1

Mass and Energy Analysis of Control Volume

Aurel Stodola
A pioneer in technical thermodynamics and its
application. One of his students was Albert Einstein.
 2

Steady State Flow through CV

When dealing with steady state flow into/out of a

CV, the conservation of mass requires,
X X
ṁin = ṁout
in out

or for single entrance and exit points.

ṁin = ṁout
Can also define the volume flow rate. Use V̇ to avoid
confusion with Q which is used for heat transfer.
ZZ
V̇ = υA = υ nˆ dA
~ ·~
 3

The energy equation

The first law of thermodynamics for a system states

∆U = ∆Qin + ∆Win

∆U Change in total stored energy of the system

∆Qin Net heat energy transferred into the system.

∆Win Net work done by the system

Converting this to rates of energy change

dU dQin dWin
= + or U̇ = Q̇in + Ẇin
dt dt dt
Now let e be the total energy per unit mass for each
part of the system, so
ZZZ
D
eρdV = U̇in
Dt sy s
= Q̇in + Ẇin

Heat going in and work energy going in the system

are denoted as positive.
 4

The energy density

The energy density e (per unit mass) consists of

v2
e = u+ + gz
2

• v 2 /(2) is kinetic energy density

• gz is potential energy density

• u is the internal energy per unit mass (e.g.

energy associated with a temperature increase)

Ideas behind Reynolds transport theorem apply, set

up control volume that is coincident with system at
time instant derivatives are evaluated
ZZZ ZZZ II
D ∂
eρdV = eρdV + e ρ v·n̂ dA
Dt sy s ∂t cv cv s

Also Q̇in for the system and for the contents of the
coincident cv are the same. Ditto for Ẇin .
 5

Energy Density of a Flow

υ2
e=u+ + gz + pv
2

• u : internal energy per unit mass

(function of temperature)

υ2
• : kinetic energy per unit mass
2
• gz : gravitational energy per unit mass

p
• pv = : flow energy (or transport energy)
ρ
per unit mass
 6

Flow Energy or Flow Work

• Pressure forces at entrance as exit of control

volume do work in transporting fluid into and
out of the control volume.
p
• Is pv = part of the system energy or is it part
ρ
of work energy?
• Flow energy or work will be regarded as part of
work energy. However, it is defined in terms of
fluid properties.
• It is normal to treat flow energy as part of
system energy and that is done in this unit.
 7

System Energy for Moving Fluid

Flow energy density for a moving fluid,

Θ = e + pv
= u + pv +ke + pe
| {z }
= h + ke + pe

(h is specific enthalpy)

The enthalpy takes care

of energy required to past
fluid into and out of a de-
vice automatically.

The rate of energy transport for a flowing fluid is

simply energy density times mass flow rate.
" #
υ 2
Ė = ṁΘ = ṁ h + + gz
2

(assume uniform flow)

 8

Steady Flow: 1st Law

Under steady flow conditions,

• mass within CV does not change with time.

• energy within CV does not change with time.

• flow rates at inlet/outlets do not change with

time.

• No intensive or extensive properties within CV

change with time.

• Energy/enthalpy transport across outlet does

not change with time.
 9

Steady Flow: 1st Law (cont.)

Ein − Eout = 0
Ėin − Ėout = 0

Boundary work is zero

⇓
z}|{
Ėin = Q̇in + Ẇin + |{z}
ṁΘ
⇑
energy transported by the flow into

!
υ1 2
Ėin = Q̇in + Ẇin + ṁin h1 + + gz1
2
| {z }
⇑
values can be
and for outward, different.
⇓
z }| !{
υ2 2
Ėout = Q̇out +Ẇout +ṁout h2 + + gz2
2
 10

Steady Flow: 1st Law (cont.)

From Ėin = Ėout , !

υ2 2
Q̇in + Ẇin = ṁout h2 + + gz2
2
!
υ1 2
−ṁin h1 + + gz1
2

Heat transferred in + work transferred in =

sum of total energy transferred across control
volume surfaces.

Trivial to generalise to the case of more than one or

more inlet or outlet flows.
 11

Steady-in-the-mean flow
In many cases the work is transferred across the
control surface by a moving shaft. For a rotating
shaft,

Ẇshaf t = τshaf t ω

• ω is the angular velocity of the shaft, τshaf t is

torque associated with the shaft rotation

• Ẇshaf t is the power transfer due to the shaft.

• If there is shaft work involved, then fluid flow

close to the machine must be unsteady (e.g.
rotating fan blades).

• Upstream or Downstream of machinery the flow

is often steady.

• First law for steady flows often termed the

one-dimensional energy equation for steady in
the mean flow.
 12

Single Stream Flow

!
2
υ2 − υ1 2
Q̇in + Ẇin = ṁ h2 − h1 + g(z2 − z1 ) +
2

For unit mass (divide by ṁ),

υ2 2 − υ1 2
qin + win = h2 − h1 + g(z2 − z1 ) +
2
⇑ refers to some given time interval.
 13

Single Stream Flow (cont.)

• Q̇: rate of heat transfer between control volume

and surroundings.
Q̇ < 0: heat goes out
Q̇ > 0: heat goes in

• Ẇ : power
There is no boundary work.
Work done by electric heaters or mechanical
stirrers (shaft work). Work can be extracted
from the flow.
Pressure work required to push water into or
out of control volume incorporated in enthalpy.

• ∆h = h2 − h1 : change in enthalpy of fluid

between entrance and exit of control volume.
Enthalpy increased by increasing temperature,
∆u > 0, and increasing pressure.
 14

Single Stream Flow (cont.)

υ2 2 − υ1 2
• ∆ke = :
2
difference in kinetic energy of the flow.
Note, υ2 = 45 [m/s]

υ2 2
⇒ ≈ 1000 [m2 /s2 ]
2
= 1.00 [kJ/kg]

Often this term is very small when compared

with other changes in enthalpy.

• ∆pe = g (z2 − z1 ):
to get 1.00 [kJ/kg] requires a change in
elevation of ∼ 100 [m]. Mainly of interest when
pumping fluids to elevation.
 15

How to compute ∆h or ∆u

1 Liquids specific heat
⇓
∆u = c (T2 − T1 )
= u2 − u1
| {z }
⇑
look up Tables.

2 Vapour

∆h = h2 − h1 
look up Tables.
∆u = u2 − u1 

Ideal gas,
∆u = cv (∆T )
∆h = cp (∆T )
 16

Engineering Devices
The elements of many engineering devices are made
of different components that appear in many
common setting. Basic principles are common
despite the different settings.

• Nozzles and diffusers

• Compressors and pumps

• Turbines

• Pipes and Ducts

• Throttles

• Heat exchangers

• Mixing chambers
 17

Nozzles and Diffusers

Nozzle
This is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid.
This usually happens by a reduction in the pressure.

Diffuser
This is a device that increases the pressure of a
fluid. This usually happens by a reduction in the
velocity.
Hopefully with a minimal loss in energy.
 18

Nozzles and Diffusers (cont.)

• Usually single stream devices

• No appreciable change in pe.

• Very little heat transfer occurs.

• No shaft work is done.

• Kinetic energies changes should be considered

since often get large changes in velocity.

υ2 2 − υ1 2
∆q = h2 − h1 +
2
⇑
often zero
 19

Example 5.4

Determine mass flow rate and T2 of air.

(a) First estimate ṁ using ideal gas law.
(v1 : specific volume)

RT1 287 × 283.15

v1 = =
p1 80 × 103
= 1.015 [m3 /kg]

.
. . ṁ = ρυA
1
= × 200 × 0.40
1.015
= 78.5 [kg/s]
 20

Example 5.4 (cont.)

Use,

υ2 2 − υ1 2
∆q = h2 − h1 +
2
Now air will go through quickly, so ∆q ≈ 0, i.e. no
chance for heat exchange. Therefore,

υ1 2 − υ2 2
h2 = h1 +
2
2002 − 02
h2 = h1 + = h1 + 20.0 [kJ/kg]
2

Using Table A.17, Now υ1 = 0, υ2 ≈ 200,

h1 = 283.28 [kJ/kg]
h2 = 20 + 283.28 = 303.28 [kJ/kg]
.
. . T2 ≈ 303.08 K
 21

Example 5.4 (cont.)

Alternatively,

∆h = cp × ∆T
20 × 1000 = cp × ∆T

From Table A.2, cp ≈ 1004 [J/(kg K)],

20000
∆T =
1004
≈ 20 [o C]
.
. . T2 = 283.15 + 20
= 303.15 [o C]
 22

Turbines and Compressors

In turbines energy is extracted from the fluid to do

useful work.

Compressors (pumps) are devices that are used to

increase the pressure of a fluid.

compressors = gas
pump = liquid

Fans are similar to compressors; they increase the

pressure, but only slightly and are mainly used to get
the fluid moving.
 23

Turbines and Compressors (cont.)

• Turbines produce power output.

∆wout > 0

• Compressors and pumps add energy to fluid and

require work input, ∆win > 0

• ∆q is usually small.

• ∆pe is very, very small. Sometimes pump

systems can have large ∆pe when reservoir is
included as part of system.

• Compressors do change fluid kinetic energies,

but only by small amount.

• Turbines (gas) and Fans can lead to large

kinetic energy changes.
In stationary gas turbines ∆ke usually small
with respect to ∆h.
 24

Turbine example
Steam enters a turbine with a velocity of 30 m/s and
an enthalpy of h1 = 3348 kJ/kg. The stream leaves
the turbine with a velocity of 60 m/s and an
enthalpy of 2550 kJ/kg. Assuming the flow through
the turbine is adiabatic, determine the work output
per unit mass of stream flow through.
Control volume

Steam turbine

Section (1)
^1 = 30 m/s
V
h1 = 3348 kJ/kg wshaft = ? Section (2)
^2 = 60 m/s
V
h2 = 2550 kJ/kg

• No change in vertical elevation, zin = zout

• No heat transfer, Q̇in = 0

 25

Turbine example
Control volume

Steam turbine

Section (1)
^1 = 30 m/s
V
h1 = 3348 kJ/kg wshaft = ? Section (2)
^2 = 60 m/s
V
h2 = 2550 kJ/kg

Enthalpy equation written with shaft-work as the

subject
 2 2 
vin − vout
Ẇout = ṁ h1 −h2 + + g(z1 −z2 ) + Q̇in
2
Ẇout 302 − 602
= 3348−2550+ +0−0 in kJ/kg
ṁ 2 × 1000
Ẇout
= 797 kJ/kg
ṁ
So the net work out per kg is 797 kJ. To determine
the total power output requires knowledge of the
mass flow. Note, kinetic term was only 1.35 kJ/kg,
enthalpy change often dominant for steam turbines.
 26

Throttling Devices and Valves

These are devices that

restrict the flow.
• There is a large
pressure drop be-
tween inlet and out-
let.
• No work is not by
the fluid.

• Pressure drop is often accompanied by a large

drop in temperature.

• Used in refrigerators and air conditioners.

 27

Throttling Devices and Valves (cont.)

• Throttles are usually small. There are no large

heat conducting surfaces and fluid will get
through them quickly.

⇒ So throttling process is adiabatic, i.e. q = 0.

(exception, capillary tubes).

• ∆pe is usually zero.

• ∆ke is small, exit velocity can be larger than

entrance velocity.

⇒ First Law gives,

∆h = 0
h2 = h1

The enthalpy change is throttling device is close to

zero. ⇒ Isenthalpic process.
 28

Mixing Chambers

In a mixing chamber two

distinct streams of a
fluid are merged.
Mixing chambers do not
have to be a distinct
chamber. A T or Y junc-
tion where fluid streams
merge can act as a mix-
ing chamber.

• Do not have single stream flow.

• ∆q ≃ 0

• ∆ke ≃ 0

• ∆w ≃ 0

• ∆pe ≃ 0

Main principle is that the enthalpies of the stream in

and out of chamber are equal.
 29

Example: Shower

Hot water at 65 [o C]
mixed with cold water at 1

15 [o C].
3

Desired to produce a
steady stream at 45
2

[o C].
Mixing takes place at 150 [kPa].
Determine ratio of mass flow rates. Enthalpy of 15
[o C]water is 63.13 [kJ/kg]. Specific heat of
water is 4.181 [kJ/kg].
Fundamental equation

ṁ1 + ṁ2 = ṁ3

Ėin = Ėout
.
. . Ė1 + Ė2 = Ė3

Now at p = 150 [kPa], Tsat = 111.35 [o C]

Fluid entering is compressed fluid.
 30

Example: Shower (cont.)

Ė1 = ṁ1 h1 ( no ke, pe )

Use,

h2 = 63.13 [kJ/kg]
h1 = h2 + c(T1 − T2 )
= 63.13 + 4.1810 (65 − 15)
= 272.24 [kJ/kg]
h3 = h2 + c(45 − 15)
= 188.59 [kJ/kg]

Now,

Ė1 + Ė2 = Ė3 , ṁ1 + ṁ2 = ṁ3

.
. . ṁ1 h1 + ṁ2 h2 = ṁ3 h3
.
. . ṁ1 h1 + ṁ2 h2 = (ṁ1 + ṁ2 ) h3
ṁ1 .
y = . . y h1 + h2 = (1 + y )h3
ṁ2
 31

Example: Shower (cont.)

y h1 + h2 = (1 + y )h3
. h3 − h2
. .y =
h1 − h3
188.59 − 63.13
=
272.24 − 188.59
125.46
=
83.65
= 1.500

Require ṁ1 : ṁ2

in ratio, 1.5 : 1.0

Therefore,
60 [%] of water is 65 [o C]
40 [%] of water is 15 [o C]
 32

Heat Exchangers

c v

c v

A heat exchanger is a device where two fluids

exchange thermal energy without mixing.
Simple heat exchanger is a
double tube, i.e. two concen-
tric tubes of different diame-
ters.
Sometimes more elaborate de-
sign are employed.
 33

Heat Exchangers (cont.)

Heat exchangers typi-

cally involve,
• No work.
• Small ke changes.
• Small pe changes.

∆QCV ≃ 0: For the entire device chosen as CV.

∆QCV 6= 0: When one of the fluids is selected as CV.
 34

Pipe and Duct Flow

• Pipes and ducts are used to transport fluids.

• The amount of heat loss or gain is generally

small.

• However in many circumstances, it is important

to know the heat transfer
- Long pipes
- Oil and gas pipes through environmentally
sensitive areas
- Pipes forming part of heat exchanger: power
plant, refrigerator
- Pipes transporting fluids at temperatures
different than surroundings.
 35

Pipe and Duct Flow (cont.)

There may be elements in the pipe that put work

into the control volume.

• Velocities in pipes and ducts are usually small,

so ∆ke = 0.
especially true for constant diameter pipes

• Potential energy effects becomes significant in

long pipes with considerable changes in
elevation.
 36

Example 5.11

Air at 17 [o C] flows into

a duct containing an
electric heater.

Heater = 15.0 [kW]

pair = 100 [kPa]
V̇ = 150 [m3 /min] ( = 2.50 [m3 /sec] )
Q̇loss = 200 [W] (through conduction)

What is the temperature at outlet?

• Steady-flow.

• Ideal gas.

• ∆ke ≃ ∆pe ≃ 0
 37

Example 5.11 (cont.)

Ėin − Ėout = 0 (steady-flow)

Q̇in − Ẇout = h2 − h1 (∆ke = ∆pe = 0)

We have Q̇out and Ẇin .

Ẇin − Q̇out = h2 − h1

Dealing with flow of air exposed to atmosphere so,

pout = pin = 100 [kPa]

Therefore, use specific heat.

H2 − H1 = ṁcp (T2 − T1 ) (for total rate)

 38

Example 5.11 (cont.)

At inlet,

pv = RT
RT 287 × 290.15
v = =
p 100 × 103
= 0.8327 [m3 /kg]

Now,

ṁ = ρV̇ = V̇ /v ( v : specific volume )

2.50
= = 3.002 [kg/s]
0.8327
Ẇin − Q̇out = ṁcp (T2 − T1 )

Estimating T2
Ẇin − Q̇out + ṁcp T1
T2 =
ṁcp
15000 − 200 + 3.002 × 1005 × 290.15
=
3.002 × 1005
8.902 × 105
= = 295.06 [K] = 21.9 [o C]
3.017 × 103
 39

Bernoulli vs Energy
Consider incompressible steady flow with no work
     2 − v2
p p vout in
ṁ uout − uin + − +
ρ out ρ in 2

+ g(zout − zin ) = Q̇in

Divide both sides by ṁ and rearrange

pout 2
vout
+ + gzout
ρ 2
2
vin
pin
= + + gzin − (uout − uin − qin )
ρ 2
with
Q̇in
qin =
ṁ
is the heat transfer per unit mass. Compare with
Bernoulli equation which describes inviscid
(frictionless) flow
2 2
vin
pout vout pin
+ + gzout = + + gzin
ρ 2 ρ 2
 40

Bernoulli vs Energy
So when Bernoulli is valid

uout − uin − qin = 0

Conclusion, when the flow is frictionless an identity

between internal energy and heat transfer is
developed.
For real systems, including the effects of
viscosity/friction it is possible to establish that

(uout − uin ) − qin > 0

The output internal energy (resulting from

temperature change) is greater than input internal
energy and heat transferred in (some kinetic energy
of flow is converted into heat making water slightly
warmer).
The uout − uin − qin term represents a loss of energy
from the kinetic, pressure and elevation energies.
 41

Available Energy
The loss term is

loss = uout − uin − qin > 0

The available or useful energy is

p v2
+ + gz
ρ 2

The energy equation can be written as a Bernoulli

equation with a loss term.
2 2
vin
pout vout pin
+ + gzout = + + gzin − loss
ρ 2 ρ 2

Note: The energy used to heat water is hard to

recover as Work energy. The energy to pump water
uphill is easy to recover as Work energy.
 42

Extended Bernoulli equation

When mechanical work is being done on a shaft, we
modify previous equations to re-include the work
term on the right has side of the equation so
2 2
vin
pout vout pin
+ + gzout = + + gzin
ρ 2 ρ 2
− wout − loss

This is called the mechanical energy equation or the

extended Bernoulli equation. The factor win is the
amount of work done per kg of fluid as it passes
through the control volume.

Ẇout
wout =
ṁ
 43

Head loss
Dividing the extended Bernoulli equation by ggives
2 2
vin
pout vout pin
+ + zout = + + zin + hs − hL
γ 2g γ 2g
where hL is the head loss and hs is the shaft head.
The energy equation is now being written in terms of
per unit weight. The concept of head loss is most
convenient when the fluid is going through elevation
changes.
win Ẇin Ẇin
hin = = =
g ṁg γQFLOW
loss Ėloss
hL = =
g mg
Some times talk about Turbine and Pump heads.
• Turbine head hT = −hs = −(hs − hL ) where
hT > 0.
• Pump head hP = hs = (hs − hL )P where
hP > 0.
These heads implicitly include losses in internal pipes.
 44

Water pump example

The pump adds 7500 W
to the water as it pumps
Section (A)

water a vertical distance Control volume

of 9.00 m from the lower

reservoir. Given that 30 ft

the head loss is 4.50 m, Section (B)

Pump
determine the flow rate
and power loss associated
with this flow.
Start with energy equation

pA vA2 pB vB2
+ + zA = + + zB + hs − hL
γ 2g γ 2g
pA = pB = patm vA = vB ≈ 0. So simplifies to

zA = zB + hs − hL
 45

Water pump example: continued

zA = zB + hs − hL
9.0 = 0 + hs − 4.50
⇒ hs = 13.50 m

The pump head, hP = 13.50 m.

Ẇ
hs =
γQ
7500
13.5 =
9.8 × 1000 × Q
7500
⇒Q = = 0.0567 m3 /s
13.5 × 9800
The pump is to lift the water 9.0 m and overcome
the 4.5 m head loss. No change to water velocity or
pressure. Power loss due to friction is

Ẇf r iction = γQhL

Ẇf r iction = 9800 × 0.0567 × 4.5 = 2500 W
 46

The kinetic energy coefficient

What to do with
II
v2
ρ v·n̂ dA
cv s 2
when the flow in non-uniform.
Use the recipe
II 2
 2 2 
v αout hv iout αin hv iin
ρ v·n̂ dA = ṁ −
cv s 2 2 2

where αis the kinetic energy coefficient and hv iis the

average velocity.
The kinetic energy coefficient is defined formally as
RR v 2
in 2 ρ v·n̂ dA
αin =
mhv i2 /2
The kinetic energy coefficient always satisfies α ≥ 1
and α = 1 is only true for uniform flow.
 47

Modified extended Bernoulli equation

2 2
αin vin
pout αout vout pin
+ + gzout = + + gzin
ρ 2 ρ 2
+ win − loss

2 2
αin vin
pout αout vout pin
+ + zout = + + zin
γ 2g γ 2g
win
+ − hL
g
The kinetic energy coefficient, α = 2 for laminar
flow with its parabolic velocity profile.