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CHAPTER 5
PRESSURE
 What is Pressure
 Pressure is the amount of force applied to the surface of an object
per unit area.
 FORMULA
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
P= =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

 UNITS
The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square
metre (N/m2). Usually, Kilopascal is used (kPa), equal to one kilo newton per
square meter (kN/m2).
Other units of pressure, such as Pounds per Square Inch (lb/in2 or Psi). This is an
English system unit.
In addition, there are Bar,(Psf or lb/ft2) and some other units.
Here are a relation between the units.

1 ATM = 14.7 Psi = 101353 Pa = 101.353 kPa = 1.013 Bar = 760 mmHG = 2116 Psf
 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
 Using the formula (P = = ), we can explain the concept as
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
follows:
 When the force increase with constant area, the pressure will increase and vice
versa. This means the Pressure is directly proportional to the Force (Weight)
applied on the surface.
 When the Area of surface increase with constant force, the pressure will
decrease. That means the Pressure is inversely proportional to the Area of the
surface.
See the Example in the next figures
 The man on the left picture sink deep in snow
because the force of his weight has distributed
over the area of his feet, and that would create
high pressure that can’t be supported by the
snow.
However, the man on the right picture wearing
the snowshoes with large area would exert low
pressure compared to the one on the left, since the
area is inversely proportional with the pressure.
Properties of Substance (Material)
 Properties of Substance (Material)
 Mass and Weight
Mass and Weight are two often misused and misunderstood terms in mechanics and fluid
mechanics.
Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object. Mass does not change with a body's
position, movement or alteration of its shape, unless material is added or removed.
E.g. an object with mass 1 kg on earth would have the same mass of 1 kg on the moon.
Weight is the gravitational force acting on a body mass.
Example - The Weight of a Body on Earth vs. Moon
The acceleration of gravity on the moon is approximately 1/6 of the acceleration of gravity on the
earth. The weight of a body with mass 1 kg on the earth can be calculated as
Fg_earth = (1 kg) (9.81 m/s2) = 9.81 N
The weight of the same body on the moon can be calculated as
Fg_moon = (1 kg) ((9.81 m/s2) / 6) = 1.64 N
 The handling of mass and weight depends on the systems of units used. The most common unit
systems are
• The International System – SI : In the SI system, 1 kg of mass will give a force of 9.81 N.

• The English Engineering System – EE : In the EE system, 1 lbm of mass will give a force of 1 lbf
• The British Gravitational System – BG
 Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity
o Density (ρ): is mass per unit of volume. It can be expressed as
𝑴
ρ= 𝑽

Where:
ρ : Density (kg/m3 , lb/ft3)
M : Mass of a material (Kg , lb)
V : Volume of a material (m3 , ft3)
 Example - Using Density to Identify a Material
Ex. An unknown liquid substance has a mass of 18.5 g and occupies a volume of 23.4 ml
(milliliter).
Sol. First, we need to convert the mass to Kg  M = 18.5 * 10-3 Kg
Also, convert (ml) to m3  1 m3 = 1000 liter = 1000,000 ml  V = 23.4 * 10-6 m3
𝑴 18.5 ∗ 10−3 Kg
ρ= 𝑽
=
23.4 ∗ 10 m
−6 3 = 790 kg/m3
 Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity
o Specific Weight (𝜸): is Weight per unit of volume. Weight is a force. It can be expressed as
𝑾
𝛄= 𝑽
𝒎∗𝒈
Since W = mg  𝛄 =
𝑽
𝑴
Since ρ = 𝛄=ρ*g
𝑽

Where:
𝛾 : Specific Weight (N/m3 , lb/ft3)
W : Weight of a material (N , lb)
V : Volume of a material (m3 , ft3)

The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 at 4 C (39 F). The specific weight in SI units is
𝜸=ρ*g
= (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s3)
= 9810 (N/m3)
= 9.81 (kN/m3)
 Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity

o Specific Gravity (𝑺𝑮) of material: is the ratio of the density of material to the density of the
reference material (Water).
ρ 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍
SG (material) = ρ 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

o Specific Gravity (𝑺𝑮) of gas: is the ratio of the density of gas to the density of the
reference gas (Air).
ρ 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒂𝒔
SG (gas) = ρ 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒊𝒓
 Exercise
1. Convert the following pressure units
 48 Psi = ? kPa

Answer : 330.77 kPa

 453 kPa = ? Bar

Answer : 4.53 bar

 33 Psi = ? Psf

Answer : 4752 Psf

2. If the density of mercury is 13600 kg/m3, Find the SG of mercury, if you know that the
density of water is 1000 kg/m3

Answer : 13.6

3. Calculate the Mass of the material whose SG = 1.26 and has a volume of 0.45 m3.

Answer : 567 kg

4. What will the Specific Gravity of Water and Air?

Answer : both are 1
5.
a) Find the pressure exerted “applied” by the box on the table?
Answer :
P (Box 1) = 1000 Pa = 1 kPa
P (Box 2) = 10000 {a = 10 kPa

b) What will be the mass of box No.1 with different weight (Same Area), if it applies a pressure
of 1500 Pa on the table?
Answer : 15.2 kg

6. What is the weight of water inside the container with volume of 4.3 m3 ?
Answer : 42.14 kN = 42140 N
 Types of Pressure Measurement
 Total Vacuum: is the absolute zero where no air pressure is surrounding. It is in the outer space.
 Atmospheric Pressure: is the weight of air column from the atmosphere to the sea level.
 Gauge Pressure: How much pressure above Atmospheric Pressure. It means at Atmospheric
Pressure, the Gauge pressure is Zero.
 Absolute Pressure: it is simply the Total Pressure.
Abs. Pressure = Atm. Pressure + Gauge Pressure
 Vacuum Pressure: is the pressure below the atmospheric pressure and is measured by vacuum
gauges which indicate the difference between ATM. Pressure and Abs. Pressure. In other words,
how much pressure below the Atmospheric Pressure.
 Differential Pressure: is the difference between two pressures applied with opposite direction.
Hydrostatic Pressure
 Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure is the fluid pressure at rest. Usually measure the pressure of liquids when it
is not moving. However, the pressure of liquids at rest Will Increase when the Depth (Height) of
the liquid increase.
This is True because once we go deep, the weight of the liquid will be more causing the
pressure to be increased.

Hydrostatic Paradox states that the pressure at a given height (depth) of the liquid is
Independent of the shape or the volume of the liquid. It only depends on by the Height and
the type of material.
The Formula can be expressed as follows
P=𝜸*h
P=ρ*g*h
Pressure at any point will be same for all the tanks
Ex. As we know, (P = Force / Area). Derive the Formula (P = Force / Area) to get (P = ρ * g * h).
Ex. Find the mistake in the example below. (Text Book – Page 71)

Pressure Head is sometime used as a measure of pressure. You might noticed that some units
of pressure are unit of length, for example 14.7 Psi = 760 mmHg = 10.02 mH2O. It is the pressure
in terms of a column of a particular fluid (liquid).
For example, a head of 3.5 m of water (H2O) is the pressure that would be exerted (applied)
by a height of 3.5 m of water, which will be as follows:
P=ρ*g*h
P = 1000 Kg/m3 * 9.8 m/s2 * 3.5 m
P = 34.3 kN/m2
Answer :
a) Pa = Pb = Pc = 9.39 kPa

b)
Wa = 4.44 kN
Wb = 2.65 kN
Wc = 2.1 kN
BUOYANCY
 BUOYANCY
Buoyancy is the upward force ( ) exerted (applied) by the fluid (e.g. Water) on the object (e.g.
Wooden Box) that is immersed (submerged) or floating in that fluid.

When you put any object in a liquid container (e.g. Water Tank), there will be two acting forces
applied as follows:
1. Downward Force (Wobject) : This acting force is applied due to the weight of object with respect
to the gravity. It is calculated as follows:
Wobject = mobj * g OR Wobject = 𝜸object * Vobj

2. Upward Force (Buoyant Force B): This acting force is applied by the liquid on the object and it
depends upon how much liquid (volume) is displaced by the object as well as the density of the
liquid. It is calculated as follows:

B = 𝜸liquid * Vdisplaced liq. OR B = 𝝆liquid * g * Vdisplaced liq.

 NOTE:
The object CANNOT displace (take a place) the fluid greater than its volume. So, the volume
of displaced liquid is equal to the volume of the immersed (submerged) part of the object.
 Vdisplaced liquid = Vimmersed part of object
Archimedes’ Principle: The Buoyant Force (B) applied on an immersed object is equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid.
For example; we measure the Weight of the displaced water in the figure below, and we get
the result of 19.6 N.
Using Archimedes’ Principle, We can say that
Buoyant Force (B) by Water on the Weight is 19.6 N
 How are the objects behaving in a liquid?
Answer. It is one of two situations
1) Floating Objects 2) Sinking (immersed) Objects

1. Floating Objects :
the object will FLOAT on the liquid only and only if the Weight of Object is equal to the Weight
of Displaced Liquid (𝑩).
as long as the object is floating, the Buoyant Force (B) is equal to the Weight of the object.
(Regardless of how much volume of the object is immersed in the liquid or how much volume
of the liquid has been displaced).
B = Wobject
𝜸liquid * Vdisplaced liq. = 𝜸object * Vobj
When the object is floating, it means the density of the object is less than the density of the
liquid; however, to balance the equation below
𝜸liquid * Vdisplaced liq. = 𝜸object * Vobj
The volume of the total object Must be greater than the volume of the
Displaced liquid.

Since we already mentioned in the First Note that:

“The Volume of displaced liquid is equal to the volume of the immersed part of the object”
 Vdisplaced liquid = V’
2. Sinking Objects :
The object will SINK when the Density of the object is greater than the Density of the liquid,
which means the Downward force (Weight of object) is greater than the Upward Force
(Buoyant Force).

In this case, we can refer to the first Note:

“The Volume of displaced liquid is equal to the volume of the immersed
part of the object”.
Since the whole object is totally immersed, so it will displace the same amount of its volume.
 Vdisplaced liquid = Vobj

Now, refer to the figure above, we can notice that the weight of (Object 1) is less than the
Weight of (Object 2).
In this case, we will have what is called “APPARENT WEIGHT”.
 APPARENT WEIGHT
Is the Weight of object after the Buoyancy Force Effect. In other words, it is the Weight of
Object inside the liquid.

In the figure, Object 1 & 2 are both sinking in the liquid. The only difference between them is
the Apparent Weight.
WApparent = Wobj – B

For example, if you have a cement bag with a weight of 100 lb. if you hold it in air, you will
hold the total weight (100 lb) by yourself without any help. However, if you insert it in a liquid
and try to hold it, you will feel that it is lighter than its weight when at air. This is because the
buoyant force helps you to hold the total (100 lb). For example, if the Buoyant force (B) was 60
lb, you will feel only that you hold 40 lb. This 40 lb is the Apparent Weight.
 PROBLEMS

USING THE NOTE

“The Volume of displaced liquid is equal to the volume of the immersed
part of the object”.
We know, the Buoyancy (B) is equal the weight of the displaced liquid.
B = 𝜸liquid * Vdisplaced liq.
Since the liquid is water, so (𝜸) of water = 9.8 kN/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3

27 ft3 27 ft3
 B = 62.4 lb/ft3
* ( ) : The object is half submerged
2 2
B = 842.4 lb
 Volume of object/2
b) Find the Weight of the object ?
 PROBLEMS

Specific Weight of Water (𝜸) = 9.8 kN/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3

Density of Water (ρ) = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3
Answer. = 0.75

Weight = Mass * g
WApparent = Wobj – B
Answer.
V = 0.00883 = 8.83*10-3 m3
𝜸 = 17200 N/m3 = 17.2 kN/m3

 A metal Sphere weighs 29.4 N at air, and 18.5 N in water. What is its density?
Answer. = 2700 kg/m3
PASCAL’s LAW
 Pascal’s Law states that the pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible liquid (or gas) is
transmitted to all parts of the fluid and to the walls of the container.

As you can see in the figure above, pushing down the left piston (A1) will exert a force (F1) and thus
generating a pressure (P1) on the incompressible fluid at rest. This would exert a pressure on Piston (A2) on
the other side (right side).

Based on Pascal's Principle, P1 must be equal to P2. Thus since A2 is much larger than A1, F2 must be
much larger than F1 in order for the pressures to equal (F1/A1 = F2/A2).
Ps = PL

𝑭𝒔 𝑭𝑳
=
Where:
𝑨𝒔 𝑨𝑳
Ps : Pressure acting on Small Piston
PL : Pressure acting on Large Piston
Ex. Find the mistake in the example below. (Text Book – Page 73)
 PROBLEMS

Area of Circle = 𝝅𝒓𝟐

Radius (𝒓) = Diameter(d)/2
Answer. = 0.602 ft (Diameter of small Piston)

Answer. = 0.14 kN = 140 N

Pressure Measuring Instruments
 U Tube Manometer
 U-Tube Manometer is one of the first pressure-measuring instruments ever
designed.
A manometer consists of one or two transparent tubes and two liquid surfaces. Pressure
applied to the surface of one tube causes an elevation of the liquid surface in the other tube.
The amount of elevation is read from a scale that is usually calibrated to read directly in
pressure units.
Mercury and water are two commonly used liquids in manometers; however, any fluid can be
used.

Solving for the U-Tube Manometer Problems, using the

following Note

“The Pressures applied at same elevation (height) for same

fluid (liquid) at rest, are SAME”.

Now, in the figure we can notice that P1 is in same

elevation with same liquid with P2  P1 = P2

 ΔP = 𝜸 * Δh
 Example 1
 Suppose you want to measure the pressure of gas inside the process Tank using U-Tube
Manometer. Here are the steps on how to solve the problem.
1. Look at the point where the two sides of the tube has the same elevation and same fluid
and put labels.
We Put Label (A) on the left side and (B) on the right side.
Now, using the Note:
“The Pressures applied at same elevation (height) for same fluid (liquid)
at rest, are SAME”.

We Can Say

PA = PB

2. Solve for PA and then Solve for PB. In other words, find the
total pressure applied on Point A on the left side, and find the
total pressure applied on Point B on the right side.

3. Solve and find the results

PA = PB
P1 = Patm + (𝜸 * h)
 Example 2

First, We select our reference line (datum line).

By using the previous Note, We can Say
P(2) = P(3)
Because they have same elevation for same liquid.
Now, let’s solve for P(2) and then P(3).
The pressure at points (A) and (1) are the same, and as we
move from point (1) to (2), the pressure will increase by (𝛾1*h1).
 P(2) = P(A) + (𝛾1*h1)
On the other side, we can see that P(3) is pressurized by Patm (Open end = zero gauge
pressure) and (𝛾2*h2).
 P(3) = Patm + (𝜸𝟐*h2) [ Absolute Pressure ]
OR
 P(3) = (𝜸𝟐*h2) [ Gauge Pressure : Patm = zero ]
Since P(2) = P(3)  P(A) + (𝜸𝟏*h1) = (𝜸𝟐*h2)

P(A) = (𝛾2*h2) - (𝛾1*h1)

 PROBLEMS
Find the Gauge Pressure (Assuming Patm = 0) at Point (A) .
Use the following:
γ1 = 9.8 kN/m3
γ2 = 133.28 kN/m3
h1 = 30 cm = 0.3 m
h2 = 50 cm = 0.5 m
Answer = 63.7 kPa
 PROBLEMS
Find the Differential Pressure (ΔP)
Use the following:
γ1 = 6.86 kN/m3
γ2 = 133.28 kN/m3
γ3 = 8.82 kN/m3
h1 = 0.3 m
h2 = 0.6 m
h3 = 0.4 m

Answer = (PA – PB) = 81.44 kPa

 PROBLEMS
Find the Differential Pressure (ΔP)
Use the following:
SGA = 0.9  γA = kN/m3 You can use the Following Formula

ρ 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍
SGB = 0.7  γB = kN/m3 SG (material) =
ρ 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
γM = 133.28 kN/m3
Consider : hA = 0.3 m & hB = 0.4 m

Answer = (PB – PA) = - 41.45 kPa

 PROBLEMS
A U-tube manometer is connected to a closed tank. The air pressure in
the tank is 3.45 kpa, and the liquid in the tank is oil with a density
(𝝆 = 865 kg/m3).
The pressure at point A is 13.8 kpa. Find:

I. The depth of the oil in the tank (z).

Answer = 1.23 m

II. The differential height (h). Consider (61cm = hx)

Answer = 0.63 m
 Pressure Sensors (Devices)
 In order to measure the pressure using pressure gauges, a pressure sensor is required in order to take
the measurements.
Gauge sensors are usually devices that change their shape when pressure is applied. These devices
include diaphragms, capsules, bellows, and Bourdon tubes.
1. Diaphragms
A diaphragm consists of a thin layer or film of a material supported on a rigid frame.
 Pressure can be applied to one side of the film for gauge sensing or pressures can be applied to both
sides of the film for differential or absolute pressure sensing.

 Materials used could be Rubber, Silicon or Stainless steel

depends on the pressure (High or low).
 When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it becomes
slightly spherical. This movement can be sensed using a direct
reading by pointer or a strain gauge, piezoelectric, or
changes in capacitance techniques.
 Pressure Sensors (Devices) (Cont.)
2. Capsules
Capsules are two diaphragms joined back to back, as shown
below. Pressure can be applied to the space between the
diaphragms forcing them apart to measure the gauge pressure.

Single Capsule

Double Capsule
 Pressure Sensors (Devices) (Cont.)
3. Bellows
Bellows is an expandable element. When pressure enters the bellows,
it deflects (change its shape). This deflection of the bellows moves the
pointer on the scale. Bellows are more sensitive to small pressure
change.

 Bellows gauges can also be used

to measure differential and
absolute pressure as shown in the
figure.
 Pressure Sensors (Devices) (Cont.)
4. Bourdon Tube
The bourdon tube uses a coiled (wounded) tube which expands out as the pressure increases
causes a rotation or deflection (change) on its shape.
 The figure shows the Bourdon tube as part of a
pressure gauge. The tip of the tube is connected to
a gear mechanism, lever and a pointer.
When pressure is applied to the gauge, the Bourdon
tube moves. This movement causes the gear
mechanism to change the position of the pointer on
the scale.
 Where greater sensitivity is required, the Bourdon
tube may be constructed in the form of a Spiral or
Helix.
 Other Pressure Sensors
 Barometer
It is used for measuring the Atmospheric Pressure. At 1 ATM, the
mercury level will be 760 mmHg. This means the Air pressure push
the mercury which makes it rises inside the tube by 760 mm.
 Piezoelectric Pressure Gauge
A quartz crystal is a piezoelectric material that can generate a
voltage proportional to the stress applied upon it.
The main principle of a piezoelectric transducer is that a force,
Barometer
when applied on the quartz crystal, produces a voltage change
on the crystal surface. By measuring that voltage, we can
determine the pressure.
 Capacitive Pressure Gauge
Using the capacitor, we can measure the applied pressure.
When the pressure applied on the sensor, a deflection will be
applied between the capacitor plates, this would change the
Piezoelectric Transducer
value of capacitance, thus know the pressure value.
TRY TO ANSWER ALL THE END OF
CHAPTER PROBLEMS
AT PAGE 82 & 83
IN THE TEXT BOOK