CHAPTER VI: The Nature of Human Nature

Journeying Back to the Self

Coleman and Hammen gave beautiful account of the human nature in the following:

Human nature is anything a group of people share, certain emotions and feelings: love, hate, honesty,
dishonesty, peace, war, working, loafing; all can be dubbed with the name human nature.

To men, human nature means just that being ‘human’ with the ability to experience great joy, sensual
pleasure, sorrow, etc. The basic things in life are these.

I feel that most people are selfish and self-centred, that they don’t think of the consequences, just their
immediate satisfaction.

Human beings are basically good in nature; helpful, generous, but if he is deprived of his share through
some unintentional circumstances, he may likewise try to deprive others.

Describing human nature is something that comes out naturally, like making mistakes or thinking of
oneself first. Human nature is hard to understand.

Oneself, Free or Determined

Is man really free? Or his behavior determined by forces beyond his control. Some philosophers believe
that human beings are pawns of fate. Aeschylus and Sophocles are pervaded by the ancient Greek
belief that men and women are pawns of fate. The Calvinist doctrine of predestination, which holds that
at birth every individual has already been elected to salvation or condemned to damnation, is a later
example of philosophic or religious determinism is essentially predetermination- events are determined
by what has happened before. “What will be, will be” and we are only puppets who play our part as it is
written with no chance of altering the script.

However, this strict determinism is refuted by many. They claim that each person believes that he is
capable of exercising some measure of control over his own destiny. He is capable of making decisions
and of selecting among alternatives lines of action. It is this widespread belief that provides the basis of
the doctrine of “free will” and for the concept of moral responsibility.

This apparently irreconcilable paradox of determinism versus freedom has been well pointed out by Carl
Rogers in relation to the therapeutic situation.

Different Psychosocial Models

 The Psychoanalytic Model

This model is based on the pioneering works of Sigmund Freud. The major principles are based on the
clinical study of patients undergoing psychoanalysis, a method which relies heavily on the method of
close association in which the patient is asked to provide an unrestricted account of whatever comes to
mind leaving nothing out.

Id, ego, and superego. Fundamentals to this model is the concept that behaviour results from the
interaction of three key subsystems within the personality.

a. The id contains the innate, primitive, biological drives such as hunger, thirst, and aggression.
These primitive drives are seen as being of two types:
1.) Constructive drives, primarily of a sexual nature, which provides the basic energy of life, or
libido.
2.) Destructive and aggressive urges which are more obscure but tend toward self-destruction
and death.

The id, according to Freud, operates in terms of the pleasure principle, and is concerned only with
immediate gratification. It is completely selfish and unconcerned with reality or moral consideration.

b. The ego mediates between the demand of the id and the realities of the external world.
Although the primary purpose of the ego is that meeting id demands, it must do so in such the
way as to ensure individual survival. This require the use of reason and other intellectual
resources in dealing with the realities of the external world as well as the exercise of control
over id demands.
Hence, the id-ego relationship is merely one of the expediencies that does not make allowance
for moral values. Hence, Freud introduces a third key system.
c. The superego. These refers to the outgrowth of learning taboos and moral values of society. It is
what we refer to as conscience and is concerned with the good and the bad, the right and
wrong. It serves as an additional inner control coming into operation to cope with the
uninhabited desire of id.
However, the superego, as well as the id, operates through the ego system. Thus, the superego
strives to compel the ego to inhibit desires which are considered immoral.

 The Behaviouristic Model

This originates from the early work of John Watson who insisted that if psychology were ever to become
science of behaviour, it must limit itself to the study of events that could be observed objectively.

Starting from this basic assumption, Watson changed the focus of psychology from inner psychic
processes to outer behaviour which objectively observable. Through objective observation of such
behaviour and the stimulus conditions, the psychologist could predict human behaviour.

However, this view was expanded by B.F Skinner and other psychologists. This model makes allowance
for behaviour which is good or evil, rational or irrational, depending upon the individual’s conditioning.
Rather than attitude the causes of behaviour to inferred constructs, such as an ego and a superego, the
behaviourist look for the causes in the reinforcement history of the individual. To the behaviourists, we
are at the mercy of our previous conditioning and present environment, freedom of choice which is an
illusion.

 The Humanistic Model

This model is characterized more by its positive growth than by coherent set of principles and
personality development and functioning. Several psychologists contributed to this model: Allport,
Maslow, and Rogers. This model disagrees with both the psychoanalysis and behaviouristic model,
although influenced by both.

This model views the self as a unifying theme. It assumes that human behaviour cannot be understood
in terms of external stimulus condition alone; internal psychological structures and processes also have
causal influence on thought, feeling, and action.

Carl Rogers gave important contributions to the development of this theory in delineating the self-
concept:

1. Each individual exists in a private world of experience of which he – the I, me or myself – is the
center;
2. The most striving of the individual is toward the maintenance, enhancement, and actualization
of the self.
3. The individual reacts to situations in terms of his unique perceptions of himself and his world –
he reacts to reality as he perceives it and in ways consistent with his self-concept.
4. Perceived threat to the self is followed by defense – including the narrowing and rigidification of
perception and coping behaviour and the introduction of self-defense mechanism such as
rationalization.
5. The individual’s inner tendencies are toward health and wholeness, and under normal
conditions, he behaves in rational and constructive ways and chooses pathways toward personal
growth and self-actualization or fulfilment.

The humanistic psychologists place strong emphasis upon values and the process of evaluation for
guiding behaviour and living a meaningful life. They consider it crucially important that the individual’s
valuesbe based on personal evaluation and choice rather than upon blind acceptance of values fostered
by the sociocultural environment of the individual.

 The Existential Model

This model has its origin from philosophy and literature than from science. It stemmed from the writings
of Heidegger, Jaspers, Kierkegaard, Sartre and Rollo May.

The task of existentialism is to make the individual to stand on his own, to shape his own identity, and to
make his existence meaningful –to make his life count for something.

A basic theme in existentialism is that man’s existence is given, but that what makes out of it – his
essence – is up to him. It is his responsibility to shape the kind of person he is to become and to live a
meaningful life.

The individual’s essence is created by the choices. As Sartre puts it: “I am my choice.” In choosing what
he is to become, the individual is seen as having absolute freedom; even refusing to choose represent a
choice.

Existentialism also place strong emphasis upon individual’s obligations to his fellow human beings. The
most important consideration is not what one can get out of life, but what one can contribute to it.
One’s life can be fulfilling if it involves socially constructive values and choices.
A Systems Approach to Understanding Human Behavior

Living systems can be simple or complex. However, all have certain properties in common:

1. Structural Properties- each living system possesses parts of subsystems which are independent and
whose combined action enable the system to function as an integrated unit.

2. Integrative Properties – Living systems have built-in tendencies to maintain their organization and
functional integrity. If a systems’ s equilibrium is disturbed beyond a certain point, it automatically takes
action necessary to restore it. This integration is achieved by means of transactions with the surrounding
environment as well as by the inner organizations’ properties of the system itself.

3. Field Properties – Each lower level system is part of a higher – level system. Living system are “open
system” for they are not self-sufficient but not continue to exist only if they can maintain favourable
transactions with their surroundings. They are in constant transaction with the field and this constant
interaction modifies both system and field.

The human system possesses other special characteristics:

1. Self-awareness. Only the human race seems to have evolved to a high level of reflective
consciousness or self-awareness. We are not only aware of ourselves as unique individuals but also
reflect upon, review, and re-evaluate aspects of our experience.

2. Modifiability of action. Man’s mental ability enables him to learn, reason out, and imagine with
unlimited flexibility to cope with prevailing new situations. This flexibility extends one’s ability to
evaluate the effects of his actions and to make corrections.

3. Use of symbols. Man’s unique mental endowment enables him to deal with ideas, symbols,
particularly of those absent, or imaginary objects, events and concepts.

4. Concern with information, values and meaning. Man is given the chance to make choices as to what
goals to adopt and what means to use. He can search for the meaning of his existence in the universe.

5. Complexity and transaction with field. Man is always in contact with his environment. He adopts to it.
He has the ability to control and shape the world around him.

6. Self-direction. These various properties of human beings-reflective, self-awareness, modifiability of

action, use of symbols, concern with information, values and meaning, and complexity of transactions
with the environment – make possible a high degree of self-direction. Man is the only living creature
who can consciously plan and shape the future.