Strenght of Material

Strength of Material
Contents
Preface .............................................................................................. 3
Description ....................................................................................... 4
Description of Equipment................................................................. 5
Experiment # 01 ........................................................................... 11
Experiment#02 ................................................................................. 18
Experiment#03 ................................................................................. 21
Experiment#04 ................................................................................. 26
Experiment#05 ................................................................................. 30
Experiment#06 ................................................................................. 34
Experiment#07 ................................................................................. 39
Experiment#08 ................................................................................. 43
Preface
The Strength of Material Laboratory Manual is written to describe the experiments in Strength of Material
Lab course. Each experiment procedure is explained thoroughly along with related background. The
experiments are selected to apply some concepts from Strength of Materials such as analysis of materials
properties based on tension, bending, and torsion. Some complementary topics also presented such as using
of some measuring tools. The use of these tools will help students to understand how to measure objects
precisely, which is a crucial skill in lab. Experimental data analysis techniques, such linear regression, are also
presented to help student to determine mathematical models based on data obtained.
In addition, Post-Lab Assignments are given to enhance student understanding of concept being applied
practically. There are many books in which the students can obtained information about this lab manual.
Students are encouraged to check these resources for more information or interest in any topics.
Description
1. Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine

2. Whirling of Shafts
3. Thin Cylinder Apparatus
4. Thick Cylinder Apparatus
5. Strain Gauge Apparatus
6. Calibration of Electrical Strain Gauges
7. Compression of Spring Apparatus
8. Extension of Spring Apparatus
9. Coil Spring Apparatus
10. Young’s Modulus Apparatus
11. Modulus of Rigidity of Rubber Apparatus
12. Deflection and Torsion Apparatus
13. Deflection of Beam Apparatus
14. Bending Moment Apparatus
15. Twisting and Bending Testing Machine
16. Shearing of Beam Apparatus
17. Simply Supported Beam Apparatus
18. Continuous Beam Apparatus
19. Beam Bending and Torsion Apparatus
20. Curved bar Apparatus
21. Student Sitting Area
22. White Board
23. Computer
24. Door
Description of Equipment
1. Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine:

Rockwell is a fast hardness test method developed for production control, with a
direct readout, mainly used for metallic materials.
Objectives:
It is used to test the hardness of a material.
Figure 1: Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine
2. Whirling of Shafts:
Objectives:
1. It is used to study whirling speed of an unloaded shaft which has a fixed and a free end.
2. It is used to study whirling speed of an unloaded shaft which has both fixed end.
3. It is used to study whirling speed of a loaded shaft with rotors fitted.
4. It is used to study the shape of the specimens during whirling for different end conditions.
5. It is used to compare actual results with theoretical results.
:
Figure 2: Whirling of Shafts
3. Thin Cylinder Apparatus:

Objective:
It is used to determine the stresses in an internally
pressurized thin wall cylinder. The experimental data
will be compared to theoretical data and it is also used
to determine Poisson’s ratio for the cylinder material.
Figure 3: Thin Cylinder Apparatus
4. Thick Cylinder Apparatus:

Objective:
The object is to determine the stresses in an internally
pressurized thick wall cylinder. The experimental data will be
compared to theory and also used to determine Poisson’s ratio
for the cylinder material.
Figure 4: Thick Cylinder Apparatus
5. Strain Gauge Apparatus:

Objective:
The object of the experiment is to investigate the relationship between load and surface stress for three
common engineering situations, namely tension, torsion
and bending.
Figure 5: Strain Gauge Apparatus

6. Calibration of Electrical Strain Gauges:

Objective:
The primary function of this apparatus is to provide a calibration standard for strain. This enables
manufactures and users of bonded electrical resistance strain gauges to measure the gauge factor.
As a teaching aid there are three objects, namely:
1. To study the application of structural theory to the calibration of strain gauges.
2. To study standards of accuracy and sources of error in the calibration.
3. To introduce students to production quality Control and compliance checking of a material.
7. Compression of Spring Apparatus:

Objective:
To measure the stiffness of a Compression spring and compare it with the
theoretical values.
Figure 6 : Compression
8. Extension of Spring Apparatus: of Spring Apparatus
Objective:
To measure the stiffness of an extension spring and compare it with the theoretical
values.
Figure 7: Extension
of Spring
9. Coil Spring Apparatus:

Objective:
The object of the experiments is to investigate the
characteristics of a spiral spring. We will determine the spring
stiffness for the various lengths of spring and show that the time of
one oscillation is proportional to the radius of the vibrating mass.
Figure 8: Coil Spring Apparatus
10. Young’s Modulus Apparatus:

The object of the experiments is to verify hooks law and determine
young’s modulus for the test material.
Figure 9: Young’s Modulus

11. Modulus of Rigidity of Rubber Apparatus:
Objective:
The object of the experiment is to investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for
rubber. Then using this data determines the
modulus of rigidity for material.
Figure 10: Modulus of Rigidity of Rubber

12. Deflection and Torsion Apparatus:

Objective:
The object is to empirically test various different beam arrangements and to compare the experimental
results with those obtained from theory.
2. Four point bending test
3. Influence lines for beam deflection
4. Deflection spans and load variation
5. Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem
6. Deflection of a cantilever
7. Fixing moments for a built-in beam
The object is to investigate the relationship between torque and angle of twist for shafts of various
materials subjected to a torque.
Figure 11: Deflection and Torsion Apparatus
13. Deflection of Beam Apparatus:

Objective:
The object is to empirically test various different
beam arrangements and to compare the
experimental results with those obtained from
theory.
1. Four point bending test
2. Influence lines for beam deflection
3. Deflection, span and load variation
4. Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem
5. Deflection of a cantilever
6. Fixing moments for a built in beam
Figure 12: Deflection of Beam Apparatus
14. Bending Moment Apparatus:

Bending Moment in a Beam apparatus consists of a beam, which is
'cut' by a pivot. To stop the beam collapsing a moment
Figure 13: Bending Moment Apparatus
15. Twisting and Bending Testing Machine:

The object is to investigate the relationship between torque and angle
of twist for shafts of various materials subjected to a torque.
Figure 14: Twisting and Bending Testing

Machine
16. Shearing of Beam Apparatus:
Objective;
To comprehend the action of shear in a beam.
17. Bending Moment Apparatus:

The object of this experiment is to verify the use of a
bending moment influence line for a simply supported
beam.
Figure 15: Shearing of Beam

Experiment # 01
Extension of Spring Apparatus
1.1 Objective:
To measure the stiffness of a Compression spring and compare it with the theoretical values
1.2 Apparatus:
 Compression of Spring Apparatus
 Hangers
 Weights
Figure 1.1
1.3 Summary of Theory:

1.3.1 Spring:
A spring is an elastic object that stores mechanical energy. It can be deformed by a force and then return to
its original shape after the force is removed.
1.3.2 Deformation in Springs:

There are basically two types of deformation.
1.3.2.1 Elastic deformation:

Elastic deformation is a temporary deformation of a material caused by a force that is applied to it. Once the
force is removed, the material returns to its normal shape, size, etc.
1.3.2.2 Plastic deformation:

Plastic deformation is the permanent change in a material’s shape when the stress applied to it by a force
becomes too great. Once the force is removed, the material does not recover.
1.3.3 Hooke’s Law:

Hooke's Law states that the force needed to compress or extend a spring is directly proportional to the
distance. That is,
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
where F is the force we apply, k is the spring constant, and x is the extension of the material (typically in
meters).
Figure 1.2
1.3.4 Types of spring according to loading condition:

Spring can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:
1.3.4.1 Tension/Extension Spring

The spring is designed to operate with a tension load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied to it.
Figure 1- 3 Extension spring

1.3.4.2 Compression spring

It is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as the load is applied to it.
Figure 1- 4 Compression spring
1.3.4.3 Torsion spring

The l0oad applied to a torsion spring is torquer twisting force, and the end of the spring rotates0 through an angle
as the load is applied.
Figure 1- 5 Torsion spring
1.3.4.3 Constant spring

In this the supported load will remain constant throughout the deflection of spring.
Figure 1- 6 Constant spring

1.3.4.4 Variable spring:

In this, the resistance of the coil to load varies during compression.
Figure 1- 7 Variable spring
1.3.5 Types of springs according to shapes:

1.3.5.1 Coil spring:
This type is made of a coil helixes round wire.
Figure 1- 8Coil Spring
1.3.5.2 Flat spring:

This type is made of a flat spring.
Figure 1- 9Flat Spring

1.3.5.3 Machined spring:

This type of spring is manufactured by machining bar stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather than a
coiling operation. Since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the elastic element.
Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of compression/extension, torsion, etc.
Figure 1- 10Machined Spring
1.3.5.4 Serpentine spring

A zig-zag of thick wire - often used in modern upholstery/furniture.
Figure 1- 11Serpentine Spring

1.4 Observations and calculations:
Diameter of wire (d) : 3.6mm
Outer diameter (O/D) : 31.6mm
Length of spring (L) : 154.5mm
Number of turns(N) : 20
Modulus of rigidity(G) : 77 × 103 N\ mm2
Table 1.1. Calculation of stiffness of compression spring
No. of Load Deflection Slope from Theoretical Difference Percentage

obs. (N) (mm) graph K= d4\G error
8 ND 3 (%)
Load Unload Mean (N\mm) N\mm Theoretical Th.-
- practical Pr./Th.
X100|
1. 5 2 2 2 2.5 3.87 1.37 35%
2. 10 4 4 4 2.5 3.87 1.37 35%
3. 20 6 5.5 5.75 2.85 3.87 1.02 26%
4. 30 7 7 7 4 3.87 -0.13 -3.3%
5. 40 9 9 9 2.5 3.87 1.37 35%
Mean percentage = 25.54%

1.5 Graph:
25
20
15
load
10
0
2 4 6 8
deflection
1.7. Industrial application:

 Materials handling.
 Manufacturing.
 Transportation.
 Construction and many more.
1.8. Conclusion:
As it is observed that by applying the load stiffness in the compression spring increases the practical values
which is taken by observations and the theoretical values which is taken by using formula. The practical
and theoretical values are so close with each other. The straight line graph shows that it has direct relation
greater the load greater will be the deflection and vice versa.
1.9. Comments:
 the stiffness k, of a body is measure the resistance offered by an elastic body to deformation.
 In a compression spring stiffness is the force required to cause deflection.
 the amount of coil in spring determines the stiffness in the spring. It is based on the pitch in between
the coils.
 The greater the amount of pitch, greater will be the stiffness in the spring.
Experiment#02
Compression of Spring Apparatus
2.1. Objective:
To measure the stiffness in the extension spring and compare it with
theoretical values.
2.2. Apparatus:
 Extension of spring.
 Hangers.
 Weight (10N).
Fig.2.1. Extension of spring apparatus
2.3. Procedure:
 Measure the diameter of wire and outer diameter of a spring and length of a spring by using
Vernier caliper.
 Apply the load of 10N on the spring continuously it shows some deflection.
 Record the change in length.
 Loose the load on the extension spring gradually and note the observations.
 Find the slope of the graph.
 After taking observations compare it with experimental and theoretical values.
2.4. Observations &Calculations:
Diameter of wire (d): 2.4mm
Outer diameter (O/D) : 22.15mm
Length of spring (L) : 114.88mm
Number of turns(N) : 47
Modulus of rigidity(G) : 77 × 103 N\ mm2
Stiffness= d4/G
8ND3
Table 2.1. calculation of stiffness 0f extension spring
No. of Load Deflection Slope from Theoretical Difference Percentage

obs. (N) (mm) graph K= d4\G error
8 ND 3 (%)
Load Unload Mean (N\mm) N\mm Theoretical Th.-
- practical Pr./Th.
X100|
1 10 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.05 0.83 94%
2. 20 1 1 1 0.05 0.83 94%
3. 30 11 11 11 1 -0.12 -13.6%
0.88
4. 40 23.5 23.5 23.5 1.25 -1.62 -184%
5. 50 36 36 36 1.25 -0.37 -42%
6. 60 48.5 48.5 48.5 1.25 -0.37 -42%

2.5. Graph:
60
50
40
DEFLECTION
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 LOAD 40 50 60

 tools such as pliers.
 Garage doors.
 In automotive parts.
 In car manufacturing.
2.7. Conclusion:
tension springs are meant to hold two things together. According to the observations the
practical and theoretical values are close to each other. When the load is applied on the spring the length
of the spring changes. the above graph shows the sudden change in length because the load in increasing
rapidly which cause the change in slope.
2.8. Comments:
 Extension spring is made of steel alloy.
 Compared to the size of compression spring it is of similar size and material , working stress of the load
for the extension spring is limited.
Experiment#03
Spiral Spring Apparatus
3.1. Objective:
Relation among load on spiral spring, number of turns and degree of rotation
of coil spring.
3.2. Apparatus:
 Coil spring.
 Hangers.
 Weights.
 Two masses on the arm unit.
Fig3.1. spiral spring apparatus
3.3. Summary of the theory:

To study the types of spring, its application and the effect on spring by applying the load
and to find the relations.
3.4. Procedure:
 Note the thickness of spiral spring and observe the internal and outer diameter by using Vernier
caliper.
 Take a spiral spring apparatus and set its reference point without applying the load.
 Set the no of active coils on the apparatus.
 One coil is clamped and the remaining coils will be the active coils.
 When the load is applied on the hanger it shows some deflection which is noted in degrees.
 When the hanger is unloaded then it will show some deflection and note the rotation of the spring.
 Observe the error between thee loaded and in loaded condition.
 Repeat this procedure.
3.5. Observations and Calculations:

Radius of spring (R) : 47.15mm
Width of spring : 18.8mm
Spring thickness : 1.05mm
Table 3.1. Calculation of deflection of spiral spring
Reference: 188o
No. of active coils Deflection

SR. NO
(mm)
Load
Load Unload Mean
(N)
1.
1 210 470 34
2. 2 330 600 46.5
3. 3 480 680 58
7N
4. 4 620 730 67.5
5. 5 780 780 78
Reference: 170o
No. of active coils Deflection

SR. NO
(mm)
Load
Load Unload Mean
(N)
1.
1 180 250 21.5
2. 2 360 550 45.5
3. 3 500 650 57.5

6N
4. 4 610 720 66.5
5. 5 77 0 770 77
Reference : 1700
SR. NO No. of active coils Deflection

(mm)
Load
Load Unload Mean
(N)
1.
1 130 160 14.5
2. 2 270 310 29
3. 5N 3 340 440 39
4. 4 610 680 64.5
5. 5 73 0 730 73
Reference : 1670
SR. NO No. of active coils Deflection

(mm)
Load Load Unload Mean
(N)
1. 1 110 120 11.5
4N
2. 2 210 220 21.5
3. 3 310 360 33.5
4. 4 390 460 42.5
5. 5 54 0 540 54
3.5. Graph:
350
300
250
deflection
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5
load

 In electric motors contact brushes.
 Clocks.
 Doors.
 Vehicle suspension.
 Watches.
3.7. Comments:
Spiral torsion spring made up of steel alloy. the torsion spring consist of number of coils and
during operation it do not interlink with each other. Torsion spring stores energy in twisting rotational
motion. Spring exert force proportional to the force being applied but in opposite direction.
3.8. Conclusion:
 In the torsion spring deflection is directly proportion the load.
 Its deflection is based on rotation which is 360o or less than 3600.
 This spring is used where the high torque is required which works in clock wise and anti-clock wise
direction.
Experiment#04
Young’s Modulus Apparatus
4.1. Objective:
To draw the load- extension curve of a metallic wire and hence determine the modulus of
elasticity of the material of the wire.
4.2. Apparatus:
 Weights and hangers.
 Vernier caliper.
 Meter rod.
 Young’s modulus of elasticity apparatus.
Fig.4.1. Young’s modulus of elasticity apparatus


To find the modulus of elasticity pf the metallic wire and to find the relation between the
stress and the strain. This apparatus consist of a metallic wire which is attached to the fixed rod and the
lower end attached with the metallic plate with the help of hanger. The extension of will be calculated by
apply the load on the apparatus.
As the young’s modulus (Y) = stress/strain
4.3. Procedure:
 Put the initial load of 10 N to remove wrinkles in wire.
 Measure length of wire using meter rod.
 Measure diameter of the wire using micrometer.
 Adjust main scale so that zeros of two scales coincide with each other.
 Put a load of 5 N in the hanger and measure extension.
 Take a set of at least five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on unloading.
 Check the zeros at no load.
 Calculate the “Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E)” of the material of the shaft.
4.5. Observations and calculations:
Length of the wire (L) : 1004mm

Diameter of wire (D) : 1mm
Reference point : 4.8mm
Least count of Vernier caliper: 0.01mm
Area of the wire ( ∏d2/4) : 0.78 mm2
Table4.1. calculate the modulus of elasticity of metallic wire.
No. of Load Extension Stress Strain Modulus of

obs. (mm) ( F/A) ( ∆l/L) elasticity
(Y=stress/strain)
(N) Loading Unloading Mean N/mm2 (N/mm2)
1. 10 0.7 1 0.85 12.8 0.008 1600
2. 20 0.9 1.2 1.05 25.6 0.0010 25600
3. 30 1.2 1.4 1.3 38.4 0.0012 32000
4. 40 1.5 1.5 1.5 51.2 0.0014 36571
5. 50 1.6 1.6 1.6 64.1 0.0015 42733
4.6. Graph:
0.6
0.5
0.4
strain
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10 20 30 40 50
stress
4.7. Comments:
 There should be no wrinkles in the wire. To reduce the wrinkles, a small weight must put on the hanger
before start of observation.
• We should put the weights carefully during loading and remove during un-loading.
• There should be no error in readings for this purpose we use magnifying glass to enlarge the readings.
• It should be assured before note down the readings that loads and hanger should be in static condition.
• Zero error of scale on the apparatus.
• Use correct mathematical expression to calculate modulus of elasticity.
4.8. Practical application:
 Tells a flexibility of a material.

• Significant relation to the material deflection that are used in construction industry.
• If we relate flexibility of steel and aluminum than it is clear through modulus of elasticity that steel is
more flexible.
• Measure of stiffness of a material.
4.9. Conclusion:
 This relation shows the shear modulus of rigidity of the rubber.

Experiment#05
Modulus of Rigidity of Rubber
5.1. Objective:
To investigate the relationship between shear stress and shear strain for rubber
and to determine the modulus of rigidity of the material.
5.2. Apparatus:
 Rubber block.
 Back plate.
 Load hanger.
 Weights.
 Steel rule.
 Dial indicator.
Fig.5.1. Modulus of rigidity apparatus

To study the phenomenon of modulus of rigidity of material by
experiment and to study the relation between shear stress and strain when load is applied
on the material and the behavior of deformation.
5.4. Procedure:
 Set the dial indicator so that its anvil rests on the top of the loading plate. Set the
dial indicator at zero. With the hanger in position apply a load to the hanger and
read the vertical displacement of the loading plate relative to the fixing plate from
the dial indicator. Repeat the experiment for increasing load and record the vertical
displacement of the loading plate. Unload and note the corresponding readings with
the load decreasing. Calculate the 'modulus of rigidity (G) of the rubber material.
Length of the rubber ( L) : 301mm

Width of the rubber (w) : 101mm
Thickness (t) : 25.4
Least count of dial indicator : 0.0 1mm
Table 5.1 calculations of modulus of rigidity.
No. of Load Shear Shear Shear Modulus of rigidity

obs. Deformation stress strain
(Ps) (∆S)
τ =Ps/l .t ϒ=δS/w
(mm)
(N) Loading Unloading Mean (N\mm2) G =τ/γ G
(N\mm2) (N\mm
from
graph
1. 5 0.04 0.05 0.045 0.00065 0.0004 1.62
2. 10 0.08 0.09 0.085 0.0013 0.008 1.63
3. 15 0.12 0.13 0.125 0.0019 0.0012 1.58 1.62
4. 20 0.16 0.17 0.165 0.0026 0.0016 1.625

5. 25 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.0032 0.0019 1.68
5.5. Graph:
Graph between shear stress and shear strain

0.006
0.005 0.005
0.004 0.004
strain
0.003 0.003
0.002 0.002
0.001 0.001
0
0.00065 0.0013 0.0019 0.0026 0.0032
stress

 Shear Modulus is used where tangential stress is applied and the object bends or
tangentially bends making some angle with vertical.
 It used to measure rigidity of material to retain in its shape
5.7. Comments:
• Put the weights very carefully during loading and remove during un-loading.
• Increase and decrease the load gradually.
• Use the magnifier to overcome the human.
• Check the zero error of the dial indicator before starting of experiment.
• There should be suitable calibration on dial indicator
5.8. Conclusion:
 According to the theoretical and practical observations it is shown that shear stress is
directly proportion to the shear strain.
 Shear stress deform the material without change its volume. By the change in
deformation we can find the relation between the shear stress and strain.
Experiment#06
Deflection of Beam Apparatus
6.1. Objective:
 To investigate the relationship between torque and twist of a circular cross-section
specimen in terms of torsion equation.
6.2. Apparatus:
 Hangers and weights.
 Torsion of shaft apparatus.
 Steel rule.
Fig6.1. Torsion of shaft apparatus

 To determine the modulus of rigidity of the given material of the circular shaft
.and to find the relation between the angle of twisting and torque when a load is
applied on it.
 The torsion apparatus consist of circular shaft, measuring scale and the pulley
where a hanger is attached with it .
 Measuring scale shows the deflection in the torsion of shaft.
Theory:
I. Torsion:
When a uniform circular shaft is subjected to a torque it can be shown that every section of
the shaft is subjected to a state of pure shear.
The torsion in the shaft describes the relation between torque with the angle of
twist and the stresses produce in the shaft.
G = TL/Jθ
G = modulus of rigidity
T = torque produced in the shaft
L = effective length of pulleys
Θ = angle of twist
J = polar moment of inertia of shaft
Polar moment of inertia of shaft (J) = ∏d4/32

Where,
torque = F ×r
6.4. Procedure:
1. Place the apparatus on a smooth horizontal surface.
2. Measure the diameter of the shaft using micrometer.
3. Set the measuring arm at 1st point on the shaft, using steel rule.
4. Adjust the Zeros at measuring arm.
5. Put a load of 5 N in the hanger.
6. Measure the angle of twist of the shaft.
7. Take a set of six readings of increasing value of load.
8. Set the measuring arm at 2nd point on the shaft and repeat the above steps.
9. Calculate the “Modulus of Rigidity (G)” of the material of the shaft at both points.

Effective length of shaft (L) : 300mm
Diameter of shaft (D) : 4.7mm
Diameter of pulley (D) : 68mm
Polar moment of inertia (J) : 47.8m
Table6.1. Calculation of modulus of rigidity

L=300mm
No. of Load Angle of twist Modulus of

Obs. (θ) rigidity T=F×r
(G=TL/Jθ)
(N) loading unloading Mean N/mm2 Nm
1. 5 10 1o 1o 1066 170
2. 10 2.5o 2o 2.25o 948.3 340
3. 15 3.5o 3o 3.25o 984.8 510
4. 20 40 4o 4o 1313 680
5. 25 5o 5o 5o 1066 850
L=400mm
No. of Load Angle of twist Modulus of

Obs. (θ) rigidity T=F×r
(G=TL/Jθ)
(N) loading unloading Mean N/mm2 Nm
1. 5 10 1o 1o 1422 170
2. 10 2.5o 3o 2.75o 1034 340
3. 15 3.5o 3.5o 3.5o 1219 510

4. 20 4.50 4.5o 4.5o 1264 680
5. 25 5.5o 5.5o 5.5o 1580 850
6.6. Graph:
5 5
4.5
4 4
ANGLE OF TWIST
3.5
3 3
2.75
2 2
1 1
0
170 340 510 680 850
TORQUE
6.7. Comments:
1. Rope should not be elastic and have no bend.

2. If any zero error in micrometer and Vernier caliper calculate it.
3. There should be no friction in pulley.
4. Adjust measuring scale to zero correctly.
5. Use correct mathematical expression for calculation.

1. Phenomenon of torsion in pump shaft.
2. Phenomenon of torsion in turbine shaft.
3. Phenomenon of torsion in axle of vehicles.
4. Phenomenon of torsion in crankshaft.
5. Torsion in metal fasteners.
6. Torsion in beams.
7. Torsional springs.
6.9. Conclusion:
 It is clear from the observations and calculations that angle of twist in the shaft is
directly proportion to the torque
Experiment#07
Deflection of beam apparatus:
7.1. Objective:
 To measure the support reactions for a variety of configuration of simply supported
beam.
 To determine the young’s modulus for a metal bar.
 To evaluate the deflection of a cantilever and compare it with the theoretical values.
7.2. Apparatus:
 Hanger.
 Dial indicator.
 weights and two weight balance units.
 Two supports (knife edge supports).
 Meter rod.
 1m log beam.
Fig7.1. Deflection of beam apparatus


Beam:
If on any element or structural member load is applied perpendicular to the axis of element or
member then this element or member is called beam.
Types of beam:
Simply supported beam:
If a beam is supported by two supports that are at the end of beam and supports are may be pin or
roller but not fixed then beam is said to be simply supported beam. It is not necessary that both
ends of beam are of same types one may be roller or another may be pin or hinge. It is statically
determent beam.
Cantilever beam:
A cantilever beam is one whose one end is fixed and the other end carries a point or concentrated
load. It is statically determent beam means that here support reactions can be determined by
equations of forces and moment and no further method is needed.
7.4. Procedure:
 Place all apparatus on the table. Put the beam on the knife edge supports at the end and
the supports are placed above the weight balance units.
 Place the hangers on different positions as marked on beam.
 Now put the weights in hangers and note the readings quickly given by weight balances
 Then find the reactions theoretically by using equations of equilibrium i.e. equations of
forces and moment
 Take the readings for different load configurations.
 By note the observations of central beam deflection we can find the young’s modulus of
metal bar.
7.5. Observations and Calculation:
Least count of dial indicator : 0.01mm

Least count of Vernier caliper : 0.05mm
Effective length of the beam : 80mm
Breadth of the beam : 25.4mm
Height of the beam : 6.35mm
Moment of inertia : 541.9mm
( I = bh3/12)
Table7.1. Calculation of young’s modulus of metal bar
No. of load Central deflection From Young’s

obs. (mm) graph modulus
N/mm
(W/δc)(L3/48I)
(N) Loading Unloading Mean (KN/mm2)
1. 2 0.43 0.83 0.63 3.17 60.7
2. 4 1.03 1.34 1.18 3.38 64.6
3. 6 1.65 1.96 1.8 3.33 65.5
4. 8 2.17 2.44 2.3 3.47 68..0
5. 10 2.13 2.73 2.73 3.66 71.7

Graph between load and deflection
2.5
2
defelction
1.5
0.5
0
2 4 6 8 10
load
7.6. Comments:
 To calculate the central deflection dial indicator must be at zero.
 There should be proper calibration of dial indicator.
 The load will apply on the hanger simultaneously which is attached to the beam.
 When the dial indicator moves antilock-wise note the readings which is in black. if it
moves in clock- wise direction note the readings which is in red color of the dial
indicator.
7.7. Conclusion:
 By using the deflection of beam apparatus we can find the modulus of elasticity by
varying the load and the deflection.
Experiment#08
Deflection and torsion apparatus
8.1. Objective:
 To determine the central deflection of a fixed ended beam loaded at mid-span by
concentrated loads and to compare with theoretical value.
8.2. Apparatus:
 Hangers and weight.
 Dial indicator.
 Vernier caliper.
 Deflection of apparatus.
 Meter rod.













Fig.8.1. Deflection of beam apparatus with a fixed ended beam

To study and observe the central deflection by using the fixed ended beam.
Fixed Beam:
If both ends of beam have fixed support then it is called fixed beam.
8.4. Procedure:
 Set the Deflection of Beam apparatus on a horizontal surface.
 Set the dial indicator at zero.
 Apply a load 1N and measure the deflection using dial indicator.
 Take a set of at least five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings
on unloading. Calculate:
a. The “Theoretical value of deflection (yc)” of beam at mid-span.
b. The %age error between theoretical and experimental values of central deflections.
Least count of dial indicator : 0.01mm

Effective length of beam (L ) : 80cm or 800mm
Breadth of beam (b) : 25.4mm
Height of the beam (h) : 6.35mm
Modulus of rigidity of material : 67.10N/mm2
Moment of inertia : 541.96mm4
I= bh3/12
Table 8.1. Calculation of center of deflection
No. of Load Actual central deflection Theoretical %
obs. (N) (mm) Deflection
Error
yc
=WL3/192EI
loading unloading Mean (%)

1. 2 0.13 0.17 0.15 0.14 -7%
2. 4 0.28 0.33 0.30 0.29 -3%

3. 6 0.45 0.49 0.47 0.43 -9%
4. 8 0.64 0.66 0.65 0.58 -12%
5. 10 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.73 -10%
8.6. Graph:
0.6
0.5 0.5
0
0.4 0.4
0
deflection
0.3 0.3
0
0.2 0.2
0
0.1 0.1
0
0
2 4 6 8 10
Load
8.7. Comments:
 Deflection of beam depends upon stiffness of beam material and dimensions and on applied
load and proper supports.
 The fixed beam of deflection apparatus shows that the central deflection is directly
proportion to the load while the ends of beam remains fixed.
8.8. Application:
 Fixed Spreader Beam
 Net for badminton and table tennis.
 Fixed Beam Cutting Presses

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Strength of Material

1. Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine

1. Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine:

Figure 1: Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine

3. Thin Cylinder Apparatus:

Figure 3: Thin Cylinder Apparatus

4. Thick Cylinder Apparatus:

Figure 4: Thick Cylinder Apparatus

5. Strain Gauge Apparatus:

Figure 5: Strain Gauge Apparatus

6. Calibration of Electrical Strain Gauges:

7. Compression of Spring Apparatus:

9. Coil Spring Apparatus:

Figure 8: Coil Spring Apparatus

10. Young’s Modulus Apparatus:

Figure 9: Young’s Modulus

Figure 10: Modulus of Rigidity of Rubber

12. Deflection and Torsion Apparatus:

Figure 11: Deflection and Torsion Apparatus

13. Deflection of Beam Apparatus:

14. Bending Moment Apparatus:

Figure 13: Bending Moment Apparatus

15. Twisting and Bending Testing Machine:

Figure 14: Twisting and Bending Testing

17. Bending Moment Apparatus:

Figure 15: Shearing of Beam

1.3 Summary of Theory:

1.3.2 Deformation in Springs:

1.3.2.1 Elastic deformation:

1.3.2.2 Plastic deformation:

1.3.3 Hooke’s Law:

1.3.4 Types of spring according to loading condition:

1.3.4.1 Tension/Extension Spring

Figure 1- 3 Extension spring

1.3.4.2 Compression spring

Figure 1- 4 Compression spring

1.3.4.3 Torsion spring

Figure 1- 5 Torsion spring

1.3.4.3 Constant spring

Figure 1- 6 Constant spring

1.3.4.4 Variable spring:

Figure 1- 7 Variable spring

1.3.5 Types of springs according to shapes:

Figure 1- 8Coil Spring

1.3.5.2 Flat spring:

Figure 1- 9Flat Spring

1.3.5.3 Machined spring:

Figure 1- 10Machined Spring

1.3.5.4 Serpentine spring

Figure 1- 11Serpentine Spring

1.4 Observations and calculations:

Diameter of wire (d) : 3.6mm

Outer diameter (O/D) : 31.6mm

Length of spring (L) : 154.5mm

Modulus of rigidity(G) : 77 × 103 N\ mm2

Table 1.1. Calculation of stiffness of compression spring

No. of Load Deflection Slope from Theoretical Difference Percentage

1. 5 2 2 2 2.5 3.87 1.37 35%

2. 10 4 4 4 2.5 3.87 1.37 35%

3. 20 6 5.5 5.75 2.85 3.87 1.02 26%

4. 30 7 7 7 4 3.87 -0.13 -3.3%

5. 40 9 9 9 2.5 3.87 1.37 35%

Mean percentage = 25.54%