PRESSURE MEASUREMENT: Characteristics,

Technologies and Trends

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Introduction
Pressure measurement and control is the most used process variable in the process
control industry many segments. In addition, through the pressure it is possible infer
a series of other process variables, like level, volume, flow and density. This article
will cover the main technologies of the most important technologies used in pressure
sensors, as well as some details concerning pressure transmitter installations,
market and trends.

Pressure Measurement and a Bit of History

For many years pressure measurement has attracted the interest of science. At the
end of the XVI century, the Italian Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was granted the patent
for a water pump system used on irrigation. (As a curiosity: in 1592, using simply a
test tube and a water basin, Galileo assembled the first thermometer. The tube was
turned upside down and half immersed in the water, so, when the air inside the tube
cooled, the volume decreased and the water raised. When the air warmed, the
volume raised and the water was forced out. Therefore, the water level measured
the air temperature.) The core of its pump was a suction system that could raise the
water at a maximum of 10 meters. He never knew the reason for this limit, which
motivated other scientists to study this phenomenon.
In 1643, the Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) invented the
barometer, with which he could evaluate the atmospheric pressure, i.e., the force of
the air over the earth surface. He performed an experiment by filling a 1 meter tube
with mercury, sealed at one end and immersed in a tub with mercury at the other.
The mercury column invariably immersed in the tube approximately 760 mm. Without
knowing exactly the reason for this phenomenon, he attributed it to a force produced
at the earth surface. Torricelli also concluded that the space left by the mercury at
the beginning of the tube was empty and named it “vacuum”.
Five years later, French physicist Blaise Pascal used the barometer to show that the
air pressure was smaller at the top of the mountains.
In 1650, German physicist Otto Von Guericke developed the first efficient air pump,
with which Robert Boyle carried out compression and decompression tests and 200
years later French physicist and chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, determined that
the pressure of a gas confined at a constant volume is proportional to its
temperature.
In 1849, Eugène Bourdon was granted the Bourdon Tube patent, used until today in
relative pressure measurements. In 1893, E.H. Amagat used the dead-weight piston
on pressure measurements.

Figure 1 – Bourdon Tube

In the past few decades, with the advent of the digital technology, an enormous
variety of equipment spread through the market in multiple applications. The
pressure characterization was really valued from the moment it was translated in
measurable values.
The entire pressure measurement system is constituted by a primary element, which
will be in direct or indirect contact with the process where the pressure changes
occur, and a secondary element (the pressure transmitter) whose task will be
translating the change in measurable values for use in indication, monitoring and
control.

Figure 2 – The men who made pressure measurement history

Pressure Measurement Basic Principles

Let´s see the Static Pressure concept, taking as basis figure 3. It shows a recipient
with a liquid that exerts pressure at a point that is proportional to the liquid weight
and to the distance from the point to the surface. (The Archimedes principle: a body
immersed in a liquid is subject to a force, known as thrust, equal to the weight of the
displaced liquid. For example, this principle makes if possible to determine the level,
by using a floater subject to the thrust of a liquid level that is transmitted for an
indicator of the movement, whose level is being measured, since the thrust varies
with the density).
Static pressure P is defined as the ratio between force F applied perpendicularly to
a surface with area A: P = F/A [N/ m2).

Figure 3 – Pressure on an immersed point P

Figure 4 – Pressure on an immersed body

Figure 4 shows a parallelepiped with a side A and length L area on one side, where
the pressure on its upper face and its lower face are given respectively by P D = hpg
and PU = (h + L) pg. The resulting pressure is equal to PU - PD = lpg. The pressure
employed by a force perpendicular to the fluid surface is called static pressure. The
Pascal principle states that any increase on the liquid pressure will be transmitted
equally to all points on the liquid. This principle is used on hydraulic systems (like
car brakes) and can be illustrated by figure 5. In other words: the applied forces have
intensities proportional to the respective areas.
Also, is worth quoting Staven Law (1548-1620): on a homogeneous and
uncompressible fluid on equilibrium under the action of gravity, the pressure grows
linearly with the depth; the difference of pressure between two points is equal to the
product of the fluid specific weight by the difference of level between the points under
consideration.

Figure 5 – The pressure is perpendicular to the surface and the forces applied
have intensities proportional to the respective areas

Observe now the pressure applied by the moving fluids on a tube transversal section.
Let´s take figure 6, where:
F1 = force applied to surface A1;
P1 = ratio between F1 e A1;
ΔL2 = distance displaced by the fluid;
V2 = speed of displacement;
h2 = heigh relative to the gravitacional reference.
and
F2 = the force applied to surface A1;
P2 = ratio between F1 e A1;
ΔL2 = distance displaced by the fluid;
V2 = speed of displacement;
h2 = height relative to the gravitational reference.
 Figure 6 – Bernoulli equation – The pressure applied by the moving fluids on the
tube transversal section.

Supposing an ideal fluid without viscosity, it is displaced with friction and so without
energy loss.
The work carried out by the resultant of the forces acting on a system is equal to the
variation of the kinetic energy, the work-energy theorem. With this, we have:
P1+ (1/2) ρ .v12 + ρ . g . h1 = P2 + (1/2)ρ . v22 + ρ . g . h2

This is the Bernoulli equation that proves that the pressures total along a tube is
always constant on an ideal system. The interesting thing on this equation is that the
following pressures can be recognized:

• P1= Applied Pressure

• (1/2) ρ.v12 = Dynamic Pressure
• ρ.g. h1 = Static Pressure

Rearranging this ratio we arrive at the equation:

This ratio is very useful to calculate de fluid speed, given the impact pressure and
the static pressure. From this ration, there may be calculated, for example, the fluid
flow:
The C values are experimental results and for each type of primary measurement
element and impulse-take system, C varies in function of the piping diameter (D),
the number of Reynolds (Rd) and the ratio of the diameters related to section A1
and A2 ()

C = f(D,Rd,β)

Pressure Units on the International System (SI)

The Pascal [Pa] is the pressure unit on the International System of units (SI).
One Pa is the pressure generated by the force of 1 Newton over a surface of 1
square meter atPa = N/m2.
Table 1 shows the principal units and the conversion between them.

mmH2
inH2O mmHg inHg
atm bar kPa kgf/cm2 O psi
@20oC @0oC @32oF
@20oC
inH2O 0,0024 0,2486 0,0025 1,8649 0,0734 0,0360
1 0,0025 25,4000
@20oC 9 4 4 7 2 6
407,51 1,0132 101,32 1,0332 759,99 29,921 14,695
atm 1 10350,8
3 5 5 3 9 3 9
402,18 0,9869 100,00 1,0197 750,06 29,530 14,503
bar 1 10215,5
5 2 0 2 2 0 8
4,0218 0,0098 0,0100 0,0102 7,5006 0,2953 0,1450
kPa 1 102,155
5 7 0 0 2 0 4
394,40 0,9678 0,9806 98,066 735,55 28,959 14,223
kgf/cm2 1 10017,9
7 4 6 2 8 0 3
mmH2
0,0393 0,0001 0,0001 0,0097 0,0001 0,0734 0,0028 0,0014
O 1
7 0 0 9 0 2 9 2
@20oC
mmHg 0,5362 0,0013 0,0013 0,1333 0,0013 0,0393 0,0193
13,6195 1
@0oC 0 2 3 2 6 7 4
inHg @ 13,619 0,0334 0,0338 3,3863 0,0345 25,400 0,4911
345,935 1
32oF 5 2 6 8 3 0 5
27,729 0,0680 0,0689 6,8947 0,0703 51,714 2,0360
psi 704,333 1
6 5 5 5 1 9 2

Most common types of Pressure Measurement

In function of the reference, the pressure measurement can be classified as: gauge,
absolute and differential or relative. Let´s take figure 7 as reference:

Figure 7 – References for Pressure and most usual Pressure types

• Absolute pressure: it is measured with relation to perfect vacuum, namely, the

pressure difference at a given measurement point by the vacuum pressure
(absolute zero). Normally the ABS notation is used when this greatness is
indicated. Example: The absolute pressure applied by the atmosphere at sea
level is 760mmHg.
• Differential pressure:it is the pressure difference measured between two
points. When any point other than vacuum or atmosphere is used as
reference it means differential pressure. For example, the differential
pressure found on an orifice plate.
 • Gauge pressure:it is measured in relation to the ambient pressure, namely, in
relation to the atmosphere. It is always important to register on the notation
that it is a relative measurement. Example: 10Kgf/cm2 Relative Pressure.

Note that the gauge pressure is given by the difference between the absolute and
the atmospheric pressure.

Sensors used on Pressure Measurement

Generally, sensors are classified according to the technique used on the mechanical
pressure over a proportional electronic signal. All techniques have a single purpose:
turningthe pressure applied on a sensor into an electronic signal proportional to it:

• Variable Capacitance (Capacitive)

• Piezo-resistive (Strain Gauge)
• Potentiometric
• Piezo-electric
• Variable Reluctance
• Resonant
• Optical
• Others

1) Piezo-resistive or Strain Gauge

Piezo-resistivity refers to the alteration of the electric resistance with the
deformation/contraction as a result of the applied pressure. They are mostly formed
by crystal elements (strain gauge) interconnected in bridge (wheatstone) with other
resistors that provide zero adjustment, sensitivity and temperature compensation.
The construction material varies according to the manufacturer and today solid state
sensors are easy to find.
Disadvantages: limited operation temperature range, applicable on low pressure
ranges because they generate a very low, unstable, excitation signal.
Currently there is the so-called film transducer , which is made from steam deposition
or the injection of strain-gauge elements directly on a diaphragm, minimizing the
instability due to the use of adhesives on the alloy of bonded wire models. The great
edge is that it produces a higher level electric signal, however totally vulnerable at
high temperatures, because the temperature affects the adhesive material used
when sticking the silicon to the diaphragm.
Several techniques based on the production of piezoresistive silicon sensors (silicon
substrate) are emerging, however susceptible to signal degradation in function of the
temperature and require compensation from complicated circuits, error minimization
and zero sensitivity. They are totally unviable in applications subject to long high
temperature periods, as the diffusion degrades the substrates in these conditions.

Figure 8 – Piezo-Resistive Sensor

2) Piezo-electric
The piezo-electric material is a crystal that produces a differential tension
proportional to the pressure applied on its faces: quartz, Rochelle salt, barium
titanium, tourmaline, etc. This material cumulates electric loads in certain areas of
its crystal structure, when they suffer physical deformation by the action of a
pressure. The piezo-electricity was discovered by Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880.
Their disadvantage is that they require a high impedance circuit and a high gain
amplifier and are susceptible to noises. Furthermore, due to their dynamic nature
they do not perform solid state pressure measurement. However, their advantage is
a quick response.
The relation between electric load and the pressure applied to the crystal is
practically linear:
q = Sq x Ap
p – applied pressure, A - electrode area, Sq - sensitivity,
q - electric load, C – crystal capacity, Vo –voltage output
 Figure 9a – Piezoelectric Sensor

Figure 9b – Piezoelectric Sensor

3) Resonant
They generally follow the technology principle known as vibrating wire. A magnetic
wire coil is attached to the diaphragm, which oscillates when subject to a magnetic
field that will conduct an electric current. The oscillation frequency is proportional to
the wire voltage square root (expansion/compression). The Resonant Silicon sensor
does not employ a wire but the silicon to resonate with different
expansion/resonance frequencies (a 1/f2 function). The sensor is formed by a silicon
capsule set on a diaphragm that vibrates when a pressure differential is applied and
the vibration frequency depends on the applied pressure. Some resonant sensors
require temperature compensation techniques via complicated hardware/software
temperatures, by increasing the number of components, which need more electronic
plates in some equipment.
4) Capacitive
These sensors are the most reliable and have been used on million of applications.
They are based on transducers whose pressure applied to diaphragm sensors
produces a variation of capacitance between them and a central diaphragm, for
instance. This variation is typically used to vary an oscillator frequency, used as a
capacitor bridge element and also to vary an oscillator frequency. This frequency
can be measured directly by the CPU and converted into Pressure. In this case there
is no A/D conversion and contributes to the exactness and elimination of drifts
encountered on analog/digital conversions. It is worth remembering that this reading
principle is totally digital and is used by Smar since the middle 80s. Smar is the only
Brazilian company and one of the few in the world to make this type of sensor. They
have linear and practically insensitive to temperature variations, being the favorite
for instrumentation and process control, as they have excellent performance on
stability, temperature and static pressure. Some of their best features:

• Ideal for low and high pressure applications.

• Minimize the Probable Total Error and consequently process variability.
• Ideal for flow applications.
• Their lineal response allows high rangeability exactness.

Figure 10 – Example of a capacitive sensor construction.

5) Optical – They are still not well known, but below are some milestones of fiber
optics evolution:

• It was invented by the Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kanpany.

• 1970: Corning Glass produced a few optical fiber meters with losses of 20
db/km.
• 1973: An optical fiber circuit was installed in the United States.
• 1976: Bell Laboratories installed a telephone link of 1 km in Atlanta, GA, and
proved to be practically feasible its use for telephone communication.
• 1978: The production of optical fibers began in several world locations with
losses below 1,5 dB/km.
• 1988: The first optical fiber submarine cable immersed in the ocean and gave
birth to the information super highway.
• 2004: Optical fibers account for 40 billion dollars annually.
• 2007: Brazilian optical fiber turned 30 years and the all-American optical fiber
market billed 237 million dollars.
• 2014: The American market of optical fiber sensors has an estimate of 237
million dollar billings.

The sensitivity of fiber sensors, namely, the less intense measurable disturbance,
may depend on:

• Infinitesimal variations on some parameter of characterizing the used fiber,

when the fiber is the very sensor element;

Changes on the properties of the used light, when the fiber is the channel through which
the light goes back and forth to the location being tested.
Optical fiber sensors are compact and show sensitivity comparable to similar
conventional devices. Pressure sensors are built using a moving membrane on one
of the fiber ends. The advantages of these sensors are: high sensitivity, small size,
flexibility and resistance, low weight, long life span, long transmission distance,
low material chemical reactivity, ideal to operate on intrinsically safe, high voltage
and hazardous ambient , electric isolation, electromagnetic immunity, multiplexing
of signals, i.e., a single fiber can have dozens of sensors to measure vibration,
pressure, temperature, multiphase flow, deformation, etc.
A technique used on optical sensor construction is the Fabry-Perot Interferometer,
a device generally utilized to measure high precision wave lengths, whose two
partially reflecting mirrors (of glass or quartz) are aligned and provide a maximum
fringe contrast and the distance between them through mechanical variation. The
distance variation could be generated by pressure and it would work as a pressure
sensor.
Fabry-Perot cavity length Stainless steel diaphragm Feed -through
connector Optical Fiber Cable

Figure 11 – Pressure Sensor with the Fabry-Perot principle.

Industrial Equipment for Pressure Measurement

In the industry, among several equipment used for pressure measurement two of
them can be enhanced: the manometer and the pressure transmitter.
The gauge meter is used for local pressure reading and normally has a connection
to the process and a display (when electronic) or a pointer (when mechanical) for
local pressure reading. They are usually inexpensive devices to be used when the
pressure does not have to be transmitted to a control system and no exactness is
required. For example, static pressures, pump pressures, etc. There are also
differential, sanitary models, vacuometers, etc.
 Figure 12 – Types of manometers.

An intelligent pressure transmitter combines the sensor technology and its

electronic.
Typically, it must provide the following characteristics:

• Digital output signal;

• Digital communication interface (HART/4-20mA, Foundation Fieldbus,
Profibus-PA);
• Pressure and temperature compensation;
• Stability;
• Easy calibration;
• Re-range (with or without reference);
• Self Diagnostics;
• Easy installation and calibration;
• High reliability;
• Low costs and short installation and maintenance periods;
• Reduction on the pressure intrusion/penetration;
• Space saving in installation;
• Allow upgrades to Foundation Fieldbus and Profibus PA technologies;
• EDDL and FDT/DTM interface resources;
• Transient protection, without power supply polarity;
• Physical locking for custody transference, etc.

Users must be cautious about some points to avoid paying higher prices for
something they will not use or is not required by their application:

• Exactness & Rangeability:if they really need equipment with these features,
analyze the exactness formulas and note that sometimes exactness is not
 announced on all ranges. Watch also other characteristics like response time,
totals, PID block, etc. as they are likely to be more useful on their applications.
• Protection to the investment: analyze the cost of spare parts, the
interchangeability between models, simplicity of specification, upgrade to
other technologies (Foundation Fieldbus, Profibus PA), technical services,
technical support, reposition term, etc. These are factors that may impair the
plant availability.

Electronic Diagram

Figure 13 – LD400 - HART 4-20mA Pressure Transmitter with capacitive sensor,

single electronic plate, high performance (the transmitter with the best response
time in the market)

The microprocessed pressure transmitters have the great advantage of allowing

better interaction with the user, with friendly interfaces. Furthermore, their self-
diagnostics features help identifying problems. The advent of fieldbus networks
made it possible to extract the maximum possible problems identification. These
transmitters have more exactness, electronic stability superior to analogical models,
in addition to making adjustments and calibrations easier. Digital technology also
enables the implementation of powerful algorithms to improve the performance and
exactness of the measurement and the on-line monitoring of the equipment life.
Example of Typical Pressure Transmitters Ap plications
Below are examples of pressure transmitter applications. For more details about
each of them consult the literature available on the article references. Remember
that the correct installation ensures the best performance of the equipment.

• Liquid level measurement

Figure 14 – Open tank level measurement

Open tank
PL = Patm (atmospheric pressure)
PH = Patm + h. p. g
DP= PH - PL = n. p. g = K. h

• TRM low side is open for atmospheric pressure.

• Only for liquids.
 Figure 15 – Closed tank level measurement

Closed tank
PL = Ptop (steam pressure)
PH = Ptop + h . pg
DP= PH - PL = h. p. g = K. h

• TRM Low side connected to the tank upper part

• Only for liquids.

• Flow measurement
 Figure 16 –Pitot tube flow measurement

Pitot Tube
PL = Pstatic (static pressure)
PH = Pstatic + Qv2 . k
DP= PH - PL =Qv2 . k
Qv =K. √ DP

• Appropriate for gas, steam or liquid.

 Figure 17 – Orifice plate flow measurement.

Flange Orifice Plate

Orifice Plate
PL = Pstatic (static pressure)
PH = Pstatic + Qv2 . k
DP= PH - PL =Qv2 . k
Qv = K. √ DP

• Convenient for gas, steam or liquid.

• Volume and mass measurement

 Figure 18 – Volume measurement.

• Level pressure can be converted to mass, using the Table function.

 Figure 19 – Mass measurement

Important Accessories for Pressure Measurement and their Variants

Due to the great number of possible applications, some accessories must be
available when using pressure transmitters. The most common ones are the
manifolds and remote seals, as shown on figure 20 below. The remote seals are
used to transmit the pressure to a point distant from the sensor or even ensure the
right conditions for the measurement on process temperature cases. The manifolds
are small valves used to help performing equipment, calibration and maintenance
operations.

Figure 20 – Accessories for several transmitter applications.

How to Specify Pressure Transmitters

The use of incomplete specifications or inconsistent data is quite common in the
documentation to acquire pressure transmitters. At a first glance, they look like
simple project items, but many are the details that, if not correctly specified, are liable
to result in losses during mounting or even during the operation and the harm can
be bigger than the values of the equipment involved.
This topic seeks to clarify some fundamental questions on the process of specifying
pressure transmitters.

What to measure?
Manometric pressure, absolute pressure, differential pressure, other greatnesses
inferred from measurement, like flow, level, volume, force, density pressure, etc.
Note that pressure measurements lower than atmospheric pressure do not
necessarily require absolute pressure transmitters. Absolute pressure transmitters
are recommended only to prevent the influence of atmospheric pressure variations.
This influence will be critical only when measuring very close pressures, over or
under the atmospheric pressure. Anywhere else, manometric pressure transmitters
can be used without problems.

Why measuring pressure?

Generally, pressure is measured for process monitoring or control; safety; quality
control, fluid commercial transactions, like custody transference, fiscal
measurement; studies and research; mass and energy balances.
These objectives must be considered when choosing the equipment. More rigorous
questions on performance such as: exactness, overpressure and static pressure
limits, stability etc., may increase the project costs unnecessarily. Practically all
manufacturers offer more than one version of transmitters with different technical
features and obviously with different prices.

Which is the process fluid?

The supplier must be informed about the fluid characteristics. In most cases, the
manufacturer may recommend special materials or connections, but the final
decision will always be up to the user or the hired engineering company. These are
some fundamental process fluids for the right transmitter choice:

• State (liquid, gas, steam): defines the valve drain/vent position;

• Maximum process pressure: is important to evaluate the transmitter
overpressure and static pressure limits;
• Maximum process temperature: may be determinant for using remote seals
or simply to keep a minimum distance from the impulse line (tubing).
Optionals?
Some optional features can be included in the transmitter supply:

• Local indicator: this item is not too costly and is very useful, as it not only
allows the reading of variables in engineering units (kgf/cm2, bar, mmH2O,
Pa, psi, etc.) but also facilitates configuring the transmitter when a
configurator is not available.
• Manifold: product bundling ( transmitter + manifold purchase) has commercial
advantages and avoids technical incompatibilities on mounting.
• Support for 2” pipe: an almost compulsory item. Some supports also allow
mounting on flat surfaces. At least stainless steel nuts and bolds should be
specified, for better resistance to corrosive atmospheres.
• Cable clamps: this item can be ordered with the transmitter. However, it
should be included on the mounting material, in order to ensure the
compatibility with the gauge of the specified cable.

Communication protocol?
The most common communication protocols are: 4-20 mA + HART, Foundation
Fieldbus and Profibus PA.
Some manufacturers market transmitters that change their protocol version by
simply substituting the electronic circuit board or just the firmware to allow their use
on different systems.
Also, they offer with the transmitters, CDs with all the archives (DDs and DTMs) that
ensure communication and interoperability edge with the several existing control
systems.

Special tools?
Transmitters with Foundation Fieldbus or Profibus PA protocols do not require
portable configurators, since the network configuration tools installed on supervising
computers or any engineering station is also capable of accessing and configuring
the devices. For conventional projects (4-2-mA + HART), it is recommended the
acquisition of hand-held configurators. In some transmitters, the configuration can
be done directly on the devices, with the use of resources like the magnetic
screwdriver or local buttons.

Pre-configuration?
On conventional transmitters it is possible to request to the maker, generally at no
additional cost, some pre-configurations: square root extraction; calibrated range;
display indication in engineering units and/or special units, for example: m3/h, l/h,
m3. In this case, the unit and scale should be indicated previously.

Certifications?
It is common for the user to request to the manufacturer calibration certificates
issued by metrology laboratory tracked by RBC. Standardized certificates are
generated and issued during the device production stage. Other calibration
certificates, when issued by RBC-tracked labs may require longer delivery terms and
involve additional costs.
Another important certification must be observed when the transmitters are used in
hazardous areas. The projects for these cases adopt regulations compliant to
explosion proof, increased safety or intrinsic safety. The certificates are distinct ones
and the user is responsible for its correct utilization. The same applies to SIS, Safety
Instrumented Systems.

Special connections?
In applications with aggressive fluids, high temperature or viscosity, suspended
solids, remote seal or integral transmitters are recommended. Integral seal
transmitters are called level transmitters. Whenever possible, the use of seals must
be avoided, as these degrade the measurement exactness, raise the transmitter
response time and suffer great influence from the ambient temperature. Seals with
flanged connections must be compatible with the process flanges and respect the
pressure classes established on pressure tables and the temperature of the
respective standards.

Pressure range / rangeability?

The manufacturers adopt a standardized terminology that must be known:

• URL: calibration range upper limit;

• LRL: calibration range lower limit, generally LRL = -URL;
• URV: calibration range upper value (should be smaller than or equal to the
URL);
• LRV: calibration range lower value (should be higher than or equal to the
LRL);
• SPAN: URV – LRV (should be higher than the device minimum SPAN).
The ratio URL / minimum SPAN defines the device rangeability.
The manufacturer catalogs generally show the URL, LRL and minimum SPAN for
the several transmitter ranges. Note that the minimum SPAN for a certain range will
be always higher than the URL of the immediately lower range. Example:

• Range 4 - URL: 25 kgf/cm2 ; minimum Span : 0,21 kgf/cm2; overpressure

or static pressure limits: 160 kgf/cm2;
• Range 5 - URL : 250 kgf/cm2 ; minimum Span : 0,21 kgf/cm2; overpressure
or static pressure limits: 320 kgf/cm2.

For a 0 to 20 kgf/cm2 calibrated range application it is possible to use range 4 or

even range 5. However, the lower range should always be chosen. All specifications
for stability, temperature effect, static pressure effect are determined with URL
percent values. An exception for that choice is when the overpressure or static
pressure can be reached. On the example above this limit is 160 kgf/cm2 for range
4 and 320 kgf/cm2 for range 5.

Functional resources
Some transmitters have very interesting functional resources. For Foundation
Fieldbus protocol transmitters it is important to know the functional block library
available. The user must be informed not only about the diversity of these blocks,
but also about the marketing policy for these resources. Some makers supply the
device with some basic blocks and charge extra price to include advance blocks. It
is also important to be aware of the number of blocks that can be processed on a
single transmitter. This limit can be critical in projects with more complex control
loops.
For conventional 4-20 mA + HART transmitters the use of additional functionalities
is also possible.

PID control
With this configuration the transmitter executes the PID algorithm, by comparing the
process variable with a pre-adjusted set-point and generates the current output
signal to be directly connected to the control valve positioner. This resource is valid
for simple control loops that do not need operator intervention, always on automatic
with constant set-point.

Flow totals
The differential pressure transmitter when used on flow measurement can be
configured for local indication of the total flow, besides the instantaneous indication.

Conclusion
This article presented some highlights on the history of pressure measurement, its
importance in automation and process control, peculiarity of some sensor types,
combined with the pressure transmitter technological advancements. We also
examined the care required in relation to transmitter installations and
specification and market trends.

References

• Intech Edição 74 , Transmissores de Pressão: sensores, tendências,

mercado e aplicações, César Cassiolato, 2005
• Controle&Instrumentação - Edição nº 106, O Brasil quebrando as barreiras
tecnológicas com a inovação – Transmissores de Pressão César
Cassiolato, 2005
• Controle&Instrumentação - Edição nº 113, Especificando Transmissores de
Pressão, César Cassiolato, Francisco Julião, 2006.
• Intech Edição 93 , Medições de Pressão: características e
tecnologias, César Cassiolato, 2007
• Controle&Instrumentação - Edição nº 135, Medições de Pressão: Tudo o que
você precisa saber, César Cassiolato, 2008
• Controle&Instrumentação - Edição nº 137, Medição de Vazão, César
Cassiolato, Evaristo O. Alves, 2008
• Manuais de Operação e Treinamento dos transmissores de pressão Smar:
LD301, LD302 , LD303 e LD400
• www.smar.com.br

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All illustrations, trademarks and products mentioned in this article are the property
of their respective owners, as well as any other form of intellectual property, being
herewith used strictly in educational character.