DESIGN PROJECT OF LARGE PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by
ABCD (UID)

ABCD (UID)

ABCD (UID)

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In

AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY

APRIL 2019
 CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report of “DESIGN OF __AIRCRAFT” is the

bonafide work of ABCD(16BASXXXX) who carried out the project work
under my supervision.

Head of the Department Staff Member in charge

Submitted before the board of B.E. Degree Practical Examination

(_____APRIL 2019) conducted by Chandigarh University.

External examiner Internal examiner

CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

MISSION SPECIFICATIONS

1. COMPARITIVE STUDY OF PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

2.SELECTION OF MAIN PARAMETERS

2.1 MACH NO VS CL

2.2 VELOCITY VS L/D

2.3 VELOCITY VS EMPTY WEIGHT FRACTION

2.4 VELOCITY VS WING LOADING(W/S)

2.5 VELOCITY VS RANGE

2.6 VELOCITY VS WEIGHT

2.7 VELOCITY VS T/W

2.8 VELOCITY VS ASPECT RATIO

2.9 VELOCITY VS ALTITUDE

2.10 CO-EFFICIENT OF LIFT VS ANGLE OF ATTACK

2.11 CO-EFFICIENT OF LIFT VS CO-EFFICIENT OF DRAG(CL VS CD)

2.12 RESULT

3.WEIGHT ESTIMATION
3.1 ESTIMATING TAKE OFF CROSS WEIGHT,WTO,EMPTY WEIGHT,WE
AND MISSION FUEL WEIGHT,WF

3.2 GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE METHOD

3.3 DETERMINATION OF MISSION PAYLOAD WEIGHT WPL AND

CREW WEIGHT

CREW

3.4 GUESSING A LIKELY VALUE OF AIRCRAFT WEIGHT(WTO GUESS)

3.5 DETERMINATION OF MISSION FUEL WEIGHT

3.6 WEIGHT OF AIRCRAFT

3.7APPROXIMATE WEIGHT ESTIMATION

3.8 ACTUAL WEIGHT ESTIMATION

3.9 SUMMARY OF THE FIRST WEIGHT ESTIMATION

4.ENGINE SELECTION

4.1 SELECTION PROPULSION SYSTEM TYPE

4.2 SELECTION OF THE NUMBER OF ENGINES

4.3 LOCATION OF ENGINES

4.4 THRUST VS SFC

4.5THRUST MATCHING

4.6 CALCULATION OF L/D

4.7 CALCULATION OF TAKE OFF

4.8 THRUST CALCULATION

4.9 JET ENGINE INTEGRATION

4.10 ENGINE CONCLUSION

5.AIRFOIL SELECTION

5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 AIRCRAFT FAMILIES

5.3 AIRFOIL DESIGN

5.4 DESIGN LIFT COEFFICIENT

5.5 STALL

5.6 AIRFOIL THICKNESS RATIO

5.7 OTHER AIRFOIL CONSIDARATION

5.8 TO FIND THE CL MAX

5.9 REYNOLDS NUMBER

5.10 ADVANTAGE OF LOW WING TYPE AIRCRAFT

5.11 DISADVANTAGE OF LOW WING

5.12 ASPECT RATIO CORRECTION

5.13TO FIND CHORD

5.14 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD

5.15 AIRFOIL AND WING CONCLUSION

6. FUSELAGE AND EMPHANNAGE CONFIGURATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 CABIN DESIGN

6.3 VARIOUS CONFIGURATION OF FUSELAGE

6.4 EMPHANNAGE SIZING

6.5 TAIL SIZING CONFIGURATION

6.6 FUSELAGE AND TAIL CONFIGURATION CONCLUSION

7. DRAG ESTIMATION

7.1 INTRODUCTION

7.2 CALCULATION OF TYPES OF DRAG

7.3 TOTAL DRAG CONTRIBUTION CONCLUSION

8. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

8.1 ENGINE DATA

8.2 STALL SPEED

8.3 LANDING DISTANCE

8.4 TAKE OFF DISTANCE

8.5 CONCLUTION OF AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

9. THREE VIEWS OF AIRCRAFT

9.1 TOP VIEW

9.2 SIDE VIEW

9.3 FRONT VIEW

10. CONCLUSION

11. REFERENCE
ABSTRACT
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

W Weight of aircraft
Wo Overall weight
Wf Weight of fuel
We Empty weight
L Lift of aircraft
D Drag of the aircraft
CL Coefficient of lift
CD Coefficient of drag
S Wing area
B Wing span
T Thrust
T/W Thrust loading
W/S Wing loading
A.R Aspect ratio
Cr, Ct Chord length of root,tip
Tr, tt Thickness of root,tip
S Wetted surface area
CD Coefficient of drag of wetted surface
area

Λ Sweep angle of the leading edge

β Dihedral angle
𝛼 Angle of attack

ρ Density
C Wing mean chord
Μ Ground friction
𝛾 Kinematics viscosity
Λ Taper ratio
C.G Center of gravity
R Range
E Endurance
V∞ Free stream velocity
C Chord

Length of fuselage
Lf
VT Vertical tail
HT Horizontal tail
G Gravity
S Distance
H Altitude
LIST OF TABLES

SL.NO TABLE NUMBER PAGE

LIST OF FIGURES

SL.NO FIGURE PAGE

LARGE PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

INTRA-CONTINENTAL

INTRODUCTION

Airplane Design –Introduction

Three major types of airplane designs are

1. Conceptual design

2. Preliminary design

3. Detailed designs

1. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:

It depends on what are the major factors for the designing the aircraft.

a) Power plant location:

For power plant location either padded or buried type engine are more preferred .Rear
location are preferred for low drag , reduced shock and to use whole thrust.

b) Selection of Engine :

The engine to be used is selected according to the power required.

c) Wing section:

Selection of wing depends upon the selection of

2. PRELIMINARY DESIGN:

Preliminary design is based only on loitering

3. DETAILED DESIGN:

The detailed design considers each and every rivets , nuts ,bolts ,paints ,etc .In this design the
connection and allocation are made.

An Airplane designed to meet the functional, operational and safety requirements set by
ultimate user.The actual process of design is a complex and long drawn out engineering task
involving selection of airplane type and shape, determination of geometric parameters,
selection of power plants, structural design, analysis of various components and
determination of airplane operational characteristics. The structural and functional testing of
airplane components are carried out simultaneously with the design work and prototype
construction. The newly built airplane is tested for vibration and dependable functioning of
its system and controls in pre-flight ground testing.

Airplane Design procedure is basically a method of trial and error for design of various units
in aircraft system. Thus each trial aims at closer approach to the final goal and is based on a
more profound study of various problem involved. The whole procedure falls into three
stages are Project feasibility study, Preliminary design, Design project. Design of any system
is the successful application of fundamentals of physics. Thus the airplane design
incorporates the stability and control and basic physics. These are based on certain degree of
judgment and experience. Every designer has the same technical details.

MISSION SPECIFICATION

MISSION

Subsonic domestic passenger

NO. OF ENGINE

Two , Wing-Mounted engine

TYPE OF ENGINE

Turbofan

MAXIMUM SPEED

0.835 mach

RANGE

15000km

CREW

PAYLOAD

28900 kg

ALTITUDE

10,000 m

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

SPECIFICATIONS

MODEL A380` A340 B787 B747

DIMENSIONS:
COCKPIT Two Two Two Two
CREW
PASSENGER - 440 290 -
TYPICAL 1- 853 - - -
CLASS
TYPICAL 2- 644 419 - 524
CLASS
TYPICAL 3- 525 380 280 416
CLASS
LENGTH 73 metres 67.90 metres 62.8 metres 70.6 metres
 (240 ft) (222 ft 8 in) (206 ft) (231 ft 10 in)

WINGSPAN 79.75 metres 63.45 metres 60.1 metres 59.6 metres

(261.6 ft) (208 ft 2 in) (197 ft 3 in) (195 ft 5 in)

WINGS AREA 845 m² 439.4m² 511m²

(9100 sq ft) (4,730 sq ft) (5,500 sq ft)

TAIL HEIGHT 24.08 metres 17.10 metres

(79 ft) (56 ft 1 in)

CABIN 5.28 metres

WIDTH (18 ft 6 in)

FUSELAGE 5.64 metres

WIDTH (18 ft 6 in)

WEIGHTS:
CARGO 176 m³ 197 m³ 153 m³
CAPACITY (6200 cu ft) (7000 cu ft) (5400 cu ft)

EMPTY 276,800 170,900

WEIGHT, Kilograms kilograms
TYPICAL (610,000 lb) (377,000 lb)

MAXIMUM 560,000 372,000 356070

TAKE-OFF kilograms kilograms kilograms
WEIGHT (1,20,000 lb) (820,000 lb) (785,000 lb)
(MTOW)

PAYLOAD 90,800 kg 71,300Kg 71,940 Kg

(200,000 lb) (157,190 lb) (158,600 lb)

PERFORMANCE AND POWER PLANT:

CRUISING Mach 0.89 Mach 0.83 Mach 0.85 Mach 0.85
SPEED (945 km/h) (881km/h) (903 km/h) (903 km/h)

MAXIMUM Mach 0.96 Mach 0.86 Mach 0.89 Mach 0.92

SPEED (1020 km/h) (913 km/h) (945 km/h) (988km/h)

TAKE-OFF 2,900 metres 3,150 metres - 3,018 metres

 RUN AT (9,500) (10,000 ft) (9,902 ft)
MTOW

WING SWEEP 33.5º 31.1º 32.2º -

BACK

MAXIMUM 8,200 nautical 8,670 nautical

RANGE,FULLY miles miles
LOADED (15,200 km) (16,060 km)

SERVICE 13,115 metres 12,000 metres

CEILING (43,028 ft) (39,000 ft)

ENGINE(X 4) GP 7277 RR Trent 500 RR Trent 1000 RR-RB 211-

524G/H

THRUST (X 4) 311-355 236-249 320 kilonewtons 282 kilonewtons

kilonewtons kilonewtons (71,000 lbf) (633000 lbf)
(70,000- (53,000-56,000
80,000lbf) lbf)
 SELECTION OF MAIN
PARAMETERS

2.1 MACH NO Vs CL:

As the mach no increases, the value of CL also increases
because of airflow velocity past over the surface of wing increases, this will
gradually increase the coefficient of lift. When the velocity reaches the stalling
velocity, the value of CL starts to decline.

The graph between mach no Vs CL,

2.2 VELOCITY Vs L/D:

The graph is plotted between velocity and L/D

The above plot is drawn between L/Dand velocity.From the above graph we
get the optimum velocity as 290 m/s and the optimum (L/D) as 1.2
2.3 VELOCITY Vs WEIGHT:

The graph is drawn between velocity and weight. It is plotted between the
overall weight of similar type of subsonic twin tail fighter aircraft and the
velocity of the corresponding aircraft for our specification of aircraft. The
weight of the aircraft is 138461.54 kg in the corresponding velocity of 290 m/s
2.4 VELOCITY Vs WING LOADING(W/S):

The graph is drawn between wing loading & velocity.

Wing loading is the ratio of weight to the wing span.

The above graph is plotted between velocity and w/s(wing loading). From the
above graph we get the optimum value of W/S as 95 kg/m2 and the optimum
velocity is 290 m/s.
2.5 VELOCITY Vs RANGE :

Range is the total distance traversed of an airplane on one load of

fuel.We denote range R

R=2/C1*√2/ρα*S*(C1/CD)*(wo.5-w1.5)

The above plot is drawn between Range and Velocity. From the above graph we
get the optimum velocity as 290m/s and the optimum Range as 15000Km.
2.6 VELOCITY Vs T/W:

The graph is plotted between the velocity and the Thrust/

weight. In addition to CL max , the other important parameter affecting take-off &
ranging distance is T/W. The choice of a too high T/W is determinant to
efficient cruise. The value of T/W is 0.31 in the corresponding velocity of 290
m/s.

The optimum value of T/W from the above graph is.31 & in the corresponding
velocity of 290 m/s.
2.7 VELOCITY Vs ASPECT RATIO:

The graph is drawn between the aspect ratio & velocity , the
choice of low aspect ratio the wing having full span leading edge flaps, the
vertical tails are casted outward by 28º &incorporate conventional rudders.

The above plot is drawn between AR (Aspect Ratio) and velocity. From the
above graph we get the optimum value of velocity as 290 m/s & the optimum
AR is 9.1.
2.8 VELOCITY Vs ALTITUDE :

The graph is drawn between the altitude & velocity . It is

main design parameter. The optimum altitude is 22000m in the corresponding
velocity of 290 m/s

The above plot is drawn between altitude & velocity. From the above graph we
get the optimum velocity as 290 m/s and the optimum altitude as 22000m.
2.9 CO-EFFICIENT OF LIFT Vs ANGLE OF ATTACK:

The experimental data indicated that CL varies linearly with α

over a large range of angle of attack. Thin airfoil theory which is the subject of
more advanced book on aerodynamics also predicts the same type of linear
variation, slope of the linear portion of the lift curve is designed as

α0=𝜕𝑐1/𝜕𝛼 = lift slope at the angle of attack =12º, the CL max

 2.10.RESULTS:

PARAMETERS OPTIMUM VALUES

Optimum VELOCITY 290m/s

Optimum RANGE 15000Km

Optimum ALTITUDE 10000

Optimum WEIGHT 138461.54Kg

Optimum ASPECT RATIO 9.1

Optimum W/S WING LOADING 132Kg/m2

Optimum T/W THRUST LOADING 0.31

L/D max 1.2

 WEIGHT
ESTIMATION
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT ESTIMATION :

3.1.Overview

The multitude of considerations affecting structural design, the complexity of the load
distribution through a redundant structure, and the large number of intricate systems required
in an airplane, make weight estimation a difficult and precarious career. When the detail
design drawings are complete, the weight engineer can calculate the weight of each and every
part--thousands of them--and add them all up...and indeed this is eventually done. But in the
advanced design phase, this cannot be done because there are no drawings of details. In the
beginning, the advanced design engineer creates only a 3-view and some approximate
specifications. The rest of the design remains undefined.

One may start the design process with only very simple estimates of the overall empty weight
of the aircraft based purely on statistical results. Some of these correlations are not bad, such
as the observation that the ratio of empty weight to gross weight of most airplanes is about
50%. Of course, this is a very rough estimate and does not apply at all to aircraft such as the
Voyager or other special purpose designs.

One of the interesting aspects of this data is that it does not seem to follow the expected
"square-cube" law. We might expect that the stress in similar structures increases with the
linear dimensions if the imposed load is proportional to the structural weight because the
latter grows as the cube of the linear dimension while the material cross-section carrying the
load grows as the square. There are several reasons that the relationship is not so simple:
1. Some aircraft components are not affected very much by the square-cube law.
2. New and better materials and techniques have helped empty weight.
3. Higher wing loadings are used for larger aircraft.
4. Some portions of airplanes have material size fixed by minimum "handling" thickness.

The figures below show some of this effect. They are from a classic paper by F.A. Cleveland
entitled, "Size Effects in Conventional Aircraft Design" (J. of Aircraft, Nov. 1970).
" As might be expected there is a considerable diversity of scaling among components. This
is particularly apparent between the airframe components where the square-cube law has a
strong influence, as on the lifting surfaces, and those where it has little effect, as on the
fuselage. The landing gear, powerplant, and air-conditioning system, tend to increases gross
weight, but the electrical system, electronics, instruments ice-protection and furnishings are
affected more by mission requirements than by aircraft size. On balance, the overall factor of
about 2.1 reflects the tendency of the square/cube law to project a modestly increasing
structural weight fraction with size."
3.2 PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The basic mission specifies that an airplane be designed to carry NP passengers at a cruising
speed of V miles per hour over a range of R miles using turbojet or turbofan engines. This
specification actually contains all the major economic information which will decide whether
or not a particular commercial design will be successful. The airplane itself will have an
empty weight WE that we shall see is proportional to the capital cost of the airplane. Thus
this weight component is an important driver in determining the purchase price of the
airplane to a prospective buyer. The operating cost, i.e. the expense incurred by the operator
in flying the airplane, is made up of several parts including fuel expense, crew expense, and
maintenance expense. The first item is a function of airplane design and engine performance
while the last two items are influenced by FAA requirements and tend to be dependent on the
size of the airplane. Therefore major attention will be paid to the amount of fuel necessary to
operate the airplane in accomplishing the mission specification. This factor is readily
expressed as WF, the weight of fuel which must be carried by the airplane. Finally, there is
the positive factor of income generation by the airplane which is accomplished by charging a
fee for each passenger. This illustrates the importance of the payload: it is that portion of the
take-off weight WTO which contributes revenue and is proportional to the number of
passengers. Thus the payload weight WPL=kNP where k is a constant which is generally set
by the operator based upon experience and includes the weight of the typical passenger and
accompanying baggage. Values for this factor k range between 205 and 215 pounds per
passenger (Torenbeek, Ref. 2-1, p.79).This value considers an average passenger weight of
170lbs and an average luggage weight per passenger of 35lbs (short-hail flights) to 40lbs
(long-haul flights. Once the fuselage design is accomplished the volume available in the
cargo hold, over and above that necessary to accommodate the checked luggage, can be
estimated. Then the additional payload due to freight can be included in the refined weight
estimate.

Estimation of fuel fraction

Fuel weight consists of the following .
I. Fuel required for mission .
II. Fuel required as reserve.
III. Trapped fuel which cannot be pumped out.
Mission fuel depends on the following factors.
a) Mission to be flown.
b) Aerodynamics of the airplane viz. (L/D) ratio.
c) SFC of the engine.

3.3 Weight Components

The take-off weight of the airplane is defined as WTO = WOE + WF + WPL where all terms have
been defined previously except for the operating empty weight of the airplane, WOE = WE +
WTFO + WCREW. The operating empty weight of the airplane is the weight of the airplane in a
condition ready to fly, but with no fuel or payload yet taken on board. It therefore includes
the empty weight of the airplane, WE, the weight of the trapped fuel and oil (that is, the fuel
and oil left in lines and at the bottom of tanks, etc., and therefore necessary but unusable),
WTFO , and the weight of the crew, WCREW . This last term includes the weight of the flight
crew, the flight attendants, and all their baggage. The number of crew members is usually set
by the operator with minima stipulated by the FAA while the baggage allowance is set by the
operator. Torenbeek gives a chart for estimating the number of passengers per flight
attendant, a portion of which is given in Table 2-1. When the number of crew members is
determined, their total weight may be found by using the weight factor k that was used for the
passengers. Different values of k for the flight crew and the flight attendants may be used in
later design iterations, but for preliminary design purposes it is sufficient to use the same
average weight for all persons on board, whether they are flight crew members, flight
attendants, or passengers. Consideration of additional payload in the form of cargo freight
will be considered subsequently, as discussed in Section 2.1.

The total usable fuel weight, WF, may be considered to be made up of two parts, the fuel
necessary for the mission of R miles WF,USED and the fuel reserve WF,RES . Again, the latter is
generally set by the operator within the requirements posted by the FAA. The take-off
weight may then be expressed as follows:

WTO = WE + WTFO + WPLC + WF,USED + WF,RES (2-1)

Table :Standard Flight Attendant Schedule

Average number of passengers per flight attendant

First Class Mixed Tourist

International Flights 16 21 31

U.S. Domestic Flights 20 29 36

Note the following definitions:

MTFO = WTFO/WTO

WF = WF,USED + WF,RES

MFUEL = WF/WTO

WPLC = WPL + WCREW

This expression for WTO in Eq. (2-1) may be solved for WE and the result written as

WE = (1 – MTFO – MFUEL)WTO – WPLC (2-2)

Thus, the equation for the empty weight is that for a straight line, i.e., WE = aWTO + b.

This result is shown schematically in Fig. 2-1 where it is seen that the quantity WPLC is the
anchor point for the design of the airplane. All the possible results for WE radiate out from
the point (0, -WPLC) and depend upon the coefficient of the WTO term.

The remaining problem in the weight estimation process is the determination of the
coefficient of the take-off weight in the equation for empty weight. That is, the slope of the
line given by a = 1 – (MTFO + MFUEL), where the term MFUEL clearly depends upon the
amount of fuel used in carrying out the mission specification including the reserve
requirements. The total weight of fuel actually used is WF = WTO – WFINAL and

WF/WTO = 1 – WFINAL/WTO = 1 - MFINAL (2-3)

This means that the fraction of take-off weight that is usable fuel is given by MFUEL = 1 -
MFINAL. The fuel fraction MFUEL may be found by applying a chain product of n stage weight
fractions as follows:
n
WFINAL W11 W
M FINAL    i (2-4)
WTO W0 i 1 Wi 1
 WE
Increasing

(1 – MTFO - MFUEL)

WTO

Figure Empty weight as a function of take-off weight

Here 0we are using eleven stages to the mission: engine start and warm-up, taxi, take-off,
climb, cruise to full range, one hour additional flight at cruise conditions, descent to
destination and refused landing, climb, diversion to alternate airport 200nm distant, descent,
landing. These stages are numbered and appear in the Fig. 2-2 and Table 2-1Operational
rules for determining fuel reserve requirements are set out by the Air Transportation
Association of America and are described in Appendix I.

3.4.Weight fractions for various segments of

mission:
-WPLC
The fuel required in a particular phase of the
mission depends on the weight of the airplane at the
start of that phase and the distance covered or the
duration of time for the phase. Let the mission
consists of ‘n’ phases. The weight fraction for the
phase ‘i’ is denoted as Wi / Wi-1.
Let W0 be the weight at the start of the flight (warm
up) and Wn be the weight at the end of last phase

3.5MISSION PROFILE:
 5 6 9

4
8
7 10

1 2 3 11

Figure Mission profile showing the 11 flight stages for a domestic flight (R<3000
nm). International flights have an additional segment between 10 and 11 calling for a 30
minute hold at 15,000 ft altitude and segment 6 is calculated at 10% of the normal cruise
time, rather than a blanket 1 hour.

To calculate the portion of fuel used and the portion of fuel kept in reserve we note that the
former is given by

WF ,USED
 M F ,USED  1  M FINAL  M F , RES (2-5)
WTO

Then the nominal landing weight fraction is

WLAND, NOM
 M FINAL  M F , RES (2-6)
WTO

The latter term is given by

WF , RES  5 W  9
W 
M F , RES     i 1   i  (2-7)
WTO  i 1 Wi 1  i 6 Wi 1 

The total fuel, it will be recalled, is

WFUEL W
 1  FINAL  1  M FINAL (2-8)
WTO WTO
Recall that the normalized maximum fuel load is given by

WF ,USED  WF , RES
M FUEL   M F ,USED  M F , RES (2-9)
WTO
For purposes of illustration, this term may be approximated using information on empty
weights and numbers of passengers quoted in the literature for 41 operational jet airliners as
follows:

WTO  WE  WPLC W  WPLC

M FUEL   1 E (2-10)
WTO WTO

Data using his approximation is shown in Fig. 2-3 along with a trend line given by MFUEL =
0.0048R1/2. Note that for very long range aircraft the total fuel fraction approaches half the
take-off weight.

0.6

0.5
1 - (We+Wpl)/Wto

0.4

0.3
1-(We+Wpl)/Wto = 0.0048R^0.5
0.2

0.1

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Range (miles)

The total fuel fraction MFUEL as a function of range as estimated from available
information on 41 jet operational airliners. The solid line is an approximate curve fit to the
data shown.
The ratio of the weight of the aircraft at the end of stage i to the weight at the start of stage i
(i.e. the end of the previous stage) is Wi/Wi-1. Compilations of representative values for these
weight fractions for all stages except the cruise stage are given in Ref. 2-2 and appear in the
Table 2-2.

In Table generic value, W4/W3=0.98, is specified, and this is reasonably close to the more
accurate values in Fig. 2-2

Roskam (Ref. 2-2) has collected a substantial database on existing aircraft and has
generated curve fits describing the relationship between WE and WTO. These results suggest a
correlation equation of the form

log10 WE   log10 WTO  A / B (2-11)

In Eq. (2-11) the values of A and B are constants that are different for different classes of
aircraft. For jet transport aircraft Ref. 2-2 offers A = 0.0833 and B = 1.0383, which is
actually very close to a straight line and may be approximated by the equation WE  0.5WTO .

When the focus is narrowed to the particular class of market survey aircraft considered, the
scale of the graph of WE vs. WTO will be larger and the deviations from the historical curve
more evident. The utility of a correlation of this type is in its ability to provide a guideline for
the development of a new design.
 0.978

0.976
Climb Weight Fraction

0.974

0.972

0.97

0.968

0.966

0.964
0 100 200 300 400 500

Gross Weight (000 lbs)

Figure 2-4 The ratio of the weight at the end of climb to that at the start of climb as a
function of the gross weight at start of climb; that is, the ratio W4/W3 of Table 2-1.

3.7.Weight Fractions for the Various Mission Segments

Stage Description Wi/Wi-1

1 Engine start and warm-up 0.990

2 Taxi 0.990

3 Take-off 0.995

4 Climb 0.980

5 Cruise to full range exp [-RCj/V(L/D)]

6 One hour additional flight at cruise conditions exp [-Cj/(L/D)]

7 Descent to destination and refused landing 0.990

8 Climb 0.980

9 Diversion to alternate airport 200n.m. distant exp [-230Cj/V(L/D)

10 Descent 0.990
 11 Landing 0.992

There is a slight nonlinearity in the relationship of empty weight to take-off weight that is not
apparent in Fig. 2-5, but is made clearer in Fig. 2-6. There the correlation
0.079
We  W 
 0.82  to  (2-12)is shown to fit the actual data better than the simple
Wto  1000 

We
approximation  0.5 .
Wto

CALCULATION:

3.7.Estimation of Wf/Wo:
Wf/W0= 1-Mff = (W6/Wo)

Engine warm up and take off:

W1/W0 =0.995

Climbing :

W2/W1 =0.980

Cruise :

W3/W2 = exp [-RCj/V(L/D)]

R=15000km

C =0.5lb/lbhr

V=290m/s

W3/W2 =0.819

Loitering:

W4/W3 =exp [-ECj/(L/D)]

E=3600sec

C=0.621lb/lbhr

L/D=12

W4/W3=0.949
Descending :

W5/W4=0.990

Landing :

W6/W5 =0.992

Mff=0.995X0.98X0.819X0.949X0.99X0.992

=0.7447

Wf/W0= 1-Mff=1-0.7442 =0.2557

Overall weight

𝑊𝑝𝑙 4×(60+10)+410×(60+10)
WO = 𝑊𝑒 𝑊𝑓 =
1−(𝑊0+𝑊0) 1−(0.5+0.2557)

=118,624.642 kg

0.700
Empty weight fraction, We/Wto

0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300 We/Wto = 0.82/(Wto)^.079

0.200
0.100
0.000
0.0 200.0 400.0 600.0 800.0 1000.0 1200.0 1400.0
Take-off weight, Wto (klbs)

Figure : Variation of the empty weight fraction We/Wto with take-off weight Wto for the
45 transports of Fig. 2-4 illustrating the slight nonlinearity of the relationship between the
empty weight and the take-off weight.

3.9.Actual weight estimation

Estimation of Wf/Wo:

Engine warm up and take off:

W1/W0 =0.995
Climbing :

W2/W1 =1.006-(0.0325 × M)
Where, M =0.53
W2/W1 = 0.980

Cruise :

W3/W2 = exp [-RCj/V(L/D)]

R=15000km

C =0.5lb/lbhr

V=290m/s

W3/W2 =0.819

Loitering:

W4/W3 =exp [-ECj/(L/D)]

E=3600sec

C=0.621lb/lbhr

L/D=12

W4/W3=0.949

Descending :

W5/W4=0.990

Landing :

W6/W5 =0.992

W6/W0=0.995X0.98X0.819X0.949X0.99X0.992

=0.7447

Wf/W0= 1.06 (1- (W6/W0 )) = 1.06(0.2557) = 0.2710

We/W0 = AW0c = 0.96 X (118624.6418)-0.05

We/W0= 0.535

Overall weight, WO
=
𝑊𝑝𝑙
𝑊𝑒 𝑊𝑓 = 4×(60+10 )+410×(60+10)
1−(0.535+0.2557)
1−(𝑊0 +𝑊0)

=138461.54 kg

138461.54−118624.64
% of error =
138461.54

= 14.32 %

Weight of FUsed = (1-Mff) WTO

= (1-0.7442)128543.09

WUsed = 32881.32 kg

Empty weight We = 138461.54-32881.32-28700-280

= 76600.22 kg

3.10.SUMMARY OF WEIGHT ESTIMATION:

Maximum take off weight =138461.54 kg

Empty weight =76600.22 kg

Fuel weight used =32881.32 kg

ENGINE SELECTION
4.1..SELECTION PROPULSION TYPE:

The following factors play a role in selecting the type of propulsion system to be used.

 Required cruise speed or maximum speed

 Required maximum operating altitude
 Range and range economy
 FAR 36 noise regulations(applies to civil airplane)
 Installed weight
 Reliability and maintainability
 Fuel amount needed
 Fuel cost
 Fuel availability
 Specific customer or market demand
 Timely certification
Overall fuel efficiency and installed weight often dominate the arguments pro and a certain
type of propulsion system.

From a certification point of view only the following propulsion system types will be viable
for applications.

 Piston or propeller with or without super charging

 Turbo or propeller
 Prop fan
 Unducted fan
 Turbojet
 Turbofan
 Rocket
 Ramjet
The following step by step procedures is suggested to arrive at a decision on the types of
propulsion system to be used.

Step 1:Check the machines specifications for any definition of the type of powerplant
required.Frequently the type of powerplant is specified in the mission specifications.

Step 2:Draw a preliminary speed verses altitude envelop for the airplane.

Step 3:Compare the airplane speed altitude envelop and decide which type of powerplant
provides the best overall match.

Conventional wisdom says that it is undesirable to mix different types of powerplant in one
airplane.An important argument in favour of this stand is that different types of propulsion
system call for different operating procedures.This certainly increases the crew work load
which is not desirable.

Another argument in favour of this stand point is that maintenance will become more costly
when different types of propulsion systems are used in the same airplane.
While these arguments are certainly there have been several successful derivations from this
rule.

The convair B36 bomber which used six propeller or piston engines and four turbo jet
engines.The lockheeds P2V Neptune which used two piston or propeller engines and two
turbojet engines.

4.2.SELECTION OF THE NUMBER OF ENGINES:

There are two possibilities of this point:

1. A new engine will be developed for the purpose design.In this case the engine can be
tailored to the existing design.The reader must be aware of the fact that the
development and certification of new powerplant is expensive and takes a long lead
time For new jet engines a typical lead time is 7-10 years.
2. An existing engine must be used because the power or thrust level of existing engines
is basically frozen the number of engine determined by dividing the required take off
power or thrust level by an integer usually 1,2,3,or4.

4.3LOCATION OF ENGINES:

Two engine configuration is selected the engines are placed in the under wing
configuration in a low wing aircraft. It is one of the type of podded engine.

4.4THRUST VS SFC:

The sfc is used to find the amount of fuel burned.We plot the graph and take the optimum
value of sfc.After we select the engine parameters value is given below.

The above engine meet the thrust requirement of our aircraft wih minimum sfc.The
configuration of the engine is podded engine.

4.5.THRUST MATCHING:

For further selection of aircraft parameters we consider the thrust matching between the
optimum T/W by plotting graph and the T/W ratio obtained by using wetted aspect ratio.

4.6.CALCULATION OF L/D:
Aspect ratio
Wetted aspect ratio=
wetted surface area

From historical data,

Swet /Sref =3 to 3.1

Wetted aspect ratio =(6/3 +6/3.1)/2

= 1.967

L/Dmax =1.2

4.7.CALCULATION OF TAKE OFF (T/W):

1. Cruise (T/W) =1/( L/D)max cruise

( L/D) max cruise = (L/D) max×0.866

= 1.2 ×0.866

=1.039

(T/W) max cruise = 1/( L/D) max cruise

= 0.962

2. Loiter (T/W) = 1/( L/D) max

=0.833

3. Take off

W cruise = W3/W2× W0

= 0.949 × 138461.54

= 131,400 kg

(T/W)take off = (T/W)cruise ×(Wcruise/WTO)×(TTO/Tcruise)

4.8Thrust calculation

TTO = W0 × T/W × 9.81

= 138461.54 × 0.31 ×9.81

= 421,075.389 N
Tcruise =138461.54 ×9.81

= 1,358,307.707 N

Now substituting the values we get,

(T/W)take off = 0.962×(131400/138461.54) ×(421074.39/1,358,307.707)

= 0.283

Thus the calculated (T/W) ratio and optimum (T/W) ratio values are
approximately met each other.
4.9. JET ENGINE INTEGRATION

If the aircraft is designed using an existing,off-the shelf engine,the dimensions are obtained
from the manufacturer.If a “rubber” engine is being used,the dimensions for the engine must
be obtained by scaling from some nominal engine size by whatever scale factor is required to
provide the desired thrust.The nominal engine can be obtained by several methods.

In the major aircraft companies,designers can obtain estimated data for hypothetical “rubber”
engines from the engine companies.This data is presented for a nominal engine size, and
precise scaling laws are provided.

Better yet,engine companies sometimes provide “parametric deck” a computer program that
will provide performance and dimensional data for an arbitrary advanced-technology engine
based upon input such as bypass ratio,overall pressure ratio,turbine inlet temperature.

Another method for defining a nominal engine assumes that the new engine will be a scaled
version of an existing one,perhaps with some performance improvement due to the use of
new technologies.For example,in designing a new fighter one could start with the dimensions
and performance charts of the P&W F-100 turbofan,which powers the F-15&F-16.

To approximate the improvements due to advanced technologies, one could assume,say,a 10

or 20% reduction in fuel consumption and similar reduction in weight.This would reflect the
better materials ,higher operating temperatures,and more efficient compressors and turbines
that could be built today.

Fig (a) illustrates the dimensions that must be scaled froe the nominal engine.The Scale factor
“SF” is the ratio between the required thrust and the actual thrust of the nominal
engine.Equations (1&2) show low length,diameter, and weight vary with the scale factor for
the typical jet engine.

L=Lactual(SF)0.4

D=Dactual(SF)0.5

W=Wactual(SF)1.1
Although statistically derived,these equations make intuitive sense.Thrust is roughly
proportional to the mass flow of air used by the engine,which is related to the square of the
diameter,it follows that the diameter should be proportional to the square root of the thrust
Scale-Factor.

Note the engine-accessories package beneath the engine.The accessories include fuel
pumps,oil pumps,power-take off gear boxes,and engine control boxes.The location and size
of the accessory package varies widely for different type of engine to a radius about 20-40%
greater than the engine radius.On some engines these aaccessories have been located in the
compressor spinner or other places.

4.10.ENGINE SCALING:

If a parametric deck is unvaliable, and no existing engines come close enough to the desired
characteristics to be rubberized and updated as descrided above,then a parametric statistical
approach can be used to define the nominal engine.

L=Lactual(SF)0.4

L=4.78×(0.944)0.4

L=4.67m

D=Dactual(SF)0.5

D=2.67×(0.944)0.5

D=2.59m

W=Wactual(SF)1.1

W=3708.57×(0.944)1.1

W=3480.77kg
 AIRFOIL SECTION
AND
WING CONFIGURATION
5.1.INTRODUCTION

Before the design layout can be started, values for a number of parameters can
be chosen. These include the airfoils, the wings and the tail geometries, wing
loading, thrust to weight ratio, estimated take-off gross weight and fuel weight,
estimated wing, tail and engine sizes, and the required fuselage size.

The airfoil in many respects, is the heart of the airplane. The airfoil affects the
cruise speed, take-off and landing distances, stall speed, handling qualities
(especially near the stall), and overall aerodynamic efficiency during all the
phases of flight.

Airfoil characteristics are strongly affected by “Reynold’s Number” at which

they are operating. A typical aircraft wing operates at a Reynold’s no of about
10 million. Figure illustrates the so called laminar bucket. For a laminar airfoil
operating at the design Reynold’s there is a range of lift coefficient for which
the laminar flow remains over a substantial part of the airfoil. This causes a
significant reduction of drag for a given lift coefficient. However, this effect is
very dependant upon Reynold’s no as well as the actual surface smoothness.

Profile geometry – 1: Zero lift line; 2: Leading edge; 3: Nose circle; 4: Camber; 5: Max. thickness;
6: Upper surface; 7: Trailing edge; 8: Main camber line; 9: Lower surface
General airfoil theory

When an airfoil is located in an airstream, the flow divides at the leading edge,
the stagnation point. The camber of the airfoil section means that the air passing
over the top surface has further to travel to reach the trailing edge than that
travelling along the lower surface. In accordance with Bernoulli’s equation the
higher velocity along the upper
airfoil surface results in a lower pressure producing a lift force. The net result of
the velocity differences produces an effect equivalent to that of a parallel air
stream and a rotational velocity (‘vortex’) .
For the case of a theoretical finite airfoil section, the pressure on the upper and
lower surface tries to equalize by flowing round the tips. This rotation persists
downstream of the wing resulting in a long U-shaped vortex . The generation of
these vortices needs the input of a continuous supply of energy; the net result
being to increase the drag of the wing, i.e. by the addition of so-called induced
drag.

5.2.AIRFOIL FAMILIES

The early airfoils were developed mostly by trial and error. In four-digit airfoils,
the first digit defined the percent camber, the second defined the location of the
maximum camber and the last two digits defined the airfoil maximum thickness
in percent of chord.

The NACA 5-digit airfoils were developed to allow shifting the position of the
maximum camber forward for greater maximum lift. The six series airfoils such
as 64A series are still used as the starting point for high speed wing design.
5.3.AIRFOIL DESIGN :

Airfoil selection would consider factors such as airfoil drag during cruise, stall
and pitching moment characteristics, the thickness available for the structure
and fuel and the ease of manufacture.

Modern airfoil design is based upon inverse computational solutions for desired
pressure (or velocity) distributions and the airfoil.

The airfoil optimization techniques result in airfoils with substantial pressure

differentials (lift) over a much greater percent of chord than a classical airfoil.
This permits a reduced wing area(and a wetted area) for a required amount of
lift. Another consideration in modern airfoil design is to maintain a laminar
flow over the greatest possible part of the airfoil.

5.4.DESIGN LIFT COEFFICIENT

The first consideration in initial airfoil selection is the “design liftcoefficient”.

This is the lift coefficient at which the airfoil has the best L/D.
CL CL

BEST L/D
BEST L/D
CD
CD

CONVENTIONAL AIRFOIL LAMINAR AIRFOIL

As the first approximation , it can be assumed that the wing lift coefficient C l,
equals the airfoil lift coefficient. In the level flight thelift must equal the
weight, so the required design lift coefficient can be found as follows:

W=L= qsCL=qSCL

CL= (1/q)*(W/S)

In actual practice design lift coefficient usually will be based upon past
experience, and for most types of aircraft, initial selection of the airfoil is often
simply based on prior experience or copied from some successful design.

Airfoil coefficients :

Lift, drag and moment (L, D, M) acting on an aircraft wing are expressed by the
equations:

W=L=qscL

where q=1/2ρv²

CL=1/q(w/s) q=1/2×0.413×290²

=1/17366.65(95) q=17366.65kg/ms²

CL=7.6×10ˉ³

5.5.STALL :

Stall characteristics play an important role in airfoil selection. Some airfoils

exhibit a gradual reduction in lift during a stall, while others show a violent loss
of lift, accompanied by a rapid change in pitching moment.

“FAT” Airfoils(round leadingedges and t/c>14%) stall from the trailing edge.At
around 10º the boundary layer begins to separate, starting at the trailing edge
and moving forward as the angle of attack is further increasedThinner airfoils
stall from the leading edge. At some higher angles of attack, the flow fails to
reattach itself, which almost immediate stalls the entire airfoil. This causes an
abrupt change in lift and pitching moment. Very thin airfoil exhibits another
form of stall. As before, the flow separates from the nose at a small angle of
attack and reattaches almost immediately. Beyond that angle of attack the flow
is separated over the whole airfoil, so the stall occurs. The loss of lift is smooth,
but large changes in pitching moment are experienced.

5.6.AIRFOIL THICKNESS RATIO :

Airfoil thickness ratio has a direct effect on drag, maximum lift, stall
characteristics, and structural weight. Figure illustrates the effect of thickness
ratio on subsonic drag. The drag increases with increasing thickness due to
increased separation.

Figure shows the impact of thickness ratio on critical mach no, the mach no at
which supersonic flow first appears ove r the wing.

The thickness ratio affects the maximum lift and stall characteristics primarily
by its effect on nose shape. The thickness also affects the structural weight of
the wing.

5.7.OTHER AIRFOIL CONSIDERATIONS

Another important aspect of airfoil is the intended Reynold’s number. Each

airfoil is designed for a certain Reynold’s no. Use of an airfoil at a greatly
different Reynold’s no. (half and order of magnitude or so) can produce section
characteristics much different from those expected.

The selected airfoil is mostly important for determining the thickness available
for structure, landing gear, and fuel. For swept wing supersonic aircraft, NACA
64 A and 65A sections are good airfoils for initial design.
GRAPH REPRESENTS EFFECT OF t/c ON DRAG

5.8.To find CLmax:

The velocity at cruise=290m/s

Vstall=0.25×Vcruise

Vstall=0.25×290

Vstall=72.5m/s

The co-efficient of lift is maximum at stalling velocity

L=CLmax ×ρ ×Vstall× S

CLmax=2(W/S)×g /ρVstall²

=(2×132×9.81)/(0.413×(72.5)²)

CLmax=1.2

5.9.Reynolds number(Re):

ρ at=10km=0.413kg/m³

µ at=10km=1.51NS/m²×10-5

Re=ρvc/µ

=ρ×Vstall×c/µ

=0.413×72.5×8.25/1.51×10-5

Re=16.36×106

AIRFOIL OF BOEING -737

The Boeing 737-300 airfoil, unlike some aircraft, does not

have a NACA number. This is because the airfoil for the 737-300 is custom
made by the Boeing company. The airfoil for the 737-300 is taken from the
earlier and less efficient 737-200. The main changes to the airfoil focused on the
leading edge contour and improved high speed performance and the turbulent
air penetration speed. The airfoil itself is mostly symmetrical at the root but it
becomes somewhat laminar the farther down you go on the wing as shown in
the airfoil cross sections below. The identifier given to the wing by Boeing for
the wing root airfoil is BAC 449/450/451 and the wing tip airfoil identifier is
BAC 442 mod.

5.10.ADVANTAGES OF LOW-WING AIRCRAFT:

1) Integrated structure of wing having maximum strength for carrying the maximum wing
loading.

2) Because of low wing type,the downwash to the horizontal stabilizer is greatly reduced.

3) Maintenance of engine in low-wing type is easily possible.

5.11.DIS ADVANTAGES OF LOW-WING AIRCRAFT:

1) Require long landing gear for maintenance the optimum clearance between ground
and engine.
2) Chance for entering the dust particles into engine which seriously affect the engine
efficiency.

5.12.Aspect ratio correction:

∝𝐴𝑅= ∝ +∝𝑖

57.3Cl 57.3  0.9

i    2.345
  AR 7

w
2
VS (  )  s  48.413m / s
 sea  CLmax

w
2
VS (  )  s  55.902m / s
 sea  0.75CLmax
5
Vdrive  Vcruise  250  304.4m / s
18

Vcruise  235m / s
Angle of attack ( ) 𝑪𝒍 Induced angle of ∝𝑨𝑹= ∝ +∝𝒊
attack
-14 -0.9 -2.345 -16.345
-12 -0.05 -0.1302 -12.1302
-10 -0.3 -0.7816 -10.7816
-8 -0.55 -1.433 -9.433
-6 -0.8 -2.084 -8.084
-4 -1 -2.6055 -6.6055
-2 -1.2 -3.1267 -5.1267
0 1.4 3.647 3.647
2 1.6 4.1689 6.1689
4 1.8 4.690 8.69
6 2 5.2118 11.2118
7 2.05 5.314 12.3414

4.2. Velocity and load factor:

V m/s Positive load factor V m/s Negative load factor

9.6826 0.04 11.1804 0.04
19.3652 0.16 22.3608 0.16
29.0478 0.36 33.5412 0.36
38.7304 0.64 44.7216 0.64
48.413 1 55.902 1
58.75 1.4726 58.75 1.10439
235 23.56 235 17.6718
304.4 39.533 304.4 29.6506

velocity V m/s U m/s n n  1 n 1

Stall 58.75 8 0.00687 1.00683 0.993
Cruise 235 8 0.0272 1.02 0.93

dive 304.4 8 0.0353 1.0303 0.965

.
5.13.V-n diagram:
5.14.To find chord:

We have from selection of main parameters

W/S =138461.54/95=1457.49 kg/m²

Selecting a high aspect ratio (AR) will lower induced drag in cruise and save fuel. A value of
10 is to be used. The choice of aspect ratio will need to be reviewed in a trade-off study later
in the design process. Using the wing area and aspect ratio we can determine:
𝑏²
A.R=
𝑆

b²= A.R × S
b=75.6m

A.R=b/c

9.16=75.6/c

C=8.25

Taper ratio λ=0.24

0.24=Ct/Cr

0.24=Ct/8.25

Ct=1.98

Sweep angle=31º

5.15.MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD:

Mean aerodynamic chord is defined as the chord length that,when multiplied by wing area
and the moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center ,yields the value of aerodynamic
moment about the airplanes aerodynamic centers.
𝑏
Y=(1 + 2λ|1 + λ)
6

Y=15.038m

Since we obtain,

2 1+λ+λ²
C=3Cr⌊ ⌋
1+λ

C=5.755m
5.16.CONCLUSION OF AIRFOIL AND WING CONFIGURATION

CLmax=1.2

Re=16.36×106

C=8.25

λ=0.24

Ct=1.98

Sweep angle=31º

Yˉ=15.038m

C=5.755m
 FUSELAGE
AND
EMPHANNAGE
CONFIGURATION
7.1. Various configurations of Landing Gear:

For most aircraft, the fuselage layout can be considered in isolation to the wing and
other control surfaces. The internal space requirements, set by the aircraft specification,
are used to fix the central section of the fuselage. For civil aircraft, this shape is governed
by the passenger cabin layout.
The fuselage width is set by the number of seats abreast, the seat width and the aisle
width. The depth is set to accommodate the cargo containers below the floor and the
headroom above the aisle. A circular section is preferred for an efficient structural
pressure shell. This requirement may impose constraints on the preferred width and
depth sizes. Although this aircraft is designed principally as an executive aircraft, we
must make sure that the size is suitable for any other variants that we may want to
consider as part of the aircraft ‘family’.

Over all weight of aircraft =23805.56Kg

7.2.Tyre Sizing:

Where WW –Weight of the wheel

Rr –Rolling radius

D –Diameter

W –Width

Nearly 90% of aircraft load is carried by the main landing gear and only 10% of
the aircraft weight is carried by nose wheel, but it experiences high dynamic load. Nose type
size can be 60-100% of the main tire size, but in the bicycle and quadricycle, the tire size can
be same.

Operating tire at a lower internal pressure will greatly improve the tyre weight
and largest tire causing drag weight and space occupation.

WW = P× Ap

d 
Ap = 2.3× w  d   Rr 
2 

KEbraking=1/2 V2stall ×Wlanding/g

KEbraking=1/2 V2vertical × Wlanding/g

KE absorbed =ηL ST

7.3. Gear retraction Geometry:

1.4. Loads on Landing Gear:

1. Vertical load factor

2. Spin up

3. Spring back

4. Braking

5. One wheel arrested

6. Turning loads

7. Taxing loads

When aircraft touches the ground, the wheels are not rotating. Then after a fraction
of second it will spin up. It is called as spin up loads. Nearly 50% of the actual load acting on
the landing gear. Once it starts to rotate, the rearward force is released and the gear strut
springs back forward. This spring back load is greater than or equal to spin up loads. Braking
load can be estimated by braking co-efficient (normally 0.8). The aircraft is subjected to drop
lost to find out the vertical load factors (from 23 to 48cm) .

1.5. Three Stages of Landing Gear Design:

1. Preliminary landing gear design

2. Primary landing gear design

3. Detailed landing gear design

1. Preliminary landing gear design:

Entire layout, shock absorbers, steering system, skit control, retraction

mechanism, cockpit requirement and strength. Shock absorber design is based on types of
configuration and stroke length.

2. Primary landing gear design:

Selection of tires, construction methods, temperature effects and tyre friction.

Kinetic analysis of the brakes, skit controls and wheels are performed in this.

3. Detailed landing gear design:

Material selection locks, bushing seals and lubrication.

Tyre sizing:

Main wheel diameter or width = AWwB

For transport aircraft A = 5.3

B = 0.315

D = 5.3 10712.4120.315

= 98.8576 cm

Ww = weight on wheel

10% = nose wheel

90% = main landing gear

Width A = 0.39 B = 0.480

Diameter = 0.39 10712.4120.480 = 33.528 cm

Maximum pressure = 120 Psi = 828 KPa

Size Speed Max load Max Max Rolling Wheel No of

Knots or Lb width diameter Radius diameter plies
mph In In In In
12.5-16 590 12800 12.75 38.4 15.6 16 12
7.4.Cabin design:
Description:

For an aircraft of 100 + capacity, conventional seating(mixed class ) would be five abreast
for passenger long range transport it should provide higher comfort level typically maximum
first class seat is wide providing generous aisle would make the fuselage diameter to adding
0.2 m for the pressure cabin structure makes.

Fuselage cross-section must be also consider in relation to the cargo pallet sizes to be
accommodated below cabin floor

Class Seat abreast Seat width

Executive 4 0.7m
Tourist 5 .56m
charter 6 0.47m

The length of the cabin is determined by the seat pitch this various as the class

Tourist = 0.8 to 0.9 Executive = 1 to 1.1 m

Charter =0.7 to 0.8

The longest charter pitch with six abreast seating requires cabin length of 16m.

It is desirable to split the cabin in to at least two separate sectors this makes the in-flight
servicing easier and allow more options for the airline to segregate different classes for the
charter layout this division, will allow a quieter environment with cabin.

7.2. Cabin layout:

A service module is positional at this location external service doors and hatches are
positional here and these contact as emergency exists.

This service module will account for some 2.5 meters.

 Rear cabin Centre cabin Front cabin Total seat
charter 9 42 9 60

Calculation:

We have seat pitch for economy class 0.6 to 0.7 m

Let us take pitch = 0.65 m

Total cabin length = 16.5

Service module accouter = 3.5 m

Available space to arrange seats =13m

The rear cabin with = 1.95m

Centre cabin width = 9.1 m

Rear cabin width =1.95m

Seat dimensions:

Volume =1× .55 × .6 =0.33m3

7.5.FARs Related to seating:

Maximum number of seats abreast.

On airplanes having only one passenger aisle, no more than three seats abreast may be placed
on each side of the aisle in any one row.
Doors.
(a) Each cabin must have at least one easily accessible external door.
(b) There must be a means to lock and safeguard each external door against opening in flight
(either inadvertently by persons or as a result of mechanical failure or failure of a single
structural element either during or after closure). Each external door must be open able from
both the inside and the outside, even
though persons may be crowded against the door on the inside of the airplane. Inward
opening doors may be used if there are means to prevent occupants from crowding against
the door to an extent that would interfere with the opening of the door. The means of opening
must be simple and obvious and must be arranged and marked so that it can be readily
located and operated, even in darkness. Auxiliary locking devices may be used.
(c) Each external door must be reasonably free from jamming as a result of fuselage
deformation in a minor crash.
(d) Each external door must be located where persons using them will not be endangered by
the propellers when appropriate operating procedures are used.
(e) There must be a provision for direct visual inspection of the locking mechanism to
determine if external doors, for which the initial opening movement is not inward (including
passenger, crew, service, and cargo doors), are fully closed and locked. The provision must
be discernible under operational lighting conditions by appropriate crewmembers using a
flashlight or equivalent lighting source. In addition, there must be a visual warning means to
signal the appropriate flight crewmembers if any external door is not fully closed and locked.
The means must be designed such that any failure or combination of failures that would result
in an erroneous closed and locked indication is improbable for doors for which the initial
opening movement is not inward.
(f) External doors must have provisions to prevent the initiation of pressurization of the
airplane to an unsafe level if the door is not fully closed and locked. In addition, it must be
shown by safety analysis that inadvertent opening is extremely improbable.
(g) Cargo and service doors not suitable for use as emergency exits need only meet
paragraphs (e) and (f) of this section and be safeguarded against opening in flight as a result
of mechanical failure or failure of a single structural element.
(h) Each passenger entry door in the side of the fuselage must qualify as a Type A, Type I, or
Type II passenger emergency exit and must meet the requirements of that apply to that type
of passenger emergency exit.
(i) If an integral stair is installed in a passenger entry door that is qualified as a passenger
emergency exit, the stair must be designed so that under the following conditions the
effectiveness of passenger emergency egress will not be impaired:
(1) The door, integral stair, and operating mechanism have been subjected to the inertia
forces specified in acting separately relative to the surrounding structure.
(2) The airplane is in the normal ground attitude and in each of the attitudes corresponding to
collapse of one or more legs of the landing gear.
(j) All lavatory doors must be designed to preclude anyone from becoming trapped inside the
lavatory, and if a locking mechanism is installed, it be capable of being unlocked from the
outside without the aid of special tools.
Seats, berths, safety belts, and harnesses.
(a) A seat (or berth for a nonambulant person) must be provided for each occupant who has
reached his or her second birthday.
(b) Each seat, berth, safety belt, harness, and adjacent part of the airplane at each station
designated as occupiable during takeoff and landing must be designed so that a person
making proper use of these facilities will not suffer serious injury in an emergency landing as
a result of the inertia forces specified in (c) Each seat or berth must be approved.
(d) Each occupant of a seat that makes more than an 18-degree angle with the vertical plane
containing the airplane centerline must be protected from head injury by a safety belt and an
energy absorbing rest that will support the arms, shoulders, head, and spine, or by a safety
belt and shoulder harness that will prevent the head from contacting any injurious object.
Each occupant of any other seat must be protected from head injury by a safety belt and, as
appropriate to the type, location, and angle of facing of each seat, by one or more of the
following:
(1) A shoulder harness that will prevent the head from contacting any injurious object.
(2) The elimination of any injurious object within striking radius of the head.
(3) An energy absorbing rest that will support the arms, shoulders, head, and spine.
(e) Each berth must be designed so that the forward part has a padded end board, canvas
diaphragm, or equivalent means, that can withstand the static load reaction of the occupant
when subjected to the forward inertia force specified in Berths must be free from corners and
protuberances likely to cause injury to a person occupying the berth during emergency
conditions.
(f) Each seat or berth, and its supporting structure, and each safety belt or harness and its
anchorage must be designed for an occupant weight of 170 pounds, considering the
maximum load factors, inertia forces, and reactions among the occupant, seat, safety belt, and
harness for each relevant flight and ground load condition (including the emergency landing
conditions prescribed in (1) The structural analysis and testing of the seats, berths, and their
supporting structures may be determined by assuming that the critical load in the forward,
sideward, downward, upward, and rearward
directions (as determined from the prescribed flight, ground, and emergency landing
conditions) acts separately or using selected combinations of loads if the required strength in
each specified direction is substantiated. The forward load factor need not be applied to
safety belts for berths.
(2) Each pilot seat must be designed for the reactions resulting from the application of the
pilot forces prescribed in
(3) The inertia forces specified in must be multiplied by a factor of 1.33 in determining the
strength of the attachment of each seat to the structure and each belt or harness to the seat or
structure.
(g) Each seat at a flight deck station must have a restraint system consisting of a combined
safety belt and shoulder harness with a single-point release that permits the flight deck
occupant, when seated with the restraint system fastened, to perform all of the occupant's
necessary flight deck functions. There must be a means to secure each combined restraint
system when not in use to prevent interference with the operation of the airplane and with
rapid egress in an emergency.
(h) Each seat located in the passenger compartment and designated for use during takeoff and
landing by a flight attendant required by the operating rules of this chapter must be:
(1) Near a required floor level emergency exit, except that another location is acceptable if
the emergency egress of passengers would be enhanced with that location. A flight attendant
seat must be located adjacent to each Type A emergency exit. Other flight attendant seats
must be evenly distributed among the required floor level emergency exits to the extent
feasible.
(2) To the extent possible, without compromising proximity to a required floor level
emergency exit, located to provide a direct view of the cabin area for which the flight
attendant is responsible.
(3) Positioned so that the seat will not interfere with the use of a passageway or exit when the
seat is not in use.
(4) Located to minimize the probability that occupants would suffer injury by being struck by
items dislodged from service areas, stowage compartments, or service equipment.
(5) Either forward or rearward facing with an energy absorbing rest that is designed to
support the arms, shoulders, head, and spine.
(6) Equipped with a restraint system consisting of a combined safety belt and shoulder
harness unit with a single point release. There must be means to secure each restraint system
when not in use to prevent interference with rapid egress in an emergency.
(i) Each safety belt must be equipped with a metal to metal latching device.
(j) If the seat backs do not provide a firm handhold, there must be a handgrip or rail along
each aisle to enable persons to steady themselves while using the aisles in moderately rough
air.
(k) Each projecting object that would injure persons seated or moving about the airplane in
normal flight must be padded.
 DRAG
ESTIMATION
7.1 DRAG ESTIMATION

DRAG:

 Drag is the revolved component of the complete aerodynamic force

which is parallel to the flight direction (or relative on coming airflow).
 It always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
 It is undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the
desirable component.

Drag coefficient (CD):

 Amount of drag generated depends on:

 platform area (S), air density (ρ), flight speed (V), drag
coefficient(CD)

 CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:

 Section shape, platform geometry, angle of attack (α),
compressibility effect (Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds
number).

Drag components:

Skin friction:

 Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.

 Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary
layers.
Form(pressure) Drag:

 Due to static pressure distribution around body – component resolving in

direction of motion.
o Sometimes considered separately as forebody and rear (base) drag
components

Wave drag:

 Due to the presence of shock wave at transonic and supersonic

speeds.
 Result of both direct shock losses and the influence waves on the
boundary layer.
 Often decomposed into portions related to:
 Lift.
 Thickness or Volume.
Typical streamlining effect:

Lift induced (or) trailing vortex drag:

The lift induced drag is the component which has the included to account for the
3-D nature of the flow (finite span) and generation of the wing lift.

DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION:

assuming a parabolic drag polar, the drag coefficiend of an airplane can be written as:
CD=CDo+CL2/πeAR
The zero lift coefficiend ,CDocan be expressed as:
CDo=f/S
where f- equivalend parasite area
S-Wing area
it is possible to related equivalend parasite area ,f to wetted area. andits shown in fig

The value of a &b depend on Cf value

where c and d value for fighter is given by
C=-o.1289, d=0.7506 W0=18920kg
There fore substitute all the values in above
Swet=1206.02
To find f:
from above eqn with table
a= -2.5229 , b= 1.0000
f=3.61
The zero lift drag eqn is given by
CDo=f/S
wing area=42.93m2

CDo=0.0842

CD=CDo+CL2/πeAR
Where , 1/ πeAR=K
K= 1/π*0.7*3.44 [assuming e=0.7]
K=0.132
The above eqn become

CD=0.0842+0.132CL2
CALCULATION:

The general drag equation is given by,

D=(1/2)⍴*V*S*CD
CD=CD0+K(Cl)2

The drag polar is given by

CD=0.0842+0.132CL2
Therefore above equation become

D=((1/2)pV2S)( 0.0842+0.132CL2)

Drag at Crusie:

P=0.144kg/m3 (at cruising altitude of 16870m)

V=568.91m/s

S=42.93kg/m2

CL(Cruise)=1.7(from the wing and aerofoil estimation)

Substituting all the values in the general drag equation,

D=((1/2)0.144x568.912x42.93)( 0.0842+0.132(1.7)2)

Drag at Cruise D=465.87KN

Drag at Take-off:
Where, at take off
Density (⍴) = 1.225kg/m3
wing area S=42.93m2
velocity (VTO) = 1.2*Vstall
Vstall= 64.43m/s
VTO=77.31
coefficient of lift at take off (Clmaxgross) = 2.2 (flap extended and kept at takeoff position of
20o)
Wher the ground effect is consider CD=CD0+φK(Cl)2

For calculating φ, we use the formula,

φ =(16h/b)/(1+(16h/b)2)

Where h=height above ground=5.045m,

b=wing span=12.15m.

φ =(16x5.045/12.15)/(1+(16x5.045/12.15)2)=0.147

Substituting all the values in the general drag equation,

D = ((1/2)1.225x77.312x42.93)( 0.0842+0.01943(2.2)2)
 Therefore, Drag at Take-off ,D = 28.00KN

With, gear down

flap take off
power is maximum

Drag at Landing:
Where,
2
wing area S= 42.93m
Density(⍴)=1.225kg/m3
coefficient of lift at landing:Clmax(L) =Clmax(TO)/(Velocity take off coefficient)2
Velocity take off coefficient = 1.2
Clmax(L)=1.52
Velocity at landing (VL)= {(W/S)L/(0.5*⍴*Clmax(L))}0.5
Where (W/S)L= 6845.11kg/m3
VL=85.75m/s
Therefore, Substituting all the values in the general drag equation,

D = ((1/2)1.225x85.752x42.93)( 0.0842+0.132(1.52)2)

Drag at Landing, D=75.24 KN With, gear up

flap landing

power is minimum

CRUISING FLIGHT PERFORMANCE:

CALCULATION OF VELOCITY AT MINIMUM THRUST REQUIRED:

VTR(min)= {(2/⍴)(k/CD0)0.5(W/S)}0.5

Where ⍴= 0.144kg/m3

CD0=0.0842

W/S=4322.46N/m3
W/S=440.61Kg/m3 (at max lift condition)
K=0.132
VTR(min) = {(2/0.144)(0.132/0.0842)0.5(440.16)}0.5
VTR(min)= (7654.38)0.5
VTR(min)=87.48m/s
CALCULATION OF MAX LIFT TO DRAG RATIO (L/D)max:
(L/D)max={1/(4* CD0*K)}0.5
(L/D)max={1/(4* 0.0842*0.132)}0.5
(L/D)max= 4.74
CALCULATION OF VELOCITY AT MAX LIFT TO DRAG RATIO V(L/D)max:
V(L/D)max=VTR(min)
Therefore
V(L/D)max=87.48m/s
THRUST REQUIRED MINIMUM(TR)min:
(TR)min =W0/(L/D)max
whrer, W0=18920kg
(TR)min= 39.15 KN
POWER REQUIREDMINIMUM(Pr):
for level unaccelerated flight
power = Energy/time =force*(distance/time)
=F*V
Pr=TRmin*V
Where V = 568.91m/s
TRmin= 39.15 KN
Pr=39.15*568.91
Pr= 22.27 MN m/s

THRUST AVILABLE:
TA=135.39KN (from engine selection)

POWER AVAILABLE PA:

PA = TA*V
Where TA=135.49KN , V=568.91
PA = 135.49*103*568.91
PA = 77.08MN m/s
PERFORMANCE
ANALYSIS
8.1.ENGINE DATA:
Before a detailed performance estimation can be made it is essential to have
representative engine performance charts (or data) available. From the problem
definition phase either the engine or the engine type may be known. The initial
sizing work will have provided an estimate of the engine take-off thrust. To
undertake aircraft performance calculations it is necessary to know what thrust
(and SFC) the engine will give at thrust settings other than take-off (e.g. at
continuous climb, cruise, etc.). It will also be necessary to know the effect of
aircraft altitude and speed on the engine parameters.

Aircraft performance
With aircraft mass, drag, lift and engine characteristics known it is a relatively
straightforward process to make initial estimates of aircraft performance. This is
done for each flight segment separately (climb, cruise, dash, loiter, descent,
combat, etc.). The field performance (take-off and landing) is also required.
Many textbooks are available on aircraft performance estimation.4,5,6,9 These
can be used, with appropriate simplifying assumptions, to estimate performance
values.
The results from the performance estimates are compared to the aircraft
requirements.
It is now that the original estimates for wing area and thrust are re-evaluated.
Changes in these values are often necessary to obtain aircraft performance to
meet the requirements. It is essential that new values for wing area and engine
thrust are selected that allow such compliance but not too much in excess as this
will make the design inefficient. As aircraft mass, drag, lift and engine
characteristics are directly affected by changes in wing and engine size it will be
necessary to repeat all the previous initial estimates for the baseline aircraft.
This is a laborious task but the use of modern spreadsheet methods does assist
in such iterative processes.

Take- off performance:

The most obvious figure of merit for take-off performance is take-off distance.
If you want to design an airplane that can take-off from a short dirt field you
will have to include certain features. If you have unlimited runway, you might
design a different airplane. As a general rule, airplanes that have short take-off
distances will fly at a lower cruise speeds.

Landing :
 When the airplane approaches its touchdown, it has a certain amount of
kinetic energy(1/2mv2).When it comes to a stop, it will have zero kinetic
energy. So the landing distance will be proportional to the, touchdown velocity
squared. Once again, landing performance benefits from a low stall speed.
Typically, the landing distance of an airplane is shorter than the take-off
distance. This is because the airplane can decelerate with its brakes faster than it
can accelerate with its engines. Once on the ground the airplane’s minimum
stopping distance will depend primarily on its ability to brake. The braking
power is proportional to the weight supported by the wheels. On a hard dry
surface, the decelerating force from the brakes can be as high as 80% of the
weight on the wheels. Of course, this value is greatly reduced for a slippery
surface. So for a maximum performance stop the lift must be removed from the
wings as quickly as possible to put the weight on the wheels. Thus as soon as
the airplane touches down, the flaps are raised. Modern jets also employ
spoilers on the top of the wings which remove part of the lift.

8.2.Stall speed:

The velocity at cruise=290m/s

Vstall=0.25×Vcruise

Vstall=0.25×290

Vstall=72.5m/s

8.3.Landing distance:

Let us adopt an approach angle θa=3˚

The average velocity during flare is Vf =1.23

Vstall=1.23×72.

=89.175m/s

R=Vr²/0.2g = (89.175)2/(0.2×9.81)

R=4053.09m

Flare height hf=R(1- cos θa)

 =5.554m

Let us consider a value for obstacle as 180m.

Approach distance to clear an obstacle of 180m is given by

Sa=180-hf/tan θa

Sa=3328.62m

Flare distance Sf=R sin θa

= 3328.62 sin 3

Sf=174.20m

Ground roll

Sg=1005.85m from historical data

Total landing distance = Sa +Sf +Sg

=4508.7m

8.4 Take off distance:

Ground roll Sg

=1.21(W/S)/[g ρ∞ CLmax (T/W)]

=1.21×132/[9.81×0.413(1.19)(0.2)]

Sg=117.06

Flight path radius

R=6.96(Vstall)²/g

R=3729.20 m

Included flight path angle

θoB=cosˉ¹(1-hOB/R)

hOB=150m

θOB=cosˉ¹(1-150/3729.20)

θOB=92.28˚
 Sa=R sin θOB

Sa=3726.04 m

Total take off distance=Sa + Sg

=3843.107m

8.5. CONCLUSION OF AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE:

Stall speed = 72.5 m/s

Total landing distance=4508.7 m

Total take off distance = 3843.107 m

THREE VIEWS OF
AIRCRAFT
9.1.TOP VIEW
9.2.SIDE VIEW
9.3.FRONT VIEW
 10. CONCLUSION

Four hundred seater passenger aircraft has been designed necessary comfort to
the passenger. Design, Analysis of Various Components and Determination of
Airplane Operational Characteristics. Using various methods and calculations
every step has been designed with optimum performance and aerodynamic
characteristics. Thus each trail aims at a closer approach to the final goal and is
based on a more profound study of various problem involved. Structural
designs, center of gravity, loading performance, maneuvering performance are
done successfully.
 11. REFERENCE
1. Jane’s, “All the World Aircraft”, London,UK,1976

2. D.P. Raymer, “Aircraft conceptual design”, AIAA Series, 1988

3. John D Anderson (Jr.), “Airplane Performance and Design”, McGraw Hill 1999

4. D Stinton, “The Design of Airplane”, GRANADA, UK 1983.

5. E. Torenbeek, “Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design”, Delft University Press, London,

1976.

6. E.F. Bruhn, “Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures”, Tristate Offset Co., U.S.A,
1980.