 7.2.2 for definition of head
wind and tail wind). The wind velocity is denoted by VW . When VW is non-zero,
the velocity of the airplane with respect to the ground (Vg) and that with respect
to air (Va) are different. To analyze the effect of wind on airplane performance, it
may be pointed out that the aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane (lift, and
drag) and the engine characteristics depend on the velocity with respect to air
(Va), whereas the distance covered in the flight depends on the velocity with
respect to the ground (Vg). In the presence of head wind the velocity of the
airplane with respect to the ground will be lower than its velocity with respect to
air and the range decreases. For example, in a hypothetical case of head wind
being equal to the stalling speed, the airplane, in principle, can remain airborne
without moving with respect to the ground. The fuel will be consumed as engine
would produce thrust to overcome the drag, but no distance will be covered as
the airplane is hovering! When there is tail wind the range increases.
An expression for range with effect of wind can be derived as follows.
Consider a jet airplane. Let Rg be the range in the presence of wind.
Equation(7.8a) can be used to calculate Rg, but the quantity ‘V’ in that equation
should be replaced with Vg i.e. :
W2 W2
3.6 Vg dW 3.6 (Va - VW ) dW
Rg = - TSFC × T
= TSFC × T
, VW in m/s
W1 W1
W2 W2
3.6 Va dW dW
Rg = - TSFC × T
- 3.6 Vw TSFC × T
= Ra - 3.6 Vw E (7.26)
W1 W1
W2
3.6 Va dW
where Ra is the range in still air = - TSFC × T
W1
and E is the duration of flight in hours. Thus, with head wind the range decreases
by 3.6 Vw E. In example 7.1 the range is 2667 km and the endurance is 3.33
hours. If a head wind of 15 m/s is encountered then the range would decrease
by 15 x 3.6 x 3.33 = 180 km.
Remarks:
i) Before a flight takes- off, the information about head wind, likely to occur on
the route is gathered from weather reports, and adequate amount of fuel is
provided to take care of the situation.
ii) The maximum endurance (Emax) is not affected by the presence of wind,
because Emax depends on airspeed only. The airspeed indicator in the cockpit, as
the name suggests, indicates airspeed and the pilot only needs to fly at airspeed
corresponding to Emax.
Chapter 7
Reference
Riley , K.F., Hobson, M.P. and Bence, S.J. “Mathematical methods for physics
and engineering” Cambridge University press Cambridge, U.K. (1998).
Chapter 7
Exercises
7.1 A jet airplane is flying in level flight at a constant velocity (V). Show that when
the drag polar is parabolic the endurance (E) is given by :
2Emax E1 ζ
E = tan-1
TSFC 2Emax 1 - K CL1E1 ζ
where, = Wfuel / W1
7.2 Define safe range and gross still air range. Obtain the gross still air range
in steady level flight for a turboprop airplane flying at a constant speed of
400 kmph at an altitude where = 0.65, given that:
range in cruise climb (Rcc). What is the angle of climb ( γcc ) in cruise climb?
Chapter 8
Performance analysis IV – Accelerated level flight and climb
(Lecture 27)
Keywords: Accelerated level flight; accelerated climb; energy height.
Topics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Accelerated level flight
8.2.1 Equations of motion in accelerated level flight
8.2.2 Time taken and distance covered in accelerated level flight
8.3 Accelerated climb
8.3.1 Equations of motion in accelerated climb
8.3.2 Effect of acceleration on rate of climb
8.3.3 Performance in accelerated climb from energy point of view
8.3.4 Energy height
Exercise
Chapter 8
Lecture 27
Topics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Accelerated level flight
8.2.1 Equations of motion in accelerated level flight
8.2.2 Time taken and distance covered in accelerated level flight
8.3 Accelerated climb
8.3.1 Equations of motion in accelerated climb
8.3.2 Effect of acceleration on rate of climb
8.3.3 Performance in accelerated climb from energy point of view
8.3.4 Energy height
8.1 Introduction
The last three chapters dealt with the performance airplane in steady
flights. The flights with acceleration are considered in this and the next two
chapters. The accelerated flights could be along a straight line e.g. accelerated
level flight and accelerated climb or along curved paths like loops and turn. In
this chapter the accelerated level flight and climb are discussed.
8.2 Accelerated level flight
When an airplane moves along a straight line at a constant altitude but its
velocity changes with time, then it is said to execute an accelerated level flight.
This type of flight occurs in the following situations.
(i) The take-off speed of an airplane is about 1.15 to 1.3 times the stalling speed.
However, the speed corresponding to the best rate of climb is generally much
higher than this speed (see Figs.6.3a and c). Hence the airplane may accelerate
from the take-off speed to the speed corresponding to the desired rate of climb.
Similarly, the speed , at the end of the climb to the cruising altitude, is lower than
the cruising speed (Figs.6.3a and c) and an airplane would accelerate at the
cruising altitude to attain the desired cruising speed.
(ii) The airplane may also accelerate in the transonic flight range to quickly pass-
over to the supersonic speeds (see Fig.5.11)
(iii) The airplane may decelerate during a combat or when the pilot notices the
possibility of over-shooting a target.
8.2.1 Equation of motion in accelerated level flight
The forces acting on an airplane in an accelerated level flight are shown in
Fig.8.1. It may be recalled that the equations of motion are obtained by applying
Newton’s second law. For this purpose, the forces acting on the airplane are
resolved along and the perpendicular to the flight path. Sum of the components
of the forces in each of these directions, is equated to the product of the mass of
the airplane and the component of the acceleration in that direction.
The flight path in this case is a horizontal line. Hence, the equations of motion
are :
W
T -D=ma= a (8.1)
g
L-W=0 (8.2)
where ‘a’ is the acceleration.
g
(T - ρ V 2 S CD )
1
a = (8.3)
W 2
ds dV dV ds dV
Note that : V = and a = = = V
dt dt ds dt ds
dV V dV
Consequently, dt = and ds = 8.3a
a a
Let the distance covered and the time taken for velocity to change from V1 to V2
Example 8.1
conditions from a velocity of 100 m/s to 220 m/s. Obtain the distance covered
and the time taken during the acceleration, assuming the thrust output to remain
roughly constant at 53,950 N.
Solution:
ρ V 2SCL
1
L=W=
2
2 KW 2
ρ V 2SCD = ρ V 2S CD0 +
1 1
D=
2 2 ρ SV 2
2× 0.06 × 1569602
× 1.225 ×49×0.017 × V 2 +
1
Or D =
2 1.225 × 49 × V 2
4.9225 × 107
Or D = 0.5102 V 2 +
V2
To carry out the numerical integration, the integrands in Eq.(8.5) are evaluated
for several values of V and the methods like trapezoidal rule or Simpson’s rule
are used. Books on numerical analysis be consulted for further details of these
methods. Simpson’s rule gives accurate results with a small number of points
and is used here. For this purpose the range between V1 and V2 is divided into
W
0.3644 0.3705 0.3861 0.4107 0.4456 0.4954 0.5669
g(T-D)
W V
36.44 44.46 54.06 65.72 80.21 99.09 124.72
g(T-D)
dV dV dh dh
Note that : a = = . ; but = VC = R/C
dt dh dt dt
dV
Consequently, a = Vc (8.9)
dh
Substituting for ‘a’ in Eq.(8.6) and noting that sin = Vc / V,
Vc W dV (T-D)V
T-D-W - Vc = 0 or Vc = (8.10)
V g dh V dV
W 1+
g dh
From Eq.(6.4), (T-D) V / W is the rate if climb in steady flight. Denoting it by Vco,
dh W d V2
Or TV = DV + W + (8.12)
dt g dt 2
In Eq.(8.12) the term ‘TV’ represents the available energy provided by the
propulsive system. The term ‘DV’ represents the energy dissipated in overcoming
the drag. The term ‘W (dh / dt)’ represents the rate of change of potential energy
2
and (W/g) {d(V / 2) / dt} represents the rate of change of kinetic energy. Thus,
the total available energy can be utilized in three ways viz. overcoming drag,
change of potential energy and change of kinetic energy. If the flight takes place
at Vmax or (Vmin)e in level flight, then entire energy is used in overcoming the
power (T-D)V has to be shared for increase of potential energy or kinetic energy
or both. If climb takes at V(R/C)max then no acceleration is possible.
(T-D)V d V2
= h + (8.13)
W dt 2g
2
The term (h + V /2g) is denoted by he and is called ‘Specific energy or Energy
Example 8.2
An airplane climbs at constant equivalent air speed in troposphere. Obtain an
expression for the correction to be applied to the value of rate of climb calculated
with the assumption of the steady climb(the denominator in Eq.8.11).
Solution:
In a climb with Ve as constant, the true air speed (V) is given by:
1
V = Ve / σ 2 ,
dV dσ
= - Ve σ -3/2
1
Consequently,
dh 2 dh
In troposphere the variation of with h is given as follows (Eq.2.7):
g
To -λh -1
σ= λR
To
where, TO = Temperature at sea level,
λ = Temperature lapse rate and
R = gas constant.
-(g+λR)
dV 1 λ g- λR 2(g-λR)
Hence, = Ve σ (8.15)
dh 2 To λR
In I.S.A., λ = 0.0065 K/m. Using g = 9.81 m/s and R = 287.05 m/s2 K, the
correction factor in Eq.(8.11) is:
V dV
1+ = 1 + 4.894 × 10-6 Ve2 σ -1.235 (8.16)
g dh
It is seen that the correction required depends on Ve and . Typical values of the
V dV
1+ at s.l
g dh 1.01224 1.0489 1.1958
V dV
1+ at 11 km
g dh 1.0548 1.2191 1.8766
flight at 200 m/s, is reduced to about half of its value in a steady climb.
Remark:
In a constant Mach number flight in troposphere, the flight velocity
decreases with altitude. Hence, the term (dV / dh) is negative and the rate of
climb in constant Mach number flight is more than that in a steady climb. See
exercise 8.1.
Chapter 8
Exercise
8.1 A jet trainer is climbing in troposphere at a constant Mach number of 0.6.
Obtain the rate of climb when it is climbing at an altitude of 5 km. The airplane
has the following data.
W = 54,000 N, S = 17 m2 , CD = 0.017 + 0.055 CL2 , and thrust available at 5 km
altitude = 13,000 N.
[Hint: Show that in a constant Mach number flight :
dV λ R V dV 1λ
=-M and 1+ = 1- RM2
dh 2 To -λh g dh g2
Chapter- 9
Performance analysis – V- Manoeuvres
(Lectures 28 to 31)
Keywords : Flights along curved path in vertical plane – loop and pull out ;
load factor ; steady level co-ordinated-turn - minimum radius of turn, maximum
rate of turn; flight limitations ; operating envelop; V-n diagram.
Topics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Flight along a circular path in a vertical plane (simplified loop)
9.2.1 Equation of motion in a simplified loop
9.2.2 Implications of lift required in a simplified loop
9.2.3 Load factor
9.2.4 Pull out
9.3 Turning flight
9.3.1 Steady, level, co-ordinated-turn
9.3.2 Equation of motion in steady, level, co-ordinated-turn
9.3.3 Factors limiting radius of turn and rate of turn
9.3.4 Determination of minimum radius of turn and maximum rate of turn
at a chosen altitude
9.3.5 Parameters influencing turning performance of a jet airplane
9.3.6 Sustained turn rate and instantaneous turn rate
9.4 Miscellaneous topics – flight limitations, operating envelop and V-n
diagram
9.4.1 Flight limitations
9.4.2 Operating envelop
9.4.3 V-n diagram
Exercises
Chapter 9
Lecture 28
Topics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Flight along a circular path in a vertical plane (simplified loop)
9.2.1 Equation of motion in a simplified loop
9.2.2 Implications of lift required in a simplified loop
9.2.3 Load factor
9.2.4 Pull out
9.3 Turning flight
9.3.1 Steady, level, co-ordinated-turn
9.3.2 Equation of motion in steady, level, co-ordinated-turn
9.1 Introduction
Flight along a curved path is known as a manoeuvre. In this flight the
radial acceleration is always present even if the tangential acceleration is zero.
For example, from particle dynamics (Ref.1.2) we know that when a body moves
with constant speed along a circle it is subjected to a radial acceleration equal to
2
(V / r) or ω2 r where, V is the speed, r is the radius of curvature of the path and
is the angular velocity ( = V / r). In a general case, when a particle moves
along a curve it has an acceleration along the tangent to the path whose
magnitude is equal to the rate of change of speed ( V ) and an acceleration along
2
the radius of curvature whose magnitude is (V / r). Reference 1.1, chapter 1 may
be referred to for details. In order that the body has these accelerations a net
force, having components along these directions, must act on the body. For
example, in the simpler case of a body moving with constant speed along a
WV 2
At point A : T -D=0;L-W = (9.1)
gr
W V2
At Point B: T-D-W=0 ;L= (9.2)
g r
W V2
At point C : T - D = 0;L + W = (9.3)
g r
WV 2
At point D : T-D +W=0;L= (9.4)
gr
At a general point G the equations of motion are:
WV 2
T - D - W sin = 0 ; L + W cos = (9.5)
gr
Note that the Eqs.(9.1) to (9.4) for points A, B, C and D can be obtained from
WV 2 V2 2
required is equal to W + or L = W 1+ . The term (V / gr) could be
gr gr
much larger than 1 and the lift required in a manoeuvre could be several times
the weight of the airplane. As an illustration, let the flight velocity be 100 m/s and
2
the radius of curvature be 200 m, then the term (V / gr) is equal to 5.1. Thus the
total lift required at point ‘A’ is 6.1 W. In order that an airplane carries out the
manoeuvres without getting disintegrated, its structure must be designed to
sustain the lift produced during manoeuvres. Secondly, when lift produced is
high, the drag would also be high and the engine must produce adequate output.
Further, lift coefficient cannot exceed CLmax, and as such no manoeuvre is
possible at V= Vstall.
9.2.3 Load factor
The ratio of the lift to the weight is called ‘Load factor’ and is denoted by ‘n’ i.e.
n = (L / W) (9.7)
A flight with a load factor of n is called ‘ng’ flight. For example, a turn (see
example 9.2) with load factor of 4 is referred to as a 4g turn. In level flight, n
equals 1 and it is a 1g flight.
Higher the value of n, greater would be the strength required of the structure and
consequently higher structural weight of the airplane. Hence, a limit is prescribed
for the load factor to which an airplane can be subjected to. For example, the civil
airplanes are designed to withstand a load factor of 3 to 4 and the military
airplanes to a load factor of 6 or more. The limitation on the military airplane
comes from the human factors namely, a pilot subjected to more than 6g may
black out during the manoeuvre which is an undesirable situation.
To monitor the load factor, an instrument called ‘g-meter’ is installed in the
cockpit.
9.2.4 Pull out
The recovery of an airplane from a dive or a glide is called a pull out
(Fig.9.3). The dive is an accelerated descent while the pull out phase can be
regarded as a flight along an arc of a circle (See example 9.1).
Example 9.1
2
An airplane with a wing area of 20 m and a weight of 19,620 N dives with
engine switched off, along a straight line inclined at 60o to the horizontal. What is
the acceleration of the airplane when the flight speed is 250 kmph? If the airplane
has to pull out of this dive at a radius of 200 m, what will be the lift coefficient
required and the load factor? Drag polar is given by: CD = 0.035 + 0.076 CL2 and
2L
CL =
ρS V 2
WV 2 1 69.42
L = W+ or L = 19620 × 1+ ×
gr 9.81 200
Or L = 19620 x 3.45 Then,
19620 × 3.45 × 2
CL = = 1.396
1.0065 × 20 × 69.42
Remarks:
i) The maximum load factor in the above pull out is 3.45. The value of lift
coefficient required is 1.396. This value may be very close to CLmax and the
ii) Since CL cannot exceed CLmax, a large amount of lift cannot be produced at low
W V2
L sin = (9.10)
g r
where is the angle of bank and r is the radius of turn.
Remarks:
i) From the above equations it is noted that L = W / cos . Hence, in a turn L is
larger than W. Consequently, drag will also be larger than that in a level flight at
the same speed. The load factor n is equal to 1/ cos and is higher than 1.
ii) From Eqs.(9.9) and (9.10), the radius of turn r is given by:
W V2 V2
r= = (9.11)
g L sin g tan
1
Noting that, cos = gives tan = n2 -1 and
n
V2
r= (9.11a)
g n2 -1
), is given by:
The rate of turn, denoted by ( ψ
V V2 g tan
=
ψ =V/ = (9.12)
r gtan V
g n2 -1
=
ψ (9.12a)
V
(iii) In some books, the radius of turn is denoted by ‘R’. However, herein the letter
‘R’ is used to denote range, and to avoid confusion, the radius of turn is denoted
by ‘r’.
Example 9.2
An airplane has a jet engine which produces a thrust of 24,525 N at sea
level. The weight of the airplane is 58,860 N. The wing has an area of 28 m2,
zero-lift angle of – 2.2o and a slope of lift curve of 4.6 per radian. Find (a) the
radius of a correctly banked 4g level turn at the altitude where = 0.8 and the
wing incidence is 8o, (b) time required to turn through 180o and (c) thrust
required in the manoeuvre if the drag coefficient at this angle of attack be 0.055.
Solution:
dCL 4.6
= 4.6 per radian = x 2 per degree = 0.083 per degree,
dα 180
allowable n = 4 and T = 24525 N at sea level.
dCL
Consequently, CL = (α - αoL ) = 0.0803 (8 + 2.2) = 0.82
dα
In a 4g turn L = 4W = 1/2 ρV2 S CL
1/2
2 ×4 × 58860
Hence, V = (2L / ρ SCL )1/2 = = 144.6 m/s.
1.225 × 0.8 × 28 × 0.82
1 1
cos = = or = 750 31'
n 4
Hence, tan = 3.873
V2 144.6 2
Consequently, r = = = 550.3m
gtan 9.81 × 3.873
V 144.6
=
Rate of turn = ψ = = 0.2627 rad /s
r 550.3
Hence, time to turn through 180o is equal to = 11.95 s
0.2627
Chapter 9
Lecture 29
Topics
(I)Limitation due to CLmax : From the above discussion we observe that the lift
coefficient in a turning flight is higher than the lift coefficient required at the same
speed in level flight. Let CLT be the lift coefficient in the turning flight and CLL be
However, CLT cannot be more than CLmax and this imposes limitations on the
attainable values of load factor (n) and the bank angle ( ). Let these two values
Noting that = cos -1 1/n , max CLmax =cos-1( CLL / CLmax ) (9.14)
It may be noted that, at stalling speed (Vs), the value of CLL equals CLmax or n =
cos-1 {1/(nmax)str}.
(III) The drag coefficient in a turning flight is higher than that in a level flight at the
same speed. However, in a steady turn the thrust required cannot exceed the
thrust available (T ). This also imposes limitations on the attainable values of
a
It may be noted that, at V = V and (Vmin)e the entire engine output is used in
max
overcoming the drag in level flight. Hence, the steady level turn is not possible at
these two speeds.
The lowest of the above three values viz nmax CLmax , (nmax)str and (nmax)Ta is
.
Substituting this value in Eqs.(9.11a) and (9.12a) gives r and ψ
9.3.4 Determination of minimum radius of turn and maximum rate of turn at
a chosen altitude
In a general case, the drag polar and the thrust available are functions of
Mach number. In such a case, the minimum radius of turn (rmin) and the
maximum rate of turn ( ψ ) at an altitude, can be obtained by using the
max
following steps. The limitations stated in the previous subsection, are taken into
account during the procedure.
(i) Choose an altitude. Obtain Vmax and Vmin at this altitude. Note that a steady
Obtain Mach number (M) corresponding to the chosen V and the speed of sound
at chosen altitude.
(iii) Obtain the CLmax at the chosen flight Mach number. It may be recalled from
subsection 3.7.4, that for airplanes flying at high speeds, the CLmax depends on
The ratio CLmax / CLL gives the quantity nmax CLmax defined above. If this value
is smaller than the allowable load factor from structural consideration viz.
(nmax)str, then the turn may be limited by CLmax. In this situation, choose
CLT1 = CLmax. It may be mentioned that the procedure presented here, aims at
obtaining the value of lift coefficient in the turn (CLT) which satisfies all the three
limitations on the turn mentioned above. The quantity CLT1 is the value of CLT as
If CLmax / CLL is more than (nmax)str, then the turn may be limited by (nmax)str. In
(iv) Obtain from the drag polar, the drag coefficient CDT1, corresponding to CLT1
and the chosen Mach number. Calculate the drag DT1 from:
If D T1 is greater than the available thrust (Ta), then the turn is limited by engine
output. In this situation, obtain the maximum permissible value of drag coefficient
2
in turning flight (CDT) as limited by Ta . It is given as : CDT = Ta / (1/2 V S)
Corresponding to this value of CDT, obtain the lift coefficient CLT by referring to
= cos-1 (CLL/CLT). Knowing and V, the radius of turn (r) and rate of turn
(ψ
), at the chosen speed, can be calculated using Eqs.(9.11) and (9.12).
(vi) The previous steps should be repeated at various values of flight speeds
ranging between Vmin and Vmax. Plotting these results, the values of rmin and
max and the corresponding speeds V
ψ and V ψ
max can be determined at the
rmin
chosen altitude.
(vii) Repeat steps (i) to (vi) at different altitudes.
The procedure is illustrated, at a chosen altitude, in example 9.3.
Example 9.3
A passenger airplane has a gross weight of 176,400 N and a wing area of
45 m2 . Obtain the variations of r and ψ
with velocity at an altitude of 8 km from
Vmin = 103 m/s, Vmax = 274 m/s and the thrust output (Ta) varies as given in the
table below.
V (m/s) 105 115 125 145 165 185 205
Ta (N) 21100 21125 21150 21480 21580 21980 22270
Solution:
At 8 km altitude the value of ρ is 0.525 kg/m3. The minimum radius of turn and
ψ at various speeds are worked out in a tabular manner using the procedure
max
outlined above.
V (m/s) 105 115 125 145 165 185 205
C 1.354 1.129 0.955 0.710 0.548 0.436 0.355
LL
CLT
=n 1.034 1.240 1.461 1.659 1.824 1.98 2.10
CLL
14.75 36.25 46.9 52.93 56.76 59.63 61.6
(degrees)
r (m) 4273 1838 1491 1619 1819 2043 2321
(rad/s)
ψ 0.0246 0.0626 0.0838 0.0896 0.0907 0.0906 0.0883
£ Turn is limited by Ta
Answers:
Remarks:
i) Turning performance of a jet airplane :
Section 7 of Appendix B presents the turning performance of a jet airplane.
and r with velocity at different
Figures 9.5a and b show the variations of ψ
altitudes for that airplane. Figures 9.5c and d present the variations of Vψmax
)
Fig.9.5a Turning performance of a jet transport – rate of turn ( ψ
Note:
Some curves in Figs.9.5a,c and d show discontinuity in slope at certain points.
This occurs when the criterion limiting the turning performance changes from
(nmax)str to (nmax)Ta .
different altitudes for that airplanes. Figures 9.7c and d present the variations of
max with altitude. Figure 9.6e presents the variations of V
rmin and ψ ψmax and
Vrmin with altitude. Both these speeds increase with altitude. The two speeds
ceiling, the rate of turn becomes zero and the radius becomes infinite.
iii) In many situations the minimum radius of turn in level flight is limited by the
available engine output. This can be overcome and a smaller radius of turn can
be obtained by allowing the airplane to descend during the turn. In this manner a
loss of potential energy is used to increase the available energy during turn.
Reference 1.12, chapter 2 may be consulted for additional details. See also
subsection 9.3.6 for further information.
Chapter 9
Lecture 30
Topics
Vψmax
constitute a general procedure which is applicable to all types of airplane.
However, the influence of the wing loading (W/S) and the thrust loading (Ta/W)
1 V2 g n2 -1
T = D, L = nW ; n = , r= =
, ψ
cos g n2 -1 V
Hence, Ta =
1
2
1
ρ V 2 SCD = ρ V 2 S CDO + K CL2
2
2nW
2
1
Or Ta = ρV 2S CDO +K 2
(9.15)
2 ρSV
Solving Eq.(9.15) for n2, gives :
1 2 1
ρV T ρ V 2 CDO
n = 2
2
a
- 2 (9.16)
K W/S W W/S
q Ta qCDO
n2 = - (9.18)
K(W/S) W W/S
From Eq.(9.11a)
V2
r=
g n2 -1
2q
Or r = (9.19)
gρ n2 -1
From Eq.(9.19) it is observed that ‘r’ is a function of q and n. However, when the
constraint of thrust available is taken into account, then n and q are related by
Eq.(9.18).
The value of q which would give minimum radius of turn (rmin ), can be obtained in
two stages.
(a) Substitute the expression for ‘n’ as given by Eq.(9.18) in Eq.(9.19).
(b) Differentiate the resultant equation for ‘r’ obtained in step (a), with respect to
‘q’, and equate it to zero.However, the resulting expression is complicated. An
alternate way is as follows.
(i) Differentiate Eq.(9.19) with respect to q and equate it to zero.
-1/2
dr 2gρ n2 -1 - 2gρqn n2 -1 dn/dq
= =0
dq g2 ρ2 n2 - 1
dn
Or n2 - 1 - qn = 0 (9.20)
dq
(ii)The quantity (dn/dq) is obtained by differentiating Eq.(9.18) with respect to q
i.e.
n
dn
=
Ta /W - qCDO (9.21)
dq 2K(W/S) K W/S 2
q Ta q2 CDO q Ta /W q2CDO
- - 1- + =0
K W/S W K W/S 2 2K W/S K W/S 2
Simplifying :
q Ta /W
=1 (9.22)
2K W/S
Equation (9.22) yields the value of q which gives minimum radius of turn. This
2K W/S
qrmin = (9.23)
Ta /W
4K W/S
Vrmin = (9.24)
ρ Ta /W
2K W/S Ta /W
2
2 4K 2 W/S CDO 4 K CDO
nrmin = - = 2-
Ta /W K W/S Ta /W 2 K W/S 2 Ta /W
2
4K CDO
Or nrmin = 2 - (9.25)
Ta /W
2
take into account the constraint of thrust available, can be derived. The final
expressions are given below.
1/2
2(W/S) 1/4
Vψ max = K/CDO (9.27)
ρ
1/2
T /W
nψ max = a - 1 (9.28)
KCDO
1/2
1/2
max ρ Ta /W CDO
ψ = g - (9.29)
W/S
2K K
Remarks:
(i)From Eqs.(9.26) and (9.29) it is observed that for a jet airplane to have a low
value of rmin and a high value of Vψ max , the value of (Ta/W) should be high and
that of (W/S) should be low. However, as stated in section 7.4.3 the wing loading
(W/S) is a compromise between various considerations like range, take-off and
landing. Consequently, the general practice is to select (Ta/W) to give the desired
max , taking into account the wing loading chosen from other
value of ψ
considerations.
(ii) The constraints of (nmax)str and CLmax have not been taken into account in
the above analysis. Also the variation of thrust available with flight speed has
been ignored.
Equation (9.25) shows that the load factor for minimum radius of turn (nrmin) is
less than 2 . However, the load factor for maximum rate of turn ( nψ max ), as
given by Eq.(9.28), could be high, especially near the sea level where (Ta/W) is
at its highest. In this situation the constraint of (nmax)str needs to be taken into
consideration.
(iii)The constraint of CLmax is likely to affect the value of rmin. Example 9.4
illustrates such a situation.
(iv) A simplified analysis of the turning performance of an airplane with engine
propeller combination can be carried out by assuming that (a) THP in constant
with flight velocity and (b) CDO and K are constants. However, the resulting
This equation does not have an analytical solution and a graphical or numerical
procedure is needed. Reference 1.12 chapter 2 can be consulted for details.
It can be inferred from the analysis of Ref.1.12, that if it is desired to increase
max or decrease rmin of a given airplane, then the wing loading (W/S) should
ψ
subsection 9.3.5.
Solution :
The given data are :
W = 176, 400 N, S = 45 m2 , CDO = 0.017, K = 0.05, h = 8000 m or
4K CDO
nrmin = 2 -
Ta /W
2
4K W/S
rmin =
gρ Ta /W 1- 4K CDO / Ta /W
2
1/2
2(W/S)
K/CDO
1/4
Vψ max =
ρ
1/2
T /W
nψ max = a - 1
KCDO
1/2
1/2
max ρ Ta /W CDO
ψ = g -
W/S 2K K
Accordingly ,
4 × 0.05 × 3920
Vrmin = = 110.23 m/s
0.525 × 0.1229
4 ×0.05 × 0.017
nrmin = 2 - = 1.332
0.12292
2
Vrmin 110.232
rmin = = = 1407.6 m
g n2 -1 9.81 1.3322 -1
1/2 1/4
2×3920 0.05
Vψ max = = 160.04 m/s
0.525 0.017
1/2
0.1229
nψ max = - 1 = 1.793
0.05 × 0.017
The values of lift coefficients corresponding to Vrmin and Vψ max are:
These values are lower than the prescribed values of (nmax)str and CLmax.
max of 0.0912 rad/s at V = 160.04 m/s is
Hence, this turn is possible and ψ
possible. However, the value of CLrmin is 1.637 which is higher than CLmax and
this turn is not possible. In this situation, a new value of flight velocity (V) is to be
obtained at which the values of load factor (n) given by the two constraints of
The value of n from the constraint of thrust available can be denoted by ‘ nTa ’. It
is given by Eq.(9.16):
1/2
1 2
2 ρV Ta 1 2 CDO
nTa = - ρV (9.30)
K W/S W 2 W/S
given by :
1
L = nCLmax W = ρ V 2 S CLmax
2
1 C
Or nCLmax = ρ V 2 Lmax (9.31)
2 W/S
Equating Eqs.(9.30) and (9.31) gives the value of ‘V’ which satisfies both the
constraints i.e.
1/2
1 2
2 ρV Ta 1 2 CDO 1 2 CLmax
- ρV = ρV
K W/S W 2 W/S 2 W/S
Simplifying yields :
Ta /W C 2
CLmax 1
= DO
+ 2
ρV 2
K W/S K W/S 2
W/S 2
Substituting various values gives :
Or V = 126.32 m/s
Consequently,
1 2
ρV CLmax
0.5×0.525×126.322 ×1.4
n = 2 = = 1.496
W/S 3920
126.322
rmin = = 1461.9 m
2
9.81 1.496 -1
The value of V = 126.32 m/s satisfies the constraints of Ta and CLmax. The
corresponding value of n = 1.496 is also less than (nmax)str of 3.5. Hence, all
constraints are satisfied.
Remark :
The values by exact analysis are :
The agreement between the two results is seen to be reasonable. The reasons
are that (Ta/W) is rather low and the variation of Ta with V is not large.
9.3.6 Sustained turn rate and instantaneous turn rate
The maximum rate of turn in a steady level co-ordinated-turn is called
‘Maximum sustained turn rate(MSTR)’ (Ref. 1.12 chapter 2). An airplane can
maintain this turn rate continuously for some time. However, as explained in
subsections 9.3.3 and 9.3.4 this turn rate is generally limited by the thrust
available. A rate of turn higher than MSTR can be obtained if the airplane is
allowed to descend or slow down. In this manner, the loss of potential energy or
kinetic energy can be utilized to increase the available energy during turn and
increase the rate of turn. This rate of turn is called ‘Instantenous rate of turn’. The
maximum instantenous rate of turn will be limited by other two factors viz. CLmax
Chapter 9
Lecture 31
Topics
9.4 Miscellaneous topics – flight limitations, operating envelop and V-n
diagram
9.4.1 Flight limitations
9.4.2 Operating envelop
9.4.3 V-n diagram
airplane. Figure 9.7b presents similar plots for a piston engined airplane.
It has been pointed out earlier that (a) the maximum lift coefficient limits the
minimum speed in level flight (Vs), the minimum radius of turn (rmin) and the
(Vmax), the minimum speed (Vmin)e , the maximum angle of climb (max), the
6000
5000
Stalling speed
3000 Vmin from engine output
V max
V for maximum angle of climb
2000 V for maximum rate of climb
1000
0
0 20 40 60
Velocity (m/s)
value of around 0.9 for turbulent boundary layer on the surface. The maximum
stagnation temperature (Ts) may be limited from the consideration of material
used for the fabrication of the airplane. This would limit the maximum permissible
Mach number.
(v) Reference 3.9, chapter 17, mentions about other limits like engine relight limit,
pilot ejection altitude and duct pressure limit. The minimum speed from engine
relight limit is encountered in some cases at high altitudes where enough air may
not be available to restart the engine in the event of flame-out. The highest
altitude may be limited to about 15 kms which is the the highest altitude at which
ejection by the pilot is permitted.
9.4.2 Operating envelop
The maximum speed and the minimum speed of the airplane can be
calculated from the level flight analysis. However, the attainment of maximum
speed may be limited by the considerations mentioned in the previous
subsection. A diagram which indicates the range of flight speeds permissible for
an airplane at different altitudes is called ‘Operating envelope’. Typical operating
(Mmin) boundary, limited by the engine output. It may be mentioned that for these
curves (ABC and CDE) the engine output is with the afterburner on. On this
boundary (ABCDE) the specific excess power (Ps) is zero.
2W
Vs = ; CLmax without flap
ρ S CLmax
Recalling that when Mach number exceeds 0.5, the maximum lift coefficient
(CLmax) decreases due to shock stall or buffetting. The line FG includes this effect
(iii)The line HJK represents the dynamic pressure (q) limit corresponding to q of
100,000 N/m2.
(iv)The line LMNOP represents the boundary corresponding to stagnation
temperature (Ts) of 400K. It may be pointed out that Tamb and hence the speed
low at (a) altitudes near the ceiling and (b) flight speeds close to Vmax and Vmin.
Further, the aerial combat cannot take place at very low altitudes. Hence, the
aerial combat zone is the region marked as (II) in Fig.9.8.
For airplanes used as ground attack fighter, the ability to fly at high speed and at
low altitude is important. Zone (III) in Fig.9.8 is appropriate for these airplanes.
9.4.3 V-n diagram
The load factor (n) has already been defined as the ratio of lift and weight
i.e. n = L / W. In level flight n = 1. However, as pointed out in subsections 9.2.3
and 9.3.3 the value of ‘n’ during a manoeuver is greater than one. Hence, the
structure of the airplane must be designed to withstand the permissible load
factor. Further, when an airplane encounters a gust of velocity Vgu (see Fig.7.1b)
the angle of attack of the airplane would increase by Δα = Vgu /V. This increase
From Eqs.(9.33) and (9.34), ΔL increases with Vgu. Further, for a given Vgu, the
L = ½ ρV2S CL. It should be noted that (i) CL ≤ CLmax and (ii) at stalling
speeds higher than Vs, then (a) L will be more than W and (b) L or n would be
the values of permissible manoeuver limit load factors (npositive and nnegative) for
different categories of airplanes. Table 9.1 gives typical values. A limit load is
obtained by multiplying the limit load factor with the weight (W). The airplane
structure is designed such that it can withstand the limit load without yielding.
The ultimate load factor, in aeronautical practice, is 1.5 times the limit load factor.
The ultimate load is obtained by multiplying the ultimate load factor with the
weight (W). The airplane structure is designed such that it can withstand the
ultimate load without failing, though there may be permanent damage to the
structure.
Transport 3 to 4 -1
Fighter 6 to 9 -3
In Fig.9.9, npositive = 3 and nnegative = -1.2 have been chosen; the actual values
depend on the weight of the airplane and its category. Reference 3.18 part
V,chapter 4 may be consulted for details.
(iii) Lines AC, GF and FD : The positive manoeuver load factor is prescribed to
be constant upto the design diving speed (Vd); line AC in Fig.9.9. According to
Ref.3.9, chapter 14, the design diving speed could be 40 to 50% higher than the
cruising speed (Vc) for subsonic airplanes. For supersonic airplanes, the Mach
number corresponding to Vd could be 0.2 faster than the maximum level flight
(iv) Manoeuvre load diagram : The diagram obtained by joining the points
OACDFGO is called ‘Manoeuvre load diagram’.
(v) Manoeuvre point and Corner speed : The point ‘A’ in Fig.9.9 is called
’Manoeuvre point’. The flight speed at this point is denoted by V* and is called
’Corner speed’. At point ‘A’ the lift coefficient equals CLmax and the load factor
equals npositive. This combination would result in the maximum instanteneous
turn rate at the speed V*. See subsection 9.3.6 for definition of instanteneous
turn rate.
(vi) Positive and negative gust load factors : From Eq.(9.33) it is observed that
the gust load factor varies linearly with velocity. The regulating agencies like FAA
upto design diving speed (Vd). Lines JB and JF’ in Fig.9.9 show the gust lines
corresponding to Vgu = 30 ft/s (9.1 m/s) and Lines JC’ and JE in the same figure
It may be pointed out that a gust in real situation, is not a sharp edged gust as
shown in Fig.7.1b and the velocity Vgu is attained in a gradual manner. This
causes reduction in the gust load factor. To take care of this reduction the gust
load factor is multiplied by a quantity called ‘Gust alleviation factor’. Reference
3.9 chapter 14 may be referred for details.
(vii) Gust load diagram : The diagram obtained by joining the points JBC’EF’J is
called ‘Gust load diagram’.
(vi) Final V-n diagram : For its safe operation, an airplane must be designed to
withstand load factors occuring at all points of the gust and manouever load
diagrams. Hence, the final V-n diagram is obtained by joining the parts of these
two diagrams representing the higher of the manoeuver and gust load factors.
The final V-n diagram in the case presented in Fig.9.9, is given by the solid curve
obtained by joining the points IAB’BB’’CEF’’FGHI.
It may be pointed out that the gust load line JB’ is above the curve IA in the
region IK. However, along the curve IK the airplane is already operating at CLmax
and any increase in angle of attack due to gust cannot increase CL beyond CLmax.
Hence, the portion JK of the line JB is not included in the final V-n diagram.
It may also be pointed out that the angles of attack of the airplane are different at
various points of the V-n diagram. Consequently, the components of the resultant
aerodynamic force along and perpendicular to the chord of the wing (N and C in
Fig.3.7) would be different at different angles of attack. The structural analysis
needs to take this into account. For example, the angle of attack is positive and
high at point A and it is positive and low at point C. At points G and E the angles
of attack are negative. Books on Airplane structures may be consulted for details.
Chapter 9
Exercises
N has a wing area of 15 m2 and drag polar of CD = 0.032 + 0.06CL2. Obtain the
radius of turn in a steady level coordinated turn at a speed of 160 kmph at sea
level from the following data.
CLmax = 1.4, (THP)available = 90 kW, maximum load factor = 3.5.
9.2 Define load factor. What are its values in (a) level flight (b) free fall (c) in a
turn of radius 200 m at a speed of 100 m/s and (d) at the bottom of a loop of
radius 200 m at a speed of 100 m/s?
[Answers: (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 5.19 (d) 6.097]
Chapter 10
Performance analysis VI – Take-off and landing
(Lectures 32-34)
Keywords: Phases of take-off flight — take-off run, transition and climb; take-
off distance; balanced field length; phase of landing flight; landing distance.
Topics
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Definitions of take-off run and take-off distance
10.3 Phases of take-off flight
10.3.1 Take-off ground run
10.3.2 Transition and climb phases
10.4 Estimation of take-off performance
10.4.1 Distance covered and time taken during ground run
10.4.2 Various speeds during take-off run
10.4.3 Distance covered and time taken during transition phase
10.4.4 Distance covered and time taken during climb phase
10.4.5 Parameters influencing take-off run
10.4.6 Effect of wind on take-off run
10.4.7 Guidelines for estimation of take-off distance
10.4.8 Balanced field length, its estimation and effect of number of
engines on it.
10.5 Landing performance
10.5.1 Definition of landing distance
10.5.2 Phases of landing flight
10.5.3 Estimation of landing distance
10.6 Flap settings during take-off and landing
References
Exercises
Chapter 10
Lecture 32
Topics
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Definitions of take-off run and take-off distance
10.3 Phases of take-off flight
10.3.1 Take-off ground run
10.3.2 Transition and climb phases
10.4 Estimation of take-off performance
10.4.1 Distance covered and time taken during ground run
10.4.2 Various speeds during take-off run
10.1 Introduction
An airplane, by definition, is a fixed wing aircraft. Its wings can produce lift
only when there is a relative velocity between the airplane and the air. In order to
be airborne, the lift produced by the airplane must be at least equal to the weight
of the airplane. This can happen when the velocity of the airplane is equal to or
greater than its stalling speed. To achieve this velocity called ‘Take-off
velocity(VTO)’ the airplane accelerates along the runway. Thus, an airplane
settings. In the case of an airplane with tricycle type of landing gear, all the three
wheels remain in contact with the ground till a speed of about 85% of the VT0 is
reached. This speed is called ‘Nose wheel lift off speed’. At this speed the pilot
pulls the stick back and increases the angle of attack of the airplane so as to
attain a lift coefficient corresponding to take-off (CLT0). At this stage, the nose
wheel is off the ground (Fig.10.1b) and the speed of the airplane continues to
increase. As the speed exceeds the take off speed the airplane gets airborne and
the main landing gear wheels also leave the ground.
When the airplane has a tail wheel type of landing gear, the angle of attack is
high at the beginning of the take-off run (Fig.10.1c). However, the tail wheel is
lifted off the ground as soon as some elevator effectiveness is gained
(Fig.10.1d). This action reduces the angle of attack and consequently the
drag of the airplane during most of the ground run. As the take-off speed is
approached the tail wheel is lowered to get the incidence corresponding to CLT0.
The point at which all the wheels have left the ground is called ‘Unstick point’
(Fig.10.1a).
Fig.10.1d Tail wheel type of airplane during middle part of take-off run
W
T- D - μ R =
a (10.1)
g
L+R–W=0 (10.2)
Hence, R = W - L and
T - D - μ (W-L)
a= (10.3)
W/ g
Further,
dV dV ds dV
a= = =V
dt ds dt ds
Hence, ground run (s1) is given by:
V1 V1
V dV W V dV
s1 = a
=
g T- D - μ(W-L) (10.4)
o o
The time taken during ground run (t1) is given by:
V1 V1
dV W dV
t1 = = (10.5)
a g T - D - μ (W-L)
o o
Equations (10.4) and (10.5) can be integrated numerically, when the variations
of T, D and L are prescribed and µ is known. The value of µ depends on the type
of surface. Typical values are given in Table 10.1.
2
The thrust during take-off run can be approximated as T = A1 – B1V . The angle
of attack and hence, the lift coefficient ( CL ) and the drag coefficient ( CD ) can be
assumed to remain constant during the take-off run. With these assumptions, the
left-hand side of Eq.(10.1) becomes :
1 2
T - D -μ (W -L) = A1- B1V 2 - μ W - ρV S (CD - μ CL )
2
2
= A – BV where A = A1 - µ W and
1
B = B1 + ρS (CD - μCL )
2
V1
W dV W A + B V1
and t1 =
g A-BV 2
=
2g AB
ln
A - B V1
(10.7)
o
Remarks:
i) The denominator in the integrands of Eqs.10.4 and 10.5, i.e. [T- D - µ (W - L)],
is the accelerating force during the take-off run. A good approximation to s1 and
Consequently,
V1 2
W V dV W V1
s1 =
g Fa = 2g Fa (10.8)
o
V1
W dV WV1
and t1 =
g Fa
=
g Fa
(10.9)
o
ii) Generally the flaps are kept in take-off setting (partial flaps) right from the
beginning of the take-off run. Hence, CD during the take-off run should include
(iii) The take-off speed (VTO or V1) is (1.1 to 1.2) Vs ; where Vs is the stalling
(a) Stalling speed (Vs) : It is the speed in a steady level flight at W = WTO and
CL = CLTO.
(b) Minimum control speed on ground (Vmcg): At this speed, the deflection of full
rudder should be able to counteract the yawing moment due to failure of one
engine of a multi-engined airplane when the airplane is on ground.
(c) Minimum control speed in air (Vmca) : At this speed, the deflection of full
rudder should be able to counteract the yawing moment, due to failure of one
engine of a multi-engined airplane if the airplane was in air.
If the engine failure takes place at decision speed (Vdecision), then the distance
required to stop the airplane is the same as that required to take-off with one
engine inoperative. See subsection 10.4.8 for additional details.
(e) Take-off rotation speed (VR): At this speed the elevator is powerful enough to
rotate the airplane to attain the angle of attack corresponding to take-off.
(f) Lift-off speed (VLO) : This is the same as unstick speed mentioned in
Chapter 10
Lecture 33
Topics
10.4.3 Distance covered and time taken during transition phase
10.4.4 Distance covered and time taken during climb phase
10.4.5 Parameters influencing take-off run
10.4.6 Effect of wind on take-off run
10.4.7 Guidelines for estimation of take-off distance
height attained during this phase and the horizontal distance traversed can be
obtained by treating the flight path as part of a circle. However, according to the
procedure given in Royal Aeronautical Data sheets (now called Engineering
Sciences Data Unit, ESDU for short), the increase in height during the transition
phase is small and the horizontal distance (s2) can be obtained by assuming that
the work done by the engine is used in overcoming the drag and in increasing the
kinetic energy of the airplane i.e.
W
T s2 = D s 2 + (V22 - V12 )
2g
Or s2 =
W V - V
2
2
2
1
(10.10)
2g T -D
T and D in Eq.(10.10) are evaluated at the mean speed during this phase i.e., at
(V2 + V1) / 2. The time taken (t2) in transition is given by:
s2
t2 = (10.11)
0.5 (V2 + V1 )
V1 generally lies between (1.15 to 1.2) Vs and V2 is (1.05 to 1.1) V1.
T -D
sin γ =
W
where, T and D are evaluated at V2.
Hence, the take-off distance (s) and the time taken for it (t) are given by :
s = s1 + s2 + s3 (10.14)
t = t1 + t2 + t3 (10.15)
Example 10.1
2
A jet airplane with a weight of 441, 450 N and wing area of 110 m has a
tricycle type landing gear. Its CLmax with flaps is 2.7. Obtain the take-off distance
to 15 m screen height and the time taken for it. Given that:
(i) V1 = 1.16 Vs
(ii) V2 = 1.086 V1
(iv) Drag polar with landing gear and flaps deployed is CD = 0.044 +0.05CL2
(vi)Take-off takes place from a level, dry concrete runway (µ = 0.02) at sea level.
Solution:
For CL = 1.15,
1 2
Hence, T - D - μ (W-L) = T- μW - ρV S {CD - μCL }
2
= 128500 - 0.0929 (3.6V)2 - 0.02 x 441450
2
– 0.5 x 1.225 x V x 110 (0.1101 - 0.02 x 1.15)
= 119671 – 7.0752 V2
Using Eqs.(10.6) and (10.7) the ground run (s1) and time taken for it (t1) are:
441450
s1 = ln [119671/(119671-7.0752 x 63.89 x 63.89)] = 878.32 m
2 × 9.81× 7.0752
1 1
441450 (119671) 2 + (7.0752) 2 × 63.89
t1 = 1
ln = 26.34 s.
2 × 9.81 (119671× 7.0752) 2 119671 21 - 7.0752 21 × 63.89
The distance covered during transition (s2) is obtained as follows.
63.89 + 69.38
Average speed during transition = m/s = 66.635 m/s = 239.9 kmph
2
2
Hence, thrust during this phase = 128500 – 0.0929 x 239.9 = 123,153 N
To get the drag during this phase it is assumed that CL equals CLTO and it is given
by :
2 2
CLTO = CLmax (Vs / V1) = 2.16 / (1.16) = 1.605
Answers:
Take off distance = 1192 m ; Time taken for take-off = 31 s.
W V12
s1 = (10.16)
g T -D -μ W -L
avg
2W
Let V1 = 1.1 VS. Recalling, VS = , Eq.(10.16) can be rewritten as :
ρSCLmax
1.21× 2W 2
s1 =
2 gρSCLmax T -D -μ W -L avg
1.21 W/S
= (10.17)
gρCLmax T/W - D/W -μ 1-L/W avg
airplanes which have high wing loading from consideration of cruise, employ
elaborate high lift devices to increase CLmax.
iv)The take-off run decreases by increasing the accelerating force which mainly
depends on (T/W). It may be recalled from subsection 4.3.5 that the thrust of a jet
engine can be increased temporarily by using an afterburner. The thrust can also
be augmented by using an auxiliary rocket fired during the take-off run. In
shipboard airplanes a catapult is used to augment the accelerating force.
10.4.6 Effect of wind on take-off run
While discussing the range performance it was shown, with the help of a
derivation in section 7.8, that the distance covered with respect to the ground
decreases when the flight takes place in the presence of head wind. Same effect
occurs during the take-off and the take-off distance reduces in the presence of
head wind. In a hypothetical case of head wind being equal to the stalling speed
(Vs), the airplane can get airborne without having to accelerate along the ground.
A quantitative estimate of the effect of wind velocity (Vw) on s1, can be obtained
from Eq.(10.4), by replacing the limits of integration from (0 to V1) by (Vw to V1)
i.e. :
V1
W V dV
s1 with wind =
g T - D - μ(W -L)
Vw
Thus, the head wind, though bad for range, is beneficial during take-off as it
reduces the take-off distance.
Airports have a device to indicate the direction of wind. The take-off flight takes
place in such a manner that the airplane experiences a head wind. This is
referred to as ‘Take-off into the wind’.
10.4.7 Guidelines for estimation of take-off distance
In subsections 10.4.1, 10.4.3 and 10.4.4, a procedure to estimate the
take-off distance has been presented. However, it is based on several
assumptions and consequently has significant amount of uncertainty. In actual
practice, there would be further uncertainty due to factors like condition of the
runway surface (wet or dry), and piloting technique. Hence, for the purpose of
preliminary design of airplane, the following guidelines can be used.
For airplanes with engine-propeller combination, the Federal Aviation
Regulations designated as FAR-23 (Ref.10.1) are used. Under these regulations,
the take-off distance to attain 50 feet (or 15 m) is obtained under certain
prescribed conditions. This distance is denoted here by ’sto23’. Reference 10.2
has estimated sto23 for several airplanes. It is observed (Ref.10.2) that sto23 is
W W
( )T0 ( )T0
S P
σ CLT0
where,
(W/S)T0 = wing loading based on take-off weight.
(W/P) T0 = power loading based on take-off weight and sea level static power
output.
σ = density ratio = ρ/ρ0
CLT0 = Lift coefficient in take off configuration (about 80% of CLmax in landing
configuration)
The above quantity is called take-off parameter for FAR-23 and denoted by
‘TOP23’ i.e.
W W
()T0 ( )T0
TOP23 = S P (10.18)
σ CLT0
Based on the data of Ref.10.2, the following relationship has been deduced in
Ref.3.18, pt.I, chapter 3.
2
sto23 (in ft) = 8.134 TOP23 + 0.0149 TOP23 (10.19)
2
TOP23 = 2400 x 24/(1 x 1.6) = 36000 N2/( m kW)
As regards the airplanes with jet engines, the take-off parameter (TOP) is defined
as :
W
(
)T0
TOP = S (10.21)
T
σ CLT0 ( )T0
W
where, T = sea level static thrust.
Reference 3.9 chapter 5, gives a curve as guideline for sto in feet and TOP in
2
lbs / ft . However, when a second order equation is fitted to that curve, the
relationship can be expressed in SI units in the following form.
2
sto (in m) = 0.1127 TOP +1.531 x 10-6 TOP (10.22)
Example 10.3
Consider a jet airplane with the following features.
2
W/S = 5195 N/m , T / W = 0.3, CLT0= 2.16 and σ = 1.
Chapter 10
Lecture 34
Topics
required to stop the airplane is the same as that required to take-off with one
engine inoperative. The take-off distance required when engine failure takes
place at the decision speed is called ‘Balanced field length (BFL)’. It is estimated
as follows.
FAR 25 (see Ref.10.1) is used as a set of regulations for obtaining the take-off
distance of jet airplanes. The regulations also prescribe a procedure to calculate
the balanced field length (BFL). Reference 10.2 has estimated BFL for many jet
airplanes and observed that BFL is a function of TOP defined in Eq.(10.21).
2
Based on this data, the BFL in feet, when W/S in lbs / ft is given as (Ref.3.18,
Pt.I, chapter 3):
2
BFL (in ft) = 37.5 TOP (in lbs / ft ) (10.23)
When SI units are used, Eq.(10.23) takes the following form.
W
) (
BFL (inm) = 0.2387 S TO (10.24)
T
σ CLT0 ( )TO
W
2
where W / S is in N / m .
Remark :
(i) Effect of number of engines on BFL :
The data in Ref.10.2, on which Eq.(10.23), is based, shows some scatter
(Fig.3.7 of Ref.10.2). However, the data for airplanes with two, three and four
engines show some definite trend; the BFL is more as the number of engines
decrease. This is expected, as for a two engined airplane, when one engine is
inoperative, the thrust available would decrease to half of the full thrust, whereas
for an airplane with four engines, with one engine inoperative, the thrust available
would be three fourth of the full thrust. Consequently, BFL would be less for a
four engine airplane as compared to that for a two engined airplane. Perhaps,
based on this argument, Ref.3.9, chapter 5, suggests three different lines for BFL
vs TOP curve for airplane with two three and four engines. In SI units these lines
can be expressed as:
2
For two engined airplane: BFL (in m) = 0.2613 TOP (in N / m ) (10.25)
2
For three engined airplane: BFL (in m) = 0.2387 TOP (in N / m ) (10.26)
2
For four engined airplane: BFL (in m) = 0.2196 TOP (in N / m ) (10.27)
Example 10.4
Consider the airplane of example 10.3 and obtain the balance field length.
Solution:
In this case :
2
W / S = 5195 N/m , σ = 1.0 , CLTO = 2.16 and T/ W = 0.3.
2
Consequently, TOP is 8017 N/m .
Using Eqs (10.25) to (10.27) the BFL would be (a) 2095 m for an airplane
configuration with two engines, (b) 1914 m for three engine configuration and
(c) 1761 m for four engine configuration. Comparing sto and BFL in examples
(ii) See Appendices A and B for calculation or take-off distance for a piston
engined airplane and a jet airplane respectively.
10.5 Landing performance
10.5.1 Definition of landing distance
While describing the take-off distance it was mentioned that the airplane should
clear the screen height before it leaves the airport environment. For the same
reason, the landing flight begins when the airplane is at the screen height. The
landing distance is defined as the horizontal distance that the airplane covers in
descending from the screen height and to come to halt. In actual practice, the
airplane does not halt on the runway. After reaching a sufficiently low speed the
pilot takes the airplane to the allotted parking place.
10.5.2 Phases of landing
Figure 10.2 shows the phases of landing flight for an airplane with tricycle type
landing gear.
During the final approach phase, the airplane performs a steady descent. The
flight velocity in this phase is called approach speed and denoted by VA. During
the flare, the pilot makes the flight path almost horizontal. In the float phase the
pilot gently touches the main wheels to the ground. This is done gradually so that
the vertical velocity of the airplane is not more than about 4 m/s. The flight speed
at the point of touch down is denoted by VT. It is about 90% of VA. After the
touch down, the airplane rolls for a period of about 3 seconds during which the
nose wheel is gently lowered to touch the ground. Brakes are not applied in this
phase as their application would produce a large decelerating force which would
cause a large nose down moment and the nose wheel may hit the ground with a
bang. After the three wheels have touched the ground, the brakes are applied
as well as other devices like reverse thrust or reversed pitch of propeller are
deployed. The ground run is said to be over when the airplane comes to halt or
attains a low speed when it can turn off the runway and go to the parking place.
10.5.3 Estimation of landing distance
This can be done in a way similar to the estimation of the take-off distance
i.e., by writing down equations for each phase of the flight. However, the
estimation cannot be done accurately as the flare and float phases depend very
much on the judgment of the pilot.
Royal Aeronautical Society Data sheets (presently called Engineering Science
Data Unit or ESDU) have given a simple method which amounts to assuming a
constant deceleration and calculating the distance to decelerate from VA and to
Example 10.5
Obtain the landing distance for the airplane in example 10.1. Assume that
the airplane has modern braking system with reverse thrust and that VA = 1.3 Vs.
Solution:
2
From example 10.1, W = 441, 450 N, S = 110 m ,
64.012
sland =- = 961.9 m
2 × (-2.13)
Answer : Landing distance = 961.9 m
Remarks:
i) Appendix A also estimates the landing distance using Eq.(10.28). Appendix B
uses a different formula.
2
ii) The landing distance is proportional to (VA) and consequently it is proportional
2 2
to (Vs) . The following observations can be made by noting that (Vs) equals
2W/(SCLmax).
(a) The landing distance increases with increase of (W/S) and the altitude of
landing field. (b) The landing distance decreases with increase of CLmax.
iii) The use of reverse thrust and reverse pitch propeller to reduce the landing
distance has been mentioned earlier. The landing run can also be decreased by
using (a) arresting gear, (b) drag parachute and (c) spoilers.
The arresting gear is used for airplane landing on the deck of a ship.
The drag parachute, when opened, increases the drag significantly and reduces
the landing run.
The spoilers are located on the upper surface of the wing. When deflected up,
the spoiler disturbs the flow, resulting in reduction of lift and increase of drag.
Spoiler ailerons are shown in Fig.1.2c. When used as a device to produce a
rolling moment, the spoiler aileron is deflected only on the left or the right wing
half. The lift on that wing half is reduced and the airplane rolls. Whereas, during
landing, the spoiler ailerons on both the wing halves are deployed
simultaneously. This results in a large reduction in lift and increase in drag. Both
these effects help in reducing the landing run.
iv) Like take-off distance the landing distance is also reduced by head wind.
during landing. The flap setting during take-off is lower than the setting during
landing. The reasons for this difference are as follows.
Equation (10.17) shows that the take-off run depends on ambient density ρ ,
wing loading (W/S), maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) and the average accelerating
force. Out of these parameters, as pointed out earlier, the values of (W/S) and
(T/W) are chosen based on considerations of cruise, maximum speed etc. In this
situation, the choices available to reduce the take-off distance are (a) CLmax and
(b) average accelerating force during the take-off.
It may be pointed out at this juncture that a high value of CLTO would reduce V1
and hence the take-off run (Eq.10.17). However, the high value of CLTO would
also result in high value of CD and consequently high value of drag and a lower
accelerating force. This would tend to increase the take-off run (Eq.10.17). On
account of these two opposing effects, there is an optimum value of C LTO and
the corresponding flap setting, that would result in lowest take-off run.
On the other hand, during landing the approach speed and the touch down
speed would be lowest when the CLmax is highest. Further, the high value of CD
associated with high value of CLmax would also increase the decelerating force
during landing run and consequently reduce it. Thus a high value of CLmax is
beneficial for reducing the landing run & distance.
Keeping these two aspects in view, the flap setting during the take-off is
lower than that during the landing. As a guideline it is mentioned in Ref.3.15,
chapter 5, that the flap deflection for take-off δf TO is about half of that during
landing δf Land .The deflection of the leading edge slat during take-off, is about
provision of spoilers, they (spoilers) are deployed during the landing run to
reduce the lift and increase the drag.
Acknowledgements
The major portion of the lecture material was prepared when the author was an
AICTE Emeritus fellow at IIT Madras. Support of AICTE and IIT Madras is
greatfully acknowledged. He is also grateful to Prof.J.Kurian, Prof.P.Sriram and
Prof.K.Bhaskar, the Heads of the department of Aerospace engineering, IIT
Madras and to Prof. K. Mangala Sunder, Co-ordinator NPTEL, and Prof.S.R.
Chakravarthy, Co-ordinator for Aerospace Engineering, NPTEL, IIT Madras for
providing facilities to carry-out the work.
The lecture material in powerpoint format was reviewed by Prof. K.
Sudhakar, Dept.of Aerospace Engg. , IIT Bombay, Prof.C.V.R. Murti, formerly of
IIT Kanpur and now at Institue of Aeronautical Engg. near Hyderabad,
Prof. B.S.M. Augustine, Sathyabama University, Prof.K.Elangovan ,Dept.of
Aeronautical Engg., M.I.T., Chennai, Prof. R.Rajasekhar, Park college of
Engg.&Technology, Coimbatore and Mr.K.Ibrahim , former chief deisgner, HAL.
The author is indebted to them for their comments which helped in considerably
improving the text. Prof.C.V.R. Murti made detailed comments and even went
through the revised draft. Special thanks are due to him.
The lecture material in the running matter format was reviewed by two reviewers
selected by NPTEL. The comments by the reviewers, helped in adding new
topics and giving explanatory notes. Author’s wife, Mrs. Suniti, also went through
the lecture material and her comments helped in refining the text. The author is
thankful to these persons.
The help of Mr. Amudan Arun Kumar and Mr.S.Ananth former B.Tech
students, Mr.Aditya Sourabh, Dual Degree student, Mr.M.Mahendran, M.S.
scholar, Mr.S.Gurusideswar, Ph.D. scholar and Sandip Chajjed, Project staff
Department of Aerospace Engineering and Ms. K. Sujatha of NPTEL Web studio,
IIT Madras is gratefully acknowledged.
Chapter 10
References
Chapter 10
Exercises
10.1 Describe the various phase of take-off flight, Write down the equations of
motion during take-off run. Taking CD, CL and T as constant during take-off run
W Γ
s1 = ln
S g ρ (CD -μ CL ) Γ - q1
where W, S, g, and have the usual meanings, q1 = dynamic pressure at the
E.G. TULAPURKARA
S. ANANTH
TEJAS M. KULKARNI
FEBRUARY 2007
(REVISED OCTOBER 2011)
Performance Analysis of a piston engined
airplane – Piper Cherokee PA-28-180
ABSTRACT
The report is intended to serve as an example of performance calculation of a typical piston
engined airplane.
Problem statement: Obtain the following for the prescribed airplane:
Information about the airplane.
Drag Polar at cruising speed and during take-off condition.
Engine Characteristics.
Variation of stalling speed with altitude for flaps up and flaps down
conditions.
Variations of the maximum speed (Vmax) and minimum speed (Vmin) with altitude.
Variations of maximum rate of climb (R/C)max and maximum angle of climb (γmax) with
speed and altitude. Variation of VR/Cmax and Vγmax with altitude. Values of absolute
altitude.
Take-off and landing distances.
*
AICTE Emeritus Fellow, Department of Aerospace Engineering, IIT Madras
$
Third year B.Tech students, Department of Aerospace Engineering, IIT Madras
1
Contents
1.3 Weights
* Reference numbers in this Appendix relate to those given at the end of this appendix.
2
3 Engine characteristics
6.2 Calculation of BHP and fuel flow rate at different RPM’s and MAP’s at 8000
6.3 Sample calculations for obtaining optimum N and MAP for a chosen flight
velocity (V)
7 Turning performance
9 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgements
References
3
Appendix A
Lecture 35
Topics
1 Information about the airplane
1.3 Weights
6
(v) Taper ratio of the exposed wing (λe) is:
λe= 1.6 / 1.644 = 0.9732
(vi) Mean aerodynamic chord of the exposed wing ( c e )
2 (1+λ e +λ e2 ) 2 (1+0.9732+0.97322 )
ce = c re = ×1.644 =1.622 m
3 1+λ e 3 1+0.9732
(vii) Planform area of the exposed wing (Se) is:
Se = 3.988 (1.644+1.6) = 12.937 m2
(viii) Wetted area of exposed wing (Swet)e is :
(Swet)e = 2 Se {1+1.2 x (t/c) } = 2 x 12.937 { 1 + 1.2 x 0.15} = 30.53 m2
1.5 Fuselage geometry
(ii)Exposed area of horizontal tail = area of h.tail – area inside fuselage ≈ 2.15 m2
Hence wetted area of h.tail (Swet)h is :
Span : 1.219 m
Area : 1.059 m2
Root chord : 1.182 m
Tip chord : 0.517 m
Quarter chord sweep : 21.80
Airfoil : NACA 0010.
Derived parameters of vertical tail:
8
1.9 Flight condition
9
Dimensions in m
10
2. Estimation of drag polar
Following Ref.1, the drag polar is assumed to be of the following form.
CL 2
CD =CDo + = CDo +KCL2 (1)
πAe
CDo =CDoWB +CDoV +CDoH +CDoMisc (2)
where suffixes WB, V, H and Misc denote wing-body combination, vertical tail, horizontal tail
and miscellaneous items respectively.
2.1 Estimation of CDOWB
From Ref.1, section 3.1.1, at low subsonic Mach number, CDoWB is given by the following
expression.
t t (S )
CDoWB ={Cfw [1+L( )+100( ) 4 ]R LS wet e +
c c SRef
(3)
60 l (S ) S
CfB [1+ 3
+0.0025( B )] S e }R WB +CDb B
(lf /d) d SRef SRef
L = 1.2 when (t/c)max of the airfoil used on the wing is located at (x/c) 0.3, which is the case
here.
t/c = 0.15.
RLS = 1.07 from Fig. 3.3 of Ref.1; note M < 0.25 and = 0.
(Swet)e = 30.53 m2
Sref = 14.864 m2
lb/de= 4.882
(Ss)e = 23.34 m2
This quantity depends on the lower of the two Reynolds numbers viz.
(i) Reynolds number based on mean aerodynamic chord of exposed wing (ce ) and (ii) cut-off
Reynolds number (Recut-off) based on the roughness of the surface.
The roughness parameter is (l/k) where l is the reference chord, here 1.662 m.
Corresponding to this value of (l/k), Recut-off from Fig 3.2 of Ref.1 is 4 x 106.
Since Recut-off is lower, Cfw depends on it. Corresponding to Recutoff , the value of Cfw from
Fig .3.1 of Ref.1 is 0.00348
RWB : From Fig 3.5 of Ref.1, for M < 0.25 and RlB = 24.22 x 106, RWB = 1.06.
12
Hence,
30.53
CDWB ={0.00348[1+1.2(0.15)+100(0.15) 4 ]×1.07×
14.864
60 23.34
+0.00272[1+ 3
+0.0025×4.882] }1.06+0
4.882 14.864
30.53 23.34
={0.00348[1+0.18+0.051]×1.07× +0.00272[1+0.5156+0.0122]× }1.06
14.864 14.864
={0.00941+0.006525}×1.06=0.009975+0.006917=0.01689
t t (Swet) h
CDoH = C fH [1+L( )+100( ) 4 ]R LS (4)
c c Sref
Sref = 14.864 m2
The mean aerodynamic chord of exposed horizontal tail is taken equal to the root chord of the
horizontal tail i.e. cet = 0.762 m.
t t (Swet) v
CDoV = C fV [1+L( )+100( ) 4 ]R LS (5)
c c Sref
Sref = 14.564 m2
= 0.00076
The landing gear drag coefficient can be obtained from Ref.1. However, the values for Piper
Cherokee given in Ref.2 are used as guidelines. Table 4.3 of Ref.2 indicates that parasite area of
landing gears components would be (a) wheel strut 0.19 ft2, (b) wheels 0.44 ft2 (c) wheel pants
0.40 ft2 (see remark on p.180 of Ref.2). Thus, parasite drag area of landing gear would be:
Again from Table 4.3 of Ref.2 The sum of the parasite drag areas of miscellaneous items like
beacon, antennas etc is 0.52 ft2 or 0.0483 m2. Thus,
14
Remarks:
i) Reference 7, chapter 5 mentions that the drag of landing gear (CDLG)without fairing is
about 35% of the sum of the drags of major components viz. wing-body, horizontal
tail and vertical tail. For landing gear with fairings, CDLG would be about 25% of the
aforesaid sum. In the present case :
ii) The value of CDmisc of 0.00325 is about 17% of the aforesaid sum and appears
reasonable.
These drags are important for piston engined airplanes. Appendix A of Ref.7 gives some
guidelines. However, Ref.2, p.179 mentions that the sum of the two drags could be
approximately taken into account by multiplying the sum of all the other drags by a factor of 1.2.
CDO = 1.2(0.01689+0.00171+0.00076+0.00645+0.00325)
Remark:
For comments on the above value of CDO see remark at the end section 2.8
1
K=
πAe
15
where, A = Aspect ratio of the wing, e = Oswald efficiency factor
Following Ref.1 section 2.3.1 the Oswald efficiency factor is expressed as:
1 1 1 1
= + + (9)
e e wing efuselage eother
Figure 2.4 of Ref.1 presents ewing for unswept wings of rectangular and tapered planforms. In the
present case the taper ratio ( ) is almost unity. The value of ewing for rectangular wing of
A = 5.625 is 0.845.
Further, for a fuselage of rectangular cross section and wing of aspect ratio 5.625, Fig.2.5 of
Ref.1 gives:
1 Sb
( ) =1.6 ; Sb = frontal area of fuselage
efuse Sref
1 1.412
Or =1.6× = 0.152
efuse 14.864
1
Again from Ref 1, = 0.05
eother
Consequently,
1 1
= +0.152+.05 =1.3854
e 0.845
e = 0.722
1
Hence, K = = 0.0784
π×5.625×0.722
Combining Eqs.(8) and (10) gives the drag polar in cruise condition as:
16
The value of (L/D)max is given by
1
(L/D) max =
2 CDO K
1
(L/D) max = = 9.56
2 0.0349×0.0784
1
CD = 0.0349+ CL2
π×5.625×0.76
Or CD = 0.0349+0.0755CL2 (12)
17
Remarks:
i) It may be added that Piper Cherokee is an airplane famous in its class but is of
older design. The current trend is to have (a) smoother surfaces which would
reduce CDO to about 0.032 and (b) wing of larger aspect ratio of 8 and above,
which would give K of around 0.053. These would give (L/D)max of in excess of
12.
ii) For subsequent calculations, the following expression for drag polar is used.
CD = 0.0349+0.0755CL2
2×10673.28
Vs = = 28.73m/s
1.42×1.225×14.864
Consequently, VTo = 1.2 28.73 = 34.47m/s
Reynolds number based on mean aerodynamic chord of the exposed wing in take-off condition
is:
1.622×34.47
-6
= 3.83×106
14.6×10
We notice that this Reynolds number is very close to the cutoff Reynolds number for the wing
(4 106) obtained in Section 2.1. Thus, the value of Cf and other calculations will remain almost
the same. Hence, CDo for the airplane in take-off condition, without the flap, can be taken as
0.0349.
Similarly K, without the flap, can be taken as 0.0755.
The correction to the drag polar for flap deflection, is carried-out using the following steps.
The flap type is plain flap.
From Fig.1, the ratio of flap chord to wing chord is 0.16 and flap deflection is 100 .
The ratio of the area of the flapped portion of the wing to the wing plan-form area is 0.4827.
The ratio of the span of the flapped portion of the wing (including the fuselage width) to the total
span is 0.604.
The ratio of the fuselage width to the wing span is 0.127; the wing aspect ratio is 5.625.
Following Ref.1, section 3.4.1
18
ΔCDflap = ΔCDp + ΔCDi + ΔCDint ,
where, ΔCDp = increase in profile drag coefficient due to flaps,
ΔCDi = increase in induced drag coefficient due to flaps and
ΔCDint = increase in interference drag due to flaps.
The increment in CLmax due to 100 flap deflection, Δ CLmax, as noted earlier, is 0.09.
Using these data and interpolating the curves given in Ref.1, section 3.4.1, gives Cdp , the
increment in the drag coefficient of airfoil due to flap deflection, as 0.008. Hence,
ΔC Dp = ΔCdp x (area of flapped portion of the wing/ wing area)
19
1.6
1.4
1.2
Lift coefficient
Cruise condition
0.8
Take-off condition
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Drag coefficient
20
Appendix A
Lecture 36
Topics
3 Engine characteristics
6.2 Calculation of BHP and fuel flow rate at different RPM’s and MAP’s at 8000
6.3 Sample calculations for obtaining optimum N and MAP for a chosen flight
velocity (V)
3 Engine characteristics
Fig.3 Characteristics of Lycoming O-360-A
(with permission from Lycoming aircraft engines )
1
3.1 Variation of engine BHP
The variation of available engine output (BHPa) with altitude is assumed to be of the form:
BHPa = BHPsealevel (1.13σ - 0.13)
The power outputs of the engine at select altitudes are given in Table 2 and plotted in Fig.4.
Note: At a given altitude, the variation of engine BHP with flight speed is very slight and is
generally neglected.
h(m) σ BHPa (kW)
0 1 135.00
2
Fig.4 Variation of BHP with altitude at maximum power condition
efficiency. The propeller efficiency ( ηp ) depends on the flight speed, rpm of the engine and the
diameter of the propeller. It can be worked out at different speeds and altitudes using the
propeller charts. However, chapter 6 of Ref.2 gives an estimated curve of efficiency as a function
V
of the advance ratio (J = ) for the fixed pitch propeller used in the present airplane. This
nD
variation is shown as data points in Fig.5.
It may be added that this variation of ηp with J is used in chapter 6 of Ref.2, to estimate the drag
J shown in Fig.5, can be used at all altitudes and speed relevant to this airplane.
For the purpose of calculating the airplane performance, an equation can be fitted to the ηp vs J
3
It is seen that the fit is very close to the data points. The dotted portions are extrapolations.
0.9
0.8
0.7
Propeller efficiency
0.6
Curve fit (Eq.14)
0.5
0.4 Data from Ref.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Advance ratio (J)
maximum power occurs at 2700 rpm (45 rps). Noting the propeller diameter as 1.88m, the ηP vs J
curve can be converted to ηp vs V curve (Fig.6).
4
Fig.6 Variation of propeller efficiency with velocity at 2700rpm
Making use of the power available at different altitudes as given in Table 2 and the values of the
propeller efficiency at different speeds given by Eq.(15), the maximum available thrust
horsepower (THPa = ηp ×BHP) can be obtained at different speeds and altitudes. The variations
5
120.00
100.00
80.00
Sea level
1000 m
THPa (kW)
2000 m
60.00 3000 m
4000 m
5000 m
5500 m
40.00
20.00
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Velocity (m/s)
Fig.7 Variations of THPa with altitude
4 Steady level flight
2W
V=
ρSC L
Since CL cannot exceed CLmax , there is a flight speed below which the level flight is not
possible. The flight speed at which CL equals CLmax is called the stalling speed and is denoted
by Vs.
Hence,
2W
Vs =
ρSC Lmax
Since density decreases with altitude, the stalling speed increases with height.
In the present case, W = 1088 9.81 = 10673.28 N and S = 14.864 m2.
As regards CLmax , Reference 2 gives the values of CLmax as 1.33, 1.42, 1.70 and 1.86 for flap
7
6000
5000
4000
Altitude (m)
No flap
Flap deflection 10 degrees
3000 Flap deflection 25 degrees
Flap deflection 40 degrees
2000
1000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Stalling speed (m/s)
Fig.9 Variations of stalling speed with altitude for different flap settings
With a parabolic drag polar and the engine output given by an analytical expression, the
following procedure gives Vmax and Vmin. Available power is denoted by Pa and power required
to overcome drag is denoted by Pr. At maximum speed in steady level flight, required power
equals available power.
Pa = BHP×ηp (20)
D×V 1
Pr = = ρV 3SCD
1000 2000
2W
The drag polar expresses CD in terms of CL. Writing CL as and substituting in the above
ρSV 2
equations we get:
1 KW 2
BHP×ηp = ρV 3SCDO + . (21)
2000 500ρSV
The propeller efficiency has already been expressed as a fourth order polynomial function of
velocity and at a chosen altitude, BHP is constant with velocity. Their product ( ηp BHP) gives
8
an analytical expression for power available. Substituting this expression on the left hand side of
Eq.(21) and solving gives Vmax and (Vmin )e at at the chosen altitude. Repeating the procedure at
different altitudes, we get Vmax and (Vmin )e at various heights. Sample calculations and the plot
for sea level conditions are presented in Table 4 and Fig.10.
V ηp Pa Pr(kW)
(m/s) (kW)
0 0.000 0.000 -
Table 4 Steady level flight calculations at sea level
9
200
180
160
140
120
Power (kW)
B
Pa
100
Pr
80
A Point A: (Vmin)e
60
40 Point B: Vmax
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Velocity (m/s)
Fig.10 Sample plot for Pa and Pr at sea level
If this minimum speed is less than the stalling speed, a level flight is not possible at this
speed. The minimum velocity is thus higher of the stalling speed and (Vmin )e .
The results for VS , (Vmin )e , Vmin and (Vmax ) at various altitudes are tabulated in Table 5 and
plotted in Fig.11. It may be noted that at h = 5200 m, Vmax and (Vmin )e are same. This altitude is
the maximum height attainable by the airplane and will be referred later as absolute ceiling.
10
h Vs(no flap) (Vmin)e Vmin Vmax Vmax
(m) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (kmph)
Fig.12 Forces on an airplane in steady climb
In this flight, the C.G of the airplane moves along a straight line inclined to the horizontal at an
angle γ . The velocity of flight is assumed to be constant during the climb.
Since the flight is steady, acceleration is zero and the equations of motion can be written as:
T - D -W sin γ = 0 (22)
L - W cos γ = 0 (23)
2 W cos γ
Noting that CL = 2L/ρV2S = , gives:
ρSV 2
2 W cos γ 2
CD = CDo +K ( )
ρSV 2
Vc
Also Vc = V sin γ , or sin γ =
V
Vc 2
cos γ = 1-
V2
2 2
1 KW Vc Vc
Ta = ρV 2S CDO + 1- + W
2 1
ρV 2S V V
2
12
2
V V
Or A c + B( c ) + C = 0
V V
(24)
where,
KW 2 1
A= , B = - W and C = Ta - ρV 2SCDo - A ;
1 2 2
ρV S
2
Ta = available thrust = 1000 x Pa/V.
Vc
Equation 24 gives 2 values of . The value which is less than 1.0 is chosen as appropriate.
V
Consequently,
Vc
γ = sin -1 (25)
V
Vc = V sin γ (26)
13
V ηp THPa T A C Vc/V γ Vc Vc
(m/s)
(kW) (N) (deg.) (m/s) (m/min)
Note: B = - W = -10673.28 N
Repeating similar calculations at various altitudes gives the variations of and Vc with velocity
at different altitudes. The results are plotted in Figs.13 and 14. From these figures the variations
of γ max , Vcmax or (R/C)max, Vγmax and VR/Cmax at various altitudes are obtained. The results are
14
Fig.13 Variations of angle of climb with flight velocity at different altitudes
Fig.14 Variations of rate of climb with flight velocity at different altitudes
15
h (m) γ max (deg) Vcmax (m/min) Vγmax (m/s) VR/C max (m/s)
16
Fig.17 Variations of Vγmax and V(R/C)max with altitude
Remark:
It is observed that the maximum rate of climb and maximum angle of climb decrease with
altitude, but the velocity at which the rate of climb and angle of climb are maximum increase
slightly with height.
17
Service ceiling and absolute ceiling
The altitude at which the maximum rate of climb becomes 100 ft/min (30.5 m/min) is called the
service ceiling and the altitude at which the maximum rate of climb becomes zero is called the
absolute ceiling of the airplane. These can be obtained from Fig.16. It is observed that the
absolute ceiling is 5200 m and the service ceiling is 4610 m. It may be pointed out that the
absolute ceiling obtained from R/Cmax consideration and that from Vmax consideration are same
(as they should be). Further, the service ceiling of 4610 m is close to the value of 4035 m for the
actual airplane quoted in section 1.10.
rate would be different. The optimum setting, which would give the maximum range, can be
arrived at by using the following steps.
(a) Select a value of N and calculate J (= V/nd); n = N/60 .
(b) Obtain ηp corresponding to this value of J from Eq.(14).
(d) The left hand side of Fig 4.2 of the main text, shows the BHP vs MAP and fuel flow rate vs
MAP curves with rpm as parameter. Similar curves are generated for h = 8000 .
(e) From the curves in step (d) the sets of N and MAP values which would give desired BHPr can
be obtained.
(f) Obtain fuel flow rate for each set of MAP and N. Calculate BSFC. Subsequently Eq.(27)
gives the range for chosen set of N and MAP.
(g) Repeat calculations at different value of N.
(h) The combination of N and MAP which gives longest range is the optimum setting.
The aforesaid steps are carried-out in the next three subsections.
6.2 Calculation of BHP and fuel flow rate at different RPM’s and MAP’s at 8000
Example 4.2 of the main text illustrates the procedure to obtain BHP and fuel flow rate at
N = 2200 and MAP of 20 of Hg. Similar calculations are repeated at N = 2700, 2600, 2400,
2200 and 2000 and at MAP = 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 21.6 of Hg. It may be pointed out
that the atmosphere pressure at 8000 is 21.6 of Hg. (see also right hand side of the engine
characteristics shown in Fig.3 of this Appendix). The values so obtained are plotted and
smoothed. Figure 18 shows the calculated values by symbols and the smoothed variations by
curves.
19
Fig.18 Variations of BHP and fuel flow rate with MAP
6.3 Sample calculations for obtaining optimum N and MAP for a chosen flight velocity (V)
For the purpose of illustration V is chosen as 50 m/s or 180 kmph
I) Calculation of THPavg :
20
W1 10673.28
CL1 = Lift coefficient at start of range 0.5966
1 2 0.5 0.9629 50 2
14.864
ρV S
2
W1 9341.5
CL2 = Lift coefficient at the end of cruise 0.5220
1 2 0.5 0.9629 50 2
14.864
ρV S
2
CD1 = CD corresponding to CL1 = 0.0349 + 0.0755 0.59662 = 0.06177
(e) From upper part of Fig.18, obtain MAP which would give BHPr at chosen N. For these values
of N and MAP obtain the fuel flow rate (FFR) in gallons/hr , from the lower part of Fig.18.
(f) Convert FFR in gallons per hour to that in N/hr and BHPr in HP to kW.
FFR in N/hr
Obtain BSFC =
BHP in kW
The above calculations at different values of N are presented in the table below.
N J ηp BHP MAP FFR FFR BHP BSFC ηp/BSFC Range
(RPM) (HP) (gal/hr) (N/hr) (kW) (N/kW- (km)
hr)
2700 0.591 0.762 92.22 15.90 8.32 234.58 68.77 3.410 0.223 1023.8
2600 0.613 0.773 90.88 16.10 7.92 223.44 67.77 3.297 0.234 1074.8
2400 0.664 0.794 88.54 16.47 7.38 208.07 66.02 3.151 0.251 1154.2
2200 0.725 0.807 87.03 17.04 6.95 196.06 64.90 3.020 0.267 1224.9
2000 0.797 0.806 87.22 18.25 6.97 196.56 65.04 3.021 0.266 1221.8
21
It is observed from the above table that at the chosen value of V =180 kmph, the range is
maximum for the combination of N = 2200 and MAP of 17.04 of Hg. The value of R is
1224.9 km.
III Obtaining range and endurance at different flight speeds
Repeating the calculations indicated in item (II), at different values of flight speeds in the
range of speeds Vstall from Vmax at 8000 , yield the results presented in Table 8a. Since the flight
speed is constant, the endurance (E) is given by the following expression.
Range in km
E (in hours) =
V in kmph
‐hr)
34 122.4 41.01 2000 16.61 6.254 176.26 0.734 55.859 3.155 929.6 7.59
36 129.6 41.13 2000 16.39 6.16 173.62 0.753 54.597 3.18 999.2 7.66
38 136.8 41.64 2000 16.29 6.12 172.52 0.77 54.069 3.19 1061.1 7.76
40 144 42.51 2000 16.32 6.13 172.79 0.784 54.198 3.19 1114.3 7.74
43 154.8 44.53 2000 16.58 6.24 175.81 0.8 55.643 3.16 1176.5 7.6
46 165.6 47.37 2000 17.1 6.46 182.07 0.808 58.573 3.11 1214.5 7.33
50 180 52.43 2200 17.04 6.95 196.06 0.807 64.904 3.02 1225 6.81
52 187.2 55.53 2200 17.7 7.25 204.4 0.81 68.576 2.98 1222.1 6.52
54 194.4 58.98 2200 18.49 7.63 215.12 0.808 72.97 2.95 1205.5 6.2
56 201.6 62.81 2200 19.43 8.13 228.99 0.803 78.23 2.93 1174.1 5.82
58 208.8 67.03 2200 20.56 8.77 247.02 0.793 84.5 2.92 1127.1 5.4
60 216 71.63 2400 20.42 9.37 264.14 0.806 88.87 2.97 1090.2 5.05
22
Remarks:
i) It is seen that the maximum endurance of 7.7 hours occurs in the speed range of
125 to 145 kmph.
23
ii) The range calculated in the present computation is the Gross Still Air Range (GSAR).
The maximum range is found to be around 1220 km which occurs in the speed range of
165 to 185 kmph.
iii) The range quoted in Section 1.10 for Cherokee PA – 28 - 181 accounts for taxi, take-off,
climb, descent and reserves for 45 min. This range can be regarded as safe range. This
value is generally two-thirds of the GSAR. Noting that two-thirds of GSAR (1220 km) is
813 km, it is seen that the calculated value is within the range of performance given in
Section 1.10.
24
Appendix A
Lecture 37
Topics
7 Turning performance
9 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgements
7 Turning performance
Fig.21 Forces on an airplane in turning flight
In this section, the performance of the airplane in a steady level co-ordinated-turn is studied.
The forces acting on the airplane are shown in Fig.21.
The equations of motion in this flight are:
T – D = 0, as it is a steady flight (28)
W V2
L sin = , as it is a co-ordinated-turn (30)
g r
W V2 V2
Radius of turn = r = = (31)
g L sin g tan
V V 2 g tan
Rate of turn = ψ = =V = (32)
r g tan V
1
L 1
Load Factor = n = = (33)
W cos
In the following calculations, CLmax =1.33 and nmax = 3.5 are assumed ; where n max is the
maximum load factor for which the airplane is designed. The following procedure is used to
obtain rmin and ψ max .
1. The flight speed and altitude are chosen. The lift coefficient in level flight ( CLL ) is
obtained as :
2(W/S)
CLL =
ρV 2
CLmax C
2. Obtain . If Lmax n max , then the turn is limited by CLmax and CLT1 = CLmax .
C LL CLL
However, if CLmax /CLL > n max , then the turn is limited by n max , and CLT1 = n max CLL .
1
DT1 = ρV 2SCDT1
2
If DT1 > Ta , where Ta is the available thrust at chosen speed and altitude, then the turn is
limited by the engine output. The maximum permissible value of CD in this case is found
from:
2Ta
CDT =
ρV 2S
CDT - CDO
CLT =
K
However, if DT1 < Ta , then the turn is not limited by the engine output and the value of CLT1
calculated in step (2) is taken as CLT.
4. Once CLT is known, the load factor n, which satisfies the three constraints namely of
CLmax , n max and Ta , is given by:
2
CLT
n=
CLL
5. Knowing n, the values of the radius of turn (r) and the rate of turn ( ψ ) can be calculated
from Eqs.(31), (32) and (33).
6. The above steps are repeated for various speeds at the same altitude and subsequently the
procedure is repeated at various altitudes.
Sample calculations of turning performance at sea level are represented in Table 9. Figures
22 and 23 present turning performance at various altitudes.
30 1.30 1.021 1.33 0.168 1380 41.4 0.578 78.0 1.33 1.02 11.6 445 0.067
35 0.96 1.390 1.33 0.168 1879 65.8 0.635 85.7 1.33 1.39 44.0 129 0.270
38 0.81 1.638 1.33 0.168 2215 84.2 0.666 89.9 1.33 1.64 52.4 113 0.335
40 0.73 1.815 1.33 0.168 2454 98.2 0.685 92.4 1.28 1.75 55.1 114 0.351
45 0.58 2.297 1.33 0.168 3106 139.8 0.727 98.2 1.05 1.82 56.6 136 0.330
50 0.47 2.836 1.33 0.168 3834 191.7 0.762 102.9 0.86 1.83 56.9 166 0.300
55 0.39 3.432 1.33 0.168 4639 255.2 0.789 106.5 0.69 1.77 55.5 212 0.260
60 0.33 4.084 1.14 0.133 4359 261.5 0.805 108.7 0.52 1.60 51.2 295 0.203
65 0.28 4.793 0.97 0.106 4082 265.3 0.809 109.3 0.34 1.23 35.7 600 0.108
3
Fig.23 Variations of rate of turn with velocity at various altitudes
altitudes. The variations are presented in Table 10 and Figs.24, 25 and 26.
4
h (m) rmin(m) ψ max (rad/s) Vrmin(m/s) Vψmax
(m/s)
Fig.24 Variation of minimum radius of turn with altitude
5
Fig.26 Variations of Vrmin and Vψmax
with altitude
Remark:
The minimum radius of turn at sea level is about 110 m at flight speed of about 38 m/s. The
maximum rate of turn at sea level is about 0.35 rad/sec at flight speed of about 40 m/s.
6
8 Take-off and landing distance estimates
Take-off flight can be divided into three phases: take-off run or ground run, transition and
climb (Fig.27).
The distance covered during the take-off run (s1) can be expressed as:
VTO
WV
s1 =
0
gF dV (35)
7
BHP ηp
F = - D -μ (W-L)
V
Since ηp is a function of velocity, an accurate way to estimate s1 is to evaluate the integrand in
Eq.(35) at several values of V and carry-out a numerical integration. Simpson’s rule is used for
this purpose. Various quantities needed for the purpose are estimated below.
VTO =1.2 Vs , where Vs is stalling speed, given by :
2W
Vs =
ρSCLmax
During the take-off, flap deflection ( δf ) is10 , hence CLmax =1.42 . It is assumed that the
coefficient of friction is 0.02.
The take-off weight is W =10673.28 N
S = wing planform area =14.864 m 2
Density ρsl =1.225 kg/m3
Thus, Vs = 28.73m/s and VTO = 34.48 m/s
To estimate CL and CD during take -off run it is noted that the airplane has a nose wheel type of
landing gear and hence the airplane axis can be considered as horizontal and the wing produces
lift corresponding to the wing setting angle (see Section 10.3.1 of the main text of the course
material).
From Sec. 1.4, the average wing incidence is the average of incidence at root (4.62o) and that at
tip (2.62o) i.e. 3.62o. The slope of the lift curve of the wing ( CLαW ) is approximately given by:
A 5.625
CLαW = 2π =2π = 4.63 / rad = 0.0808/ deg
A+2 7.625
The angle of zero lift ( α 0L ) for the airfoil NACA 652 – 415, from Ref. 5, is -2.6o.
Hence, lift coefficient during take-off run due to wing lift is :
0.0808(3.62 + 2.6) = 0.502
Since, the flaps are deflected during the take-off run the lift coefficient will be increased by (1.42
– 1.33 = 0.09). Hence, CL during take-off run ( CLtr ) is :
8
CDtr = 0.0389 + 0.0755×0.5922 = 0.0654
For applying Simpson’s rule in this case, the various quantities are evaluated at seven points in
the speed range of 0 to 34.48. The calculations are shown in Table 11.
V T D L F WV/gF
(m/s) ηp (N) (N) (N) (N) (s)
0 0 * 0 0 - 0.000
5.75 0.153 3589.94 19.68 132.9 3364.45 1.859
11.49 0.283 3329.77 78.60 711.5 3051.9 4.096
17.24 0.392 3072.83 176.9 1601.3 2714.5 6.910
22.99 0.484 2843.74 314.7 2848.7 2372.5 10.54
28.73 0.562 2642.65 491.4 4448.2 2026.7 15.42
34.48 0.629 2464.68 707.8 6407.0 1671.6 22.42
* The value of thrust (T) at V = 0 is not zero. It can be evaluated using propeller charts.
However, it is not needed in the present calculation, as the integrand is zero when V is zero.
Table 11 Evaluation of integrand in Eq.(35).
Using the values of integrand in Table 11 and employing Simpson’s rule the ground run (s1) is
given by :
5.747
s1 = 0 + 4(1.859 + 6.91+15.42) +2(4.096+10.54) + 22.42 = 284.4 m
3
8.2 Distance covered during transition (s2)
The entire power of the engine is assumed to be used to overcome the drag and to accelerate to a
velocity V2 given by V2 = 1.1 VT0. The height attained during the transition phase is ignored.
W
Hence, Ts 2 = Ds 2 + (V22 -VTO
2
)
2g
W (V22 - VTO
2
)
s2 =
2g T-D
where T and D are evaluated at a speed which is mean (Vavg) of V2 and VTO
V2 = 1.1 x 34.48 = 37.93 m/s
VTO + V2 34.48 + 37.93
Vavg = = = 36.71m/s
2 2
9
ηp ×BHP×1000
T=
Vavg
0.65285×135×1000
Hence, T = = 2400.5 N
36.71
2×10673.28
Further, CL = = 0.87
1.225×14.864×36.712
CD = 0.0389 + 0.0755×0.87 2 = 0.096
1
D = ×1.225×36.712 ×14.864×0.096 =1178.4 N
2
W V 2 -V 2 10673.28(37.932 -34.482 )
Hence, s 2 = 2 TO = =111.3m
2g T-D 2×9.81(2400.5-1178.4)
8.3 Distance covered during climb phase (s3)
The airplane is assumed to climb to screen height (15m) at an angle of climb γ,
where the climb angle γ is given by:
T-D
γ = (
)
W
For the climb phase, T and D are evaluated at V2 which is equal to 37.93 m/s
From Eq.(15), ηp at a speed of 37.93 m/s is 0.665. Hence,
0.665×135×1000
T = = 2366.86 N
37.93
2×10673.28
C = = 0.82
L
1.225×14.864×37.932
CD = 0.0389 + 0.0755×0.822 = 0.0897
1
D = ×1.225×36.712 ×14.864×0.0897 =1174.5 N
2
T -D 2366.86 - 1174.5
sinγ = = = 0.1117 or γ = 6.41o
W 10673.28
15 15
Hence, s3 = = = 133.4 m
tan γ 0.1124
10
Total takeoff distance is given by:
s = s1 + s 2 + s3 = 284.4 +111.3+133.4 = 529.1 m
Remarks:
i) The above estimation of take off distance is based on several assumptions. Reference 8 has
compiled data on take-off distances of many propeller driven airplanes. This take-off distance is
based on FAR 23 specifications and can be denoted by sto23 . Based on this data the following
formula is obtained for sto23 in terms of a parameter called take-off parameter and denoted by
TOP23 . In SI units the relationship is given as (See Guidelines for take-off distance in
Section 10.4.7 of the main text of the course) .
W W
(
)×( )
where, TOP23 = S P ; (W/S) is in N/m 2 , W in N and P in kW.
σ CLTO
718.1×79.06
TOP23 = = 39981
1.42
s to23 = 8.681 x 10-3 x 39981+ 5.566 x 10-8 x 399812 = 347 +89 = 436 m
ii) The estimated take-off distance of 530 m is somewhat higher than the actual take-off distance
of 488 m (section 1.10). This may be because the height attained during the transition phase has
been ignored.
11
8.4 Estimation of landing distance
The landing distance can be calculated in a manner similar to that for take-off distance.
However, due to uncertainty associated with piloting techniques during landing, the following
formula is used.
Va 2
s land = -
2a
where, Va = 1.3 ×Vs in landing configuration
The weight of the airplane during the landing is taken same as that during the take-off. However,
CLmax with landing flap setting is 1.86. The stalling speed in this configuration is 25.1 m/s.
Hence, approach speed is 32.6 m/s.Taking a = -1.22m/ s2 for a simple braking system yields:
sland = 436 m,
which is close to the value of 426 m given in Section 1.10.
9 Concluding remarks
1. The performance of a piston-engined airplane has been estimated for stalling speed, maximum
speed, minimum speed, steady climb, range, endurance, turning, take-off and landing.
2. A reasonable agreement has been observed between the calculated performance and the actual
performance of the airplane (PA – 28 – 181).
3. Figure 28 presents the variations, with altitude, of the characteristic velocities corresponding
to:
Stalling speed Vs
12
6000
5000
1000
0
0 20 40 60
Velocity (m/s)
Fig.28 Variations of characteristic velocities with altitude
Acknowledgements
The first author (EGT) thanks AICTE for the fellowship which enabled him to carry out the work
at IIT Madras. He is grateful for the support given by Prof.J.Kurian, Prof.P.Sriram,
Prof.K.Bhaskar, the Heads of the department of Aerospace engineering, IIT Madras. The help
rendered, while carrying out the revision, by Mr.Aditya Sourabh, Dual Degree student,
Mr.S.Gurusideswar, Ph.D. scholar and Sandip Chajjed, Project staff Department of Aerospace
Engineering and Ms. K. Sujatha and Mr. G. Manikandasivam of NPTEL Web studio is gratefully
acknowledged.
13
Appendix A
References
1.Roskam, J. “Methods for estimating drag polars of subsonic airplanes” Roskam aviation
engineering corporation, Kansas,U.S.A,(1983).
2. McCormick B.W. “Aerodynamics, aeronautics and flight mechanics”, John Wiley,
New York, (1979 First edition, 1995 Second edition).
3. Jackson, P. (editor-in-chief) “Jane’s all the world’s airplane (1999-2000)” Jane’s
information group ltd, Surrey, U.K.
4. Roskam, J. “Airplane design Vol. I”, Roskam aviation engineering corporation, Kansas,
U.S.A, (1989).
5. Perkins C.D. and Hage R.E. “Airplane performance stability and control”, John Wiley,
(1960).
6. Torenbeek. E. “Synthesis of subsonic airplane design” Delft University Press (1981).
7. Raymer, D.P. “Aircraft design: a conceptual approach” AIAA` educational series fourth
edition, (2006).
8. Loftin, Jr. L.K. “Subsonic aircraft evolution and the matching of size to performance”
NASA Reference publications, 1060, August 1980. This report can be downloaded from
the site “NASA Technical Report Server (NTRS)”.
9. Samoylovitch, O. and Strelets, D. “Determination of the Oswald efficiency factor at
airplane design preliminary stage”, Aircraft Design, Vol. 3, pp. 167-174, (2000).
10. Nicholai, L.M. and Carichner, G.E. “Fundamentals of aircraft and airship design Vol. I –
Aircraft design” AIAA educational series (2010).
APPENDIX- B
PERFORMANCE ESTIMATION OF A TYPICAL
SUBSONIC JET TRANSPORT AIRPLANE
(Lectures 38 – 40)
E.G.TULAPURKARA
V.GANESH
FEBRUARY 2007
(REVISED OCTOBER 2011)
Performance estimation of a typical subsonic
jet transport airplane
E.G.Tulapurkara*V.Ganesh $
February 2007
(Revised November 2009)
Abstract
This report contains details of the performance estimation of a medium range jet
airplane similar to B737. The following aspects are considered.
Drag polar estimation
Engine characteristics
Level flight performance - stalling speed, maximum and minimum speeds
Steady climb performance – maximum rate of climb, maximum angle of climb,
service ceiling and absolute ceiling
Range and endurance
Steady level co-ordinated turn - minimum radius of turn, maximum rate of turn
Take-off and landing distances
*
AICTE Emeritus Fellow, Department of Aerospace Engineering, IIT Madras
$
Dual Degree Student, Department of Aerospace Engineering, IIT Madras
1
Contents
1 Airplane details
1.1 Overall dimensions
1.2 Engine details
1.3 Weights
1.4 Wing geometry
1.5 Fuselage geometry
1.6 Nacelle geometry
1.7 Horizontal tail geometry
1.8 Vertical tail geometry
1.9 Other details
1.10 Flight condition
Three-view drawing of the airplane
2 Estimation of drag polar
2.1 Estimation of (CDo)WB
2.2 Estimation of (CDo)V and (CDo)H
2.3 Estmation of misc drag – nacelle
2.4 CDo of the airplane
2.5 Induced drag
2.6 Final drag polar
3 Engine characteristics
4 Level flight performance
4.1 Stalling speed
4.2 Variations of Vmin and Vmax with altitude
5 Steady climb
6 Range and endurance
7 Turning performance
8 Take-off distance
9 Landing distance
10 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgements
References
2
Appendix B
Lecture 38
Topics
1 Airplane details
1.1 Overall dimensions
1.2 Engine details
1.3 Weights
1.4 Wing geometry
1.5 Fuselage geometry
1.6 Nacelle geometry
1.7 Horizontal tail geometry
1.8 Vertical tail geometry
1.9 Other details
1.10 Flight condition
Three-view drawing of the airplane
2 Estimation of drag polar
2.1 Estimation of (CDo)WB
2.2 Estimation of (CDo)V and (CDo)H
2.3 Estmation of misc drag – nacelle
2.4 CDo of the airplane
2.5 Induced drag
2.6 Final drag polar
3
1 Airplane Details
1.1 Overall Dimensions
Length : 34.32 m
Wing span : 32.22 m
Height above ground : 11.17 m
Wheel base : 13.2 m
Wheel track : 5.8 m
1.2 Engine details
Similar to CFM 56 - 2B
Seal level static thrust : 97.9 kN per engine
By pass ratio : 6.5 (For which the engine characteristics are given
in Ref.3*)
SFC : 0.6 hr-1 at M = 0.8 and h = 10973 m (36000 ft)
1.3 Weights
Gross weight : 59175 kgf (580506.8 N)
Empty weight : 29706 kgf (291415.9 N)
Fuel weight : 12131 kgf (119005.1 N)
Payload : 17338 kgf (170085.8 N)
Maximum landing weight : 50296 kgf (493403.8 N)
1.4 Wing Geometry
Planform shape : Cranked wing
Span : 32.22 m
Area (Sref) : 111.63 m2
Airfoil : NASA - SC(2) series, t/c = 14%,
Clopt = 0.5
Root chord : 5.59 m (Equivalent trapezoidal wing)
Tip chord : 1.34 m (Equivalent trapezoidal wing)
Root chord of cranked wing : 7.44 m
Portion of wing with straight
trailing edge : 11.28 m
* Reference numbers in this Appendix relate to those given on page 40.
4
Mean aerodynamic chord : 3.9 m
Quarter chord sweep : 27.69o
Dihedral : 5o
Twist : 3o
Incidence : 1.4 o
Taper ratio : 0.24 (Equivalent trapezoidal wing)
Aspect ratio : 9.3
1.5 Fuselage geometry
Length : 33 m
Maximum diameter : 3.59 m
1.6 Nacelle geometry
No. of nacelles :2
Nacelle diameter : 1.62 m
Cross sectional area : 2.06 m2
Length of nacelle : 3.3 m (based on B737 Nacelle)
1.7 Horizontal tail geometry
Span : 11.98 m
Area : 28.71 m2
Mean aerodynamic chord : 2.67 m
Quarter chord sweep : 32 o
Root chord : 3.80 m
Tip chord : 0.99 m
Taper ratio : 0.26
Aspect ratio :5
1.8 Vertical tail geometry
Span : 6.58 m
Area : 25.43 m2
Root chord : 5.90 m
Tip chord : 1.83 m
Mean aerodynamic chord : 4.22 m
Quarter chord sweep : 37 o
5
Taper ratio : 0.31
Aspect ratio : 1.70
1.9 Other details
CLmax without flap : 1.4
CLmax with landing flaps : 2.7
CLmax with T.O flaps : 2.16
Maximum load factor (nmax ) : 3.5
1.10 Flight condition
Altitude : 10973 m (36000 ft)
Mach number : 0.8
Kinematic viscosity : 3.90536 x10-5 m2/s
Density : 0.3639 kg/m3
Speed of sound : 295.07 m/s
Flight speed : 236.056 m/s
Weight of the airplane : 59175 kgf (580506.8 N)
6
Fig.1 Three-view drawing of the airplane
7
2 Estimation of drag polar
The drag polar is assumed to be of the form:
C2L
CD =CDo +
πAe
The quantity CDO is assumed to be given by:
CDo = (CDo ) WB + (CDo )V + (CDo )H + (CDo )Misc (1)
2 1+0.262+0.2622
ce = [5.116( )] = 3.596 m
3 1+0.262
Span of exposed wing = (b/2)e = 16.11 – 1.795 = 14.315m
8
Further, M = 0.6, a = 295.07m/s. Hence, V = 177.12m/s.
Also ν = 3.90536 X 10-5 m2/s.
Hence,
177.12 3.596
Re 5
16.31 x 106
3.90536 10
The height of roughness corresponding to the standard camouflage paint, average
application, is k = 1.015 x 10-5m (Ref.5, table 3.1). Hence, l/k in this case is:
l 3.596
5
3.543 105
k 1.015 10
The Recutoff corresponding to the above l/k is 30 x 106. Consequently, Cfw corresponding
to Re = 16.31 x 106 is obtained from Fig.3.1 of Ref.5, as :
Cfw = 0.00265.
(t/c)avg = 14% and (t/c)max occurs at x/c > 0.3 Hence, L = 1.2 and
5.116 1.341
Sexposedplanform = 14.314( ) 2 = 92.41m2
2
Swet W = 2 x 92.41(1+1.2 x 0.14) = 215.8m2
Hence,
215.8
(CDf)w = 0.00265 (1+1.2 x 0.14) = 0.00598
111.63
(CDo)B is given as:
(CDo)B = (CDf)B + (CDp)B + CDb
60 l S S
(CDo)B = CfB [1+ 3
+0.0025( b )]( wet ) fus +CDb base
(lb /d) d SB Sref
In the present case , lf = 33.0m , dmax = 3.59m ,
177.12 33
Reb = = 149.6 x 106
3.905 105
l 33
5
= 32.51x105
k 1.015 10
The Recutoff corresponding to the above l/k is 2.6 x 108. The Cfw corresponds to
Reb = 149.6 x 106 measured from the graph in Ref.5, Fig.3.1 is:
Cfw = 0.0019
9
(Swet)fus = 0.75 x x 3.59 x 33 = 279m2
SB = x 3.592 = 10.12m2
4
Hence,
279
(CDf)B = 0.0019 x = 0.0524
10.12
60 279
(CDp ) B =0.0019[ 3
+0.0025×(33/3.59)] =0.00524
(33/3.59) 10.12
Since, base area is almost zero, CDb is assumed to be zero. Hence,
(CDo)B = 0.0524 + 0.00524 + 0 = 0.0576
(ΔCD )canopy is taken as 0.002. Hence, (CDo)B = 0.0596
Finally,
10.12
(CDo)WB = 0.00598 + 0.0596 = 0.01138
111.63
2.2 Estimation of (CDo)V and (CDo)H
The estimation of (CDo)H and (CDo)V can be done in a manner similar to that for the wing.
However, the details regarding the exposed tail area etc. would be needed. In the absence
of the detailed data on the shape of fuselage at rear, a simplified approach given in Ref.5,
section 2.2 is adopted, wherein CDf = 0.0025 for both horizontal and vertical tails.
SW = 2(Sh + Sv)
Hence,
2
(CDo)HV = 0.0025(28.71 + 25.43) = 0.0024 (2)
111.63
2.3 Estmation of misc drag - nacelle
For calculating drag due to the nacelles the short cut method is used i.e.:
Swet
(CDo)nacelle = 0.006 x
Sref
where, Swet is the wetted area of nacelle. Here, Swet = 16.79m2. Since, there are two
nacelles, the total drag will be twice of this. Finally,
16.79
(CDo)nacelle = 0.006 x x 2 = 0.0018
111.63
10
2.4 CDo of the airplane
Taking 2% for miscellaneous roughness and protuberances(Ref.5, section 3.4.6 ), the CDo
of the airplane is:
CDo = 1.02 [0.01138 + 0.0024 + 0.0018] = 0.0159 (3)
2.5 Induced drag
The induced drag component has the Oswald's efficiency factor e which is estimated by
adding the effect of all the airplane components on induced drag (Ref.5, section 2.3).The
rough estimate of e can be obtained as follows :
Figure 2.4 of Ref.5 is useful only for estimating ewing of unswept wings of low speed
airplanes. For the present case of swept wing, the following expression given in Ref.2 ,
chapter 7 is used.
ewing = (ewing)Λ=0 cos(Λ - 5)
where Λ is the quarter chord sweep. Ref.1, chapter 1 is used to estimate (ewing)Λ=0. In
the present case, with A = 9.3 and = 0.24, the value of (ewing)Λ=0 is 0.97.
Hence, ewing = 0.97 x cos (27.69 - 5) = 0.8948.
1/efus
From Ref.5, section 2.3, = 0.8 for a round fuselage. Hence,
(Sf /S)
1 10.122
= 0.8 × = 0.0725
efus 111.63
1
Further, from Ref.5, section 2.3, = 0.05
eother
Finally,
1
e= -1
= 0.8064
0.8948 + 0.0725 + 0.05
Hence,
1 1
K= = = 0.04244
πAe π × 9.3 × 0.8064
Remark:
Based on Ref.7, a detailed estimates of ewing and efuselage are given in Ref.5, section 3.3.
For an untwisted wing the value of ewing is given as:
11
1.1(CLαw /A)
e wing =
C
R( Lαw )+(1-R)π
A
where,
2πA
CLαW =
2 2
tan 2 1
Aβ
2+ 1+ 2
+4
κ 2 β2
CLαW = slope of lift curve of wing per radian
A = aspect ratio of wing
R = a factor which depends on (a) Reynolds number based on leading edge radius, (b)
leading edge sweep (ΛLE), (c) Mach number (M), (d) wing aspect ratio (A) and (e) taper
ratio (λ).
β = 1-M 2
Λ1/2 = sweep of semi-chord line
= ratio of the slope of lift curve of the airfoil used on wing divided by 2π . It is
generally taken as unity.
In the present case,
M= 0.6, h= 10973 m (36000 ft), V= 177.12 m, =3.90536×10-5 m 2 /s , S = 111.63 m2
b = 32.22 m, cre = 5.59 m, ct = 1.34 m, Λ1/4 = 27.69 deg,
Hence, A = 9.3, =0.24, β =0.8 , tan 1/ 2 = 0.4589, cos LE 0.8609 ,
Average chord = 3.615 m
The airfoil is NASA – SC(2) with 14 % thickness. From Ref.8 the leading edge radius is
3 % of the chord.
From these data:
CLαW = 5.404
RLer = Reynolds number based on leading edge radius = 4.974 x 104
Aλ
= 2.592
cos LE
12
Corresponding to these data, R = 0.943 is obtained from Ref.5, Fig.3.14. Consequently,
1.1 5.404 / 9.3
e wing = 0.8793
5.404
0.943 1 0.943
9.3
This value of ewing is close to the value of 0.8948 obtained by the simpler approach.
However, detailed approach is recommended for wings with sweep of above 35o.
Reference 7, section 4.5.3 contains guidelines for estimating drag of wing-body-tail
combination with allowance for trim drag.
2.6 Final drag polar
CD = 0.0159 + 0.04244 CL2 (4)
The drag polar is presented in Fig.2.
Remarks:
i) The polar given by Eq.(4) is valid at subcritical Mach numbers. The increase in CDO
and K at higher Mach numbers is discussed in section 4.2.
13
ii) The maximum lift to drag ratio ((L/D)max) is given by:
1
(L/D) max =
2 CDo K
Using CDO and K from Eq.(4), (L/D)max is 19.25, which is typical of modern jet
transport airplanes.
iii) It may be noted that the parabolic polar is an approximation and is not valid beyond
CLmax. It is also not accurate close to CL = 0 and CL = CLmax.
14
Appendix B
Lecture 39
Topics
3 Engine characteristics
4 Level flight performance
4.1 Stalling speed
4.2 Variations of Vmin and Vmax with altitude
5 Steady climb
3 Engine characteristics
To calculate the performance, the variations of thrust and SFC with speed and altitudes
are needed. Chapter 9 of Ref.3 contains these variations for turbofan engines with various
bypass ratios. The thrust variations versus Mach number with altitude as parameter are
given, in non-dimensional form, for take-off, cruise and climb ratings. The values were
read from those curves, interpolated and later smoothed. The values multiplied by
97.9 kN, the sea level static thrust rating for the chosen engine, are shown in Figs.3 and 4.
Figure 3 also contains (a) the variation of thrust with Mach number at sea level with take-
off rating and (b) variations of climb thrust with Mach number at various altitudes. The
values at h = 38000 ft and 39000 ft are obtained by interpolating the values at 36000 ft
and 40000 ft and are used for computation of performance.
The SFC variation is also given in Ref.3, but is taken as 0.6 hr-1 under cruise
conditions based on the trend shown in Fig.3.3 of Ref.4.
Fig.3 Output for single engine – take-off thrust at sea level and climb
thrust at various altitudes.
1
4 Level flight performance
T-D =0 (5)
L-W= 0 (6)
1
L = W = ρV 2SCL (7)
2
1
D = ρV 2SCD = T (8)
2
4.1 Stalling speed
In level flight,
2W
V= (9)
ρSCL
Since, CL cannot exceed CLmax, there is a flight speed below which level
flight is not possible. The flight speed at CL = CLmax is called the stalling
speed and is denoted by Vs
2W
Vs = (10)
ρSCmax
Since, ρ decreases with altitude, Vs increases with height. It may be noted that
2
W/S = 5195 N/m2, CLmax = 2.7 with landing flaps and CLmax = 1.4 without flaps. The
values of stalling speed at different altitudes and flap settings are tabulated in Table 1 and
shown in Fig.5.
h ρ Vs Vs
(m) (kg/m3) (CLmax = 1.4) (CLmax = 2.7)
(m/s) (m/s)
0 1.225 77.83 56.04
2000 1.006 85.86 61.83
4000 0.819 95.18 68.54
6000 0.659 106.06 76.37
8000 0.525 118.87 85.59
10000 0.412 134.09 96.56
11000 0.363 142.80 102.83
12000 0.310 154.52 111.27
3
4.2 Variations of Vmin and Vmax with altitude
To determine the Vmin and Vmax at each altitude, the following procedure is adopted. The
engine thrust as a function of velocity at each altitude is obtained from the smoothed data.
The drag at each altitude is obtained as a function of velocity using the drag polar and the
level flight formulae given below.
2 (W/S)
CL = (11)
ρV 2
C D C Do K C L2 (12)
1 2
Thrust required = Drag = ρV SCD (13)
2
Thrust available = Ta = f(M) (14)
where, CDo = 0.0159 and K = 0.04244.
However, the cruise Mach number (Mcruise) for this airplane is 0.8. Hence, CDo and K are
expected to become functions of Mach number above Mcruise. To get some guidelines
about variations of CDo and K, the drag polars of B-727 given in Volume VI, Chapter 5 of
Ref.6 are considered. These drag polars are shown in the Fig.6 as discrete points.
Fig.6 Drag polars at different Mach numbers for B727-100; Symbols are data from Ref.6
and various lines are the parabolic fits.
4
These polars were approximated by the parabolic polar expression namely
CD = CDo + KCL2 . The values of CDo and K at various Mach numbers, obtained by least
square method, are given in the Table 2. The parabolic fits are also shown in Fig.6.
M CDo K
0.7 0.01631 0.04969
0.76 0.01634 0.05257
0.82 0.01668 0.06101
0.84 0.01695 0.06807
0.86 0.01733 0.08183
0.88 0.01792 0.10300
5
Fig.8 Variation of K with Mach number
In the case of the present airplane, the cruise Mach number is 0.8. The variations of CDo
and K above Mcruise and upto M = 0.9, based on the B727-100 data are taken as follows.
CDo = 0.0159 – 0.001 x (M – 0.80) + 0.11 x (M – 0.80)2 (17)
2 3
K = 0.04244 + (M – 0.80) + 20.0 x (M – 0.80) (18)
The thrust available and thrust required curves are plotted at each altitude as a function of
velocity. The points of intersection give the (Vmin)e and Vmax at each altitude from thrust
available consideration (Figs.9 – 14).
However, to arrive at the minimum speed (Vmin), the stalling speed (Vs) also needs to be
taken in to account. Since, the drag polar is not valid below Vs, in the Figs.9 to 14, the
thrust required curves are plotted only for V ≥ Vs. Stalling speed is taken for CLmax
without flaps.
The calculations are carried out for h = 0, 10000, 15000, 25000, 30000 and 36000 ft, i.e
S.L, 3048, 4572, 7620, 9144 and 10972.8 m using Ta as both climb thrust (Tclimb) and as
cruise thrust (Tcr). Results in Figs.9 – 14 are presented only for climb thrust case. The
variations of Vs, (Vmin)e and Vmax are tabulated in Table 3 and presented in Fig.15.
6
Fig.9 Available and required thrust at S.L
7
Fig.11 Available and required thrust at h = 4572 m
8
Fig.13 Available and required thrust at h = 9144 m
9
h h Vs (Vmin)e (Vmin)e Vmax(m/s) Vmax(m/s) Vmax(kmph)
(in ft) (in m) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) T = Tcr T=Tclimb T=Tclimb
T = Tcr T=Tclimb
S.L 0 77.833 < Vs < Vs 258.711 269.370 969.7
10
5 Steady climb
In this flight, the C.G of the airplane moves along a straight line inclined to the horizontal
at an angle γ . The velocity of flight is assumed to be constant during the climb. Since,
the flight is steady, the acceleration is zero and the equations of motion can be written as:
T - D - W sin =0 (19)
L - W cos =0 (20)
To calculate the variation of rate of climb with flight velocity at different altitudes, the
following procedure is adopted.
Choose an altitude.
Choose a flight speed.
Vc2
Hence, cos γ = 1-
V2
Substituting various quantities in Eq.(19) yields :
11
KW 2 Vc
2
1 2 Vc
Ta = ρV S CDO + 1- + W
2 1 2 V V
ρV S
2
Vc 2 V
Or A( ) + B( c ) + C = 0 (21)
V V
KW 2 1 2KW 2
A= ; B = -W; C = Ta - ρV 2SCDo - , Ta Thrust available (22)
1 2 2 ρV 2
S
ρV S
2
Since, altitude and flight velocity have been chosen, the thrust available is read from the
climb thrust curves in Fig.3. Further, the variation of CDo and K with Mach number is
taken as in Eqs.17 and 18. Equation 21 gives 2 values of Vc/V . The value which is less
than 1.0 is chosen, as sin γ cannot be greater than unity. Hence ,
γ = sin-1(Vc/V) (23)
and Vc = V sin γ (24)
This procedure is repeated for various speeds between Vmin and Vmax. The entire
procedure is then repeated for various altitudes. The variations of (R/C) and γ with
velocity and with altitude as parameter are shown in Figs.16 and 18. The variations of
(R/C)max and γmax with altitude are shown in Figs.17 and 19. The variations of V(R/C)max
and V max with altitude are shown in Figs.20 and 21. A summary of results is presented in
Table 4.
12
h h (R/C)max V(R/C)max γmax V max
(ft) (m) (m/min) (m/s) (degrees) (m/s)
0 0.0 1086.63 149.7 8.7 88.5
10000 3048.0 867.34 167.5 6.0 111.6
15000 4572.0 738.16 174.0 4.7 125.7
25000 7620.0 487.41 198.2 2.6 164.1
30000 9144.0 313.43 212.2 1.5 188.0
36000 10972.8 115.57 236.1 0.5 230.2
38000 11582.4 41.58 236.9 0.2 234.0
38995 11885.7 1.88 236.5 0.0076 236.0
39220 11954.0 0 236.40 0 236.40
13
Fig.17 Maximum rate of climb vs altitude
14
Fig.19 Maximum angle of climb vs altitude
15
Fig.21 Velocity at maximum angle of climb vs altitude
Remarks:
i) The discontinuity in slope in Figs.20 and 21 at high velocities are due to the change in
drag polar as the Mach number exceeds 0.8.
ii) From Fig.17, the absolute ceiling (at which (R/C)max is zero) is 11.95 km. The service
ceiling at which (R/C)max equals 100 ft /min (30.5 m/min) is 11.71 km.
16
Appendix B
Lecture 40
Topics
7.2 E max V E1 ζ
R= tan -1 (25)
TSFC 2E max (1-KC L1 E1 ζ)
1
where, E max = ; K and CDo are at Mach number corresponding to V.
2 K C DO
Wf W
ζ= = 1- 2
W1 W1
C L1 W1
E1 = , CL1 = ,
CD1 1 2
ρV S
2
CD1 = Drag coefficient at CL1 and Mach number corresponding to V.
W1 is the weight of the airplane at the start of the cruise and W2 is the weight of the
airplane at the end of the cruise.
The cruising altitude is taken as h = 10973 m (36000 ft). TSFC is taken to be constant as
0.6hr-1. The variation of drag polar above M = 0.8 is given by Eqs.17 and 18.
W1 = Wo = 59175 x 9.81 = 580506.8 N , Wf = 0.205 x W1
Allowing 6% fuel as trapped fuel, W2 becomes
W2 = W1 – 0.94 x Wf or ζ = 0.94 x 0.205 = 0.1927
The values of endurance (in hours) are obtained by dividing the expression for range by
3.6V where V is in m/s. The values of range (R) and endurance (E) in flights at different
velocities are presented in Table 5 and are plotted in Figs.22 and 23.
M V CDo K Emax CL1 CD1 E1 R E
(m/s) (km) (hr)
0.50 147.53 0.0159 0.04244 19.25 1.312 0.089 14.75 2979.0 5.61
0.55 162.29 0.0159 0.04244 19.25 1.085 0.066 16.48 3608.0 6.18
0.60 177.04 0.0159 0.04244 19.25 0.911 0.051 17.82 4189.6 6.57
0.65 191.79 0.0159 0.04244 19.25 0.777 0.041 18.72 4691.7 6.80
0.70 206.54 0.0159 0.04244 19.25 0.670 0.035 19.17 5095.6 6.85
0.75 221.30 0.0159 0.04244 19.25 0.583 0.030 19.23 5396.5 6.77
0.80 236.05 0.0159 0.04244 19.25 0.513 0.027 18.95 5599.8 6.59
0.81 239.00 0.0159 0.04256 19.22 0.500 0.02654 18.84 5619.7 6.53
0.82 241.95 0.01592 0.04300 19.11 0.488 0.02616 18.65 5621.6 6.45
0.83 244.90 0.01597 0.04388 18.89 0.476 0.02591 18.37 5597.7 6.35
0.84 247.85 0.01604 0.04532 18.54 0.465 0.02584 18.00 5544.1 6.21
0.85 250.80 0.01613 0.04744 18.08 0.454 0.02591 17.52 5460.4 6.05
0.86 253.75 0.01624 0.05036 17.48 0.444 0.02617 16.97 5349.3 5.86
0.87 256.71 0.01637 0.05420 16.79 0.433 0.02653 16.32 5210.1 5.64
0.88 259.66 0.01652 0.05908 16.00 0.424 0.02714 15.62 5051.1 5.40
Table 5 Range and endurance in constant velocity flights at h = 10973 m (36000 ft)
1
Fig.22 Range in constant velocity flights at h = 10973 m
2
Remarks:
i) It is observed that the maximum range of 5620 km is obtained around a velocity of
240 m/s (864 kmph). Corresponding Mach number is 0.82 which is slightly higher than
the Mach number beyond which CDo and K increase. This can be explained based on two
factors namely (a) the range increases as the flight speed increases and (b) after Mcruise is
exceeded, CDo and K increase thus, reducing (L/D)max.
ii) The range calculated above is the gross still air range. The safe range would be about
two-thirds of this. In the present case, the safe range would be around 3750 km.
iii) The maximum endurance of 6.85 hours occurs in a flight at V = 206 m/s. (742 kmph).
It is observed that the endurance is roughly constant over a speed range of 190 m/s to 230
m/s (684 to 828 kmph).
7 Turning performance
3
W V2
L sin =
g r
where is the angle of bank.
These equations give:
V2
r=
gtan
V g tan
ψ = =
r V
L 1
Load factor = n = =
W cos
where, is the rate of turn and r is the radius of turn.
The following procedure is used to obtain rmin and ψ max .
1) A flight speed and altitude are chosen and the level flight lift coefficient
CLL is obtained as :
2(W/S)
CLL =
ρV 2
2) If CLmax/CLL < nmax, where nmax is the maximum load factor for which the airplane is
designed, then the turn is limited by CLmax and CLT1 = CLmax. However, if
CLmax/CLL > nmax, then the turn is limited by nmax, and CLT1 = nmaxCLL.
3) From the drag polar, CDT1 is obtained corresponding to CLT1 . Then,
1 2
DT1 = ρV SCDT1 .
2
If DT1 > Ta, where Ta is the available thrust at that speed and altitude, then the turn is
limited by the engine output. In this case, the maximum permissible value of CD in
turning flight is found from
Ta
C DT =
1 2
ρV S
2
From drag polar, the value of CLT is calculated as
4
CDT - CDo
CLT =
K
However, if DT1 < Ta, then the turn is not limited by the engine output and the value of
CLT calculated in step (2) is retained.
4. Once CLT is known, the load factor during the turn is determined as
CLT
n=
CLL
Once n is known, the values of , r and can be calculated using the equations given
above.
The above steps are repeated for various speeds and altitudes. A typical turning flight
performance estimation is presented in Table 6. In these calculations, CLmax = 1.4 and
nmax = 3.5 are assumed. The variation of turning performance with altitude is shown in
Table 7. Figures 24, 25, 26 and 27 respectively present (a) radius of turn vs velocity with
altitude as parameter, (b) Vrmin vs altitude, (c) rate of turn vs velocity with altitude as
parameter and (d) Vψmax
vs altitude.
78.8 1.365 1.026 1.4 0.0991 42106 126250 0.0991 1.4 1.026 12.9 2768 0.0285
98.8 0.868 1.612 1.4 0.0991 66182 118125 0.0991 1.4 1.612 51.7 787 0.1255
118.8 0.602 2.331 1.4 0.0991 95678 113750 0.0991 1.4 2.331 64.6 684 0.1738
138.8 0.440 3.181 1.4 0.0991 130595 106611 0.0809 1.238 2.813 69.2 747 0.1858
158.8 0.336 4.164 1.177 0.0747 128778 101539 0.0589 1.006 2.993 70.5 912 0.1742
178.8 0.265 5.279 0.928 0.0525 114709 97041 0.0444 0.819 3.089 71.1 1115 0.1603
198.8 0.215 6.527 0.751 0.0398 107635 92606 0.0343 0.661 3.080 71.1 1384 0.1437
218.8 0.177 7.905 0.620 0.0322 105461 89483 0.0273 0.519 2.930 70.0 1772 0.1235
238.8 0.149 9.415 0.521 0.0274 106860 86229 0.0221 0.383 2.573 67.1 2452 0.0974
241.8 0.145 9.655 0.508 0.0268 107282 85779 0.0215 0.362 2.494 66.4 2609 0.0927
5
Fig.24 Radius of turn vs velocity at various altitudes
6
Fig.26 Rate of turn ( ψ ) vs speed at various altitudes
7
h rmin Vrmin ψ max V ψ max
(m) (m) (m/s) (rad/s) (m/s)
0.0 666 126.8 0.1910 127.8
3048.0 945 132.6 0.1410 133.6
4572.0 1155 135.1 0.1170 136.1
7620.0 1971 138.3 0.0731 165.3
9144.0 3247 151.3 0.0513 187.3
10972.8 8582 211.0 0.0256 231.0
8 Take-off distance
In this section, the take-off performance of the airplane is evaluated. The take-off
distance consists of take-off run, transition and climb to screen height. Rough estimates
of the distance covered in these phases can be obtained by writing down the appropriate
equations of motion. However, the estimates are approximate and Ref.4 chapter 5
recommends the following formulae for take-off distance and balance field length based
on the take-off parameter.
This parameter is defined as:
W/S
Take-off parameter = (26)
σC LTo (T/W)
8
where W/S is wing loading in lb/ft2, CLTO is 0.8 x CLand and is the density ratio at
take-off altitude. In the present case:
W
= 5195N/m2 = 108.2lb/ft2; CLTO = 0.8 x 2.7 = 2.16; = 1.0(sea level)
S
T 2×97900
and = = 0.3373
W 59175×9.81
108.2
Hence, take-off parameter = = 148.86 (27)
1.0 2.16 0.3373
From Ref.4, chapter 5, the take-off distance, over 50', is 2823' or 861m. The balance
field length for the present case of two engined airplane is 6000' or 1829m.
Remark:
It may be noted that the balance field length in this case, is more than twice the take-off
distance.
9 Landing distance
In this section the landing distance of the airplane is calculated. From Ref.4, chapter 5,
the landing distance for commercial airliners is given by the formula:
W 1
s land = 80 ( ) +1000 ft (28)
S σCLmax
where W/S is in lbs/ft2. In the present case:
(W/S)land = 0.85 x (W/S)takeoff = 0.85 x 108.5 = 92.225 lb/ft2
CLmax = 2.7 , = 1.0
Hence,
1
sland = 80 x 92.225 1000 = 3732 ft =1138 m (29)
1.0 2.7
9
10 Concluding remarks
1. Performance of a typical commercial airliner has been estimated for stalling speed,
maximum speed, minimum speed, steady climb, range, endurance, turning, take-off
and landing.
2. The performance approximately corresponds to that of B737-200.
3. Figure 28 presents the variations with altitude of the characteristic velocities
corresponding to :
stalling speed, Vs
maximum speed, Vmax
minimum speed as dictated by thrust, (Vmin)e
maximum rate of climb, V(R/C)max
maximum angle of climb, V max
10
Fig.28 Variations of characteristic velocities with altitude
11 Acknowledgements
The first author (EGT) thanks AICTE for the fellowship which enabled him to carry out
the work at IIT Madras. He is grateful for the support given by Prof.J.Kurian,
Prof.P.Sriram, Prof.K.Bhaskar, the Heads of the department of Aerospace engineering,
IIT Madras. The help rendered, while carrying out the revision, by Ms. K. Sujatha and
Mr. G. Manikandasivam of NPTEL, Web studio is gratefully acknowledged.
11
Appendix B
References
1. Abbot,I.H. and von Doenhoff, A.E. “Theory of wing sections” Dover publications,
(1959).
2. Hoerner,S.F. “Fluid dynamic drag” Hoerner Fluid Dynamics, Bricktown, U.S.A,
(1965).
3. Jenkinson,L.R., Simpkin,P. and Rhodes,D. “Civil jet airplane design” Elsevier –
Butterworth Heinemann, (1999).
4. Raymer,D.P. “Airplane design : a conceptual approach” AIAA Education series,
AIAA, (2006).
5. Roskam, J. “Methods for estimating drag polars of subsonic airplanes” Roskam
Aviation and Engineering Corporation, Kansas, (1983).
6. Roskam,J. “Airplane design Vol. I to VIII” Roskam Aviation and Engineering
Corporation, Kansas, (1990).
7. Hoak, D.E. et al. “USAF stability and control DATCOM,” Air force Wright
aeronautical laboratories Technical Report 83-3048, October 1960. (Revised April
1978). Note: Digital DATCOM can be accessed from net.
8. Harris, C.D. “NASA supercritical airfoils” NASA TP 2969, March 1990. This report
can be downloaded from the site “NASA Technical Report Server (NTRS) ”.