MINERAL / 0% Stone From the first man-made tools to high-performance composites, INTRODUCTION the inherent strength and durability of stone has proved im Europe, the Bronze Age (sce also Copper, immensely valuable. Rough stone blocks are cut or split from ba htc areca ator erae rocks that have been formed by heat and pressure over the ‘Age during the gth ane 3rd millenia course of millennia, They are shaped and dressed, by hand and But the practical use of stone has prevaled machine, or melted and extruded as heat-resistant fibre. ‘or many easons. It sabundant in the eavth’s crust and often easily accessible on the surface. Extracting it istelatively straightforward and it can beshaped, dressed and applied without any further processing. Compressed below ground,it Isincredibly hard and dense, which makes Ita durable and harc-wearing material Pavosity depends on the type of rock bout is generally fr less than man-made alternatizas, such as cement (pace 496) ‘COMMERCIAL TYPES AND USES ‘here are three principal types of rock sed mentary, metamorphic and igneous The properties ofeach are determined by ‘mineral composition and formation. Sedimentary rock is composed of ‘the shells of aquatic creatures and ‘minerals deposited there by erosion ard weathering. It forms a thin layer over mostly metamorphic and igreous rock aos. ‘Overtime and asa tesult ofthe pressure : of rew material deposited, the particles fasakfbre uit tems tans frephcspantie. —anteanttateser Tense ee mater ih pest / | sfmess Unbhevatbon, —aminvalonce ned " Bp ins te tamer tat a ~ Ie tnesbeshoescompress and fuse together Fassils are most commonly found inthis type of rock because the temperature and pressure is nat sufficient to destroy thers Common types of sedimentary stone include limestone, sandstone and soapstone. Limestone mainly ‘onsists of calcium carbonate ~ formed don the bottom of lakes and seas from calcareous skeletons and bones — with purities such as clay page 480),sand and iron. Stone with a higher prop rhonate is graded as, dolomite or dolestone. Limestone is an important material used ina variety of applications as well as bullding stone, ineluding construction aggregate, cement and plaster (page 492 Outside the construction industry it isan lof magnesium Important raw material inthe production of ron page 22), steel (page 28). glass (page 508) and sugar; and pro rneral fl in paper (page 268), paint and plastic Limestone ranges from soft (chalk to hard, The type suitable for use as a building block, consists of avery high percentage of calclum carbonate. This makes t hard ‘enough to polish Its typically white, but ‘an range from black to grey to brown. Sandatone, as the name suggests, ‘mainly consists of quartz (silica. which \s used in glass production, page 508} spat and lithic fragments from ather rocks). The percentage of eact varies and this is commonly referenced in the name Sandstone is ing or counter hard. compact and fine-grained. Asa result ofthe high proportion of silica, i isvery resistant to acids and alkalis. ts typically shade of light brown or ted it is used im paving, fire hearths and asa sad-bearing bu'leing block its inertness ‘makes it particularly useful for flooring in facilites that deal with chemicals Soapstone is comprised primarily oftale (hydrated magnesiure silicate ‘This makes it soft enough tocarve. ike sandstone, itis unaffected by liquids, acids and alkalis and so suitable for kitchen and laboratory countertops. owever, it's wulnerable to wear and te and so best avoided in situations where It ‘might receive rough treatment Colour often includes shades of grey precn and brown. tts dacorative propertiesare used in construction and sculpture, Anozable examples the Christ the Redeemer statue that overlooks the city of Rio de Janeiro, which ts made of reinforced concrete clad with soapstone. The surface nas become pitted and weathered from decades of exposure, Iehas high heat capacity. which rears that t wil retain heat, or col for a prolonged peried. Combined with, Its superior temperature resistance, this makes it useful for fre hearths, cooking pots and cooking stones, for example There are several types of event that ‘an lead to the formation of metamorphic rock-a into metamorphic rock through exposure ‘to extreme heat and pressure~ such as tectonic mavernent or the intrusion of het sting rack is conve carved marble ina o famed tipped Fre detas and share it brie ands atest owlisuittem molten magma. This process results ma refined grain structure. As the mineral in these types of rock ae only those formed at high temperature and pressure the stone's typically hard and dense and se can be polished to a very smooth ish Examples include marble and slate starble s formed tvorn mestone, cover time the carbenate minerals go through a pracess of recystallization This ‘results im the formation of large, coarse, interlocked grains of principally calite ‘or dolomite. The inal qualities depend ‘on the impurities present and conditions of formation. Pure limestone produces translucent white marble, variegated colour comes from the presence of impurities. Asa result, marble from different quarries will have a different appearance, tis named after its place of origi rrara (white with grey veins, tay) Parian (translucent white, Greece), Vermont (variegated white and grey, USA) and Nero Marquina (biack with white veins, Spain) Marble has lang been prized for is beauty and durability t featured heanly in Greek and Roman architecture and Sculphure: Michelangelo famously used high-quality Carrara marble in many of his sculptures; the Greek Parthenon is ‘extravagantly carved trom high-quality ‘Greek marble; and the Taj Mahal is lad 1m various types of bright white marble Blocks are cut and carved to make bricks, pillars floors and counters. Crushed marble i used as aggregate, such as to enhance the whiteness of concrete Slates formed from mudiclay, shale and other particles are compressed into a moderately hare and compact rock. is predominately composed of quartz ard ‘mica, Colour is typically dar grey but various shades af grey-green and grey: blue exist. The crystals form in thin fat layers, which may be split to make sheets such as Bianco. ‘As 2 result ofits durability and weather resistance, these sheets are applied as paving, roof shingles ties} and cladaing, igneous rock's Formed fom wolcantc material, namely magma. Mineralsrnix with the hot molten lava, resulting na variety of compositions with ar without crystallzation. The magma cools within the earth’s crust oroutside as volcan rock. They ate teterted to as intrusive and extrusive respectively, Gran) Intrusive rock made up of quartz feldspar and potassium. Within the earth’s crust ‘the magma cools slowly and so forms -oarse-textured tack This gives granite 's granular appearance. As the hardest cof bullding stones. it has exceptional durability and can be polished to a mirror finish tt is used in a variety of interior and exterior applications. Including floors, countertops, hearths and monuments, “Black geanste'is typically gabbra another type of merusive rock It ‘is considered too fragile to use for construction purposes, but provides a valuable decorative material such as for Interiors ard facades. Basalt is an extrusive rock It cools quickly, which results n a fine gra and crystalline structure (see page 56) itis typically dark coloured ar ‘cut and polished like granite tis used. Inburldings and monuments, Peshaps its most important application is asa fibre. itis strong, stiff and incombustble. Paterted in ig23.It has been explored for a range of applications, primarily military ‘and aerospace, Consumer applications have emerged too For example, Gitzo manufactures acamera tripod ftom basalt fibre affering good mechanical properties at a lower price than carbon. ‘SUSTAINABILITY ‘ining has impacts on the local ‘material that i transported all over the world. Even so, these materials have Jow embodied energy, because all of the work required to form a strong and durable material was completed prior toextraction Slate has particularlylow energy, because the material s generally split rather than cut.MINERAL (0 Diamond and Corundum ‘These gemstones are rare mineral formations prized for their beauty and durability. Predominantly used in jewelry, they are available in a range of striking colours, or may be colourless, which case lustre and refraction become a measure of its beauty. As industrial materials, these minerals are utilized for their superior hardness, optical properties and chemical resistance. INTRODUCTION ‘These rare materials have been a source of fascination ever since the’ discovery Such ‘thetr beauty and mystery that they have been endowed with meaning and symbolism. Diamond, for example, was ‘thought to give strength and fortitude 10 its wearer in battler itis asyrabol of wealth and power;anei in modern times it has become a gift af people in ove They are valuable industrial materials, too. Along with technical ceramics (page §528},gemstone minerals are some of the hardest and most wear-resistant ‘matenals, making them efficent Industrial abrasives and additives m protective coatings, Gemstones synthesized in laboratories provide some unique qualities and are, imsome cases less expensive Sapphire, for exarnpe, is optically transparent, ‘extremely hard.wearing and scratch resistant and can be grown as very large, clean crystals. swell asin jewelry, Jaboratory-grown sapphire is utilized in supertough windows, such asfor ‘watches, phones, sensors and lasers. Gemstones are sold by the carat (a unit ‘of weight equal to one-fith of a gram ar cone fortysecand of an ounce) However, ‘the pnce per carat depends cn the size of stone, Large stones willbe significantly ‘more expensive per carat, because they fare much less common than small ones, COMMERCIAL TYPES AND USES. ‘There are hundreds of minerals, but only a handful have come to be regarded as, ‘gemstones. The most important ofthese, ‘or decorative and industrial applications are diamond and corundum {sapphire and ruby, Diamonds formed of pure carbon ‘na uniform and compact arrangement that ylelds the most durable material ‘known, It's believed to be formed tromSapphiveensta swindone Oe ee e Diamond Ont srong.valrt nds duwendiethehartet frac Ws hasadon co page amon ar rah 2 Sapphire anéraby med deseted rn hear mrenptonal beth ‘exhibits a high lustre it reflects ahigh percentage of the light that strikes the surface), Colourless and tinted diamond has very high dispersion, which means Tight waves are separated into their component colours. Fhese qualities combine to produce dazaling aesthetic properties highiy sought after jewelry and accessortes. while colourless dlamonds fee frem flaws and inclusions [particles are traditionally the most valuable, those with impurities that cause colour distortions are becoming papular a a result of ther uniqueness. Synthetic diamonds have the same chemical composition, crystal structure and properties. Indeed, they can be impossible to tellapart fromm natural ‘ones. Two principal methods are used, ‘The fist forms diamond fromm graphite byplacing it under intense pressure and heat. Known as high-pressure ‘igh temperature (HHT) ts ited Ley what is physically possble with modern machinery and so only capable ‘of producing very small diamonds. These are typically used for industrial purposes. ‘The second, developed more recently, uses chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and results in perfect diamond crystal formation, Carried out in a vacuum charnber at high heat and under precisely controlled conditions, carbor containing {gas (usually methane and hydrogen) is decomposed and deposited onto a surface. Diamond is used to seed the pracess:the carbon atoms build on the existing diamond lattice. CVD is used to {orm stones as well 2s apply coatings. The ‘majority is used in inustrial applications, such as lenses cutting tools and wear. resistant components, Diarnond-tike carbor (DIC) isa different material produced by plasma enhanced CVD (PECVD). itis created by bombarding a surface with carbon particles and yields a hard and chemically stable material.Inthis case, the carbon ators form an amorphous {random} network, nota crystalline structure. In other words not diamond. However, it yiekls a desirable and high-quality finish utilized in jewelry and watches, as well as ‘for industrial applications Corundum consists of alurnina aluminium oxide) (se Techical Ceramic) and the colour is deterrmined by impurities inthe crystal structure chromium produces red (ruby): and trace amounts of ron and titanium produce blue (sapphire). OF course, many other colours are possible (green, yellow, orange ard purple, bc in its purest form, corundum is colourless It provides excellent optical clanty because iis ‘vansparent to the entire visible range flight. Combined with its impressive urabilty this is what makesit such a valuable window material such as for watches and industrial equipment. Sapphire melts to forrn a quid with ‘he same composition. This makes ita relatively straightforward mineral to grow in the laboratory There are many techniques available: the two princizal ‘types are Alame-fusion (verneull process) and melt growing [Ceochralsn process) Developed in 1g02, lame fusion ‘sthe oldest method and continues to be used today nthe production of, industrial gemstones and seed for other processes to grow larger crystals from. Finely ground ingredients are heated ‘to their melting point {around 2,000°¢ [363o°F| for sapphire) na crucible and the droplets combine ta form avery pure boule atopa support rod Slowly lowering the support rod and continuously feeding raw material allows for the growth of very Jong single crystals. ‘Melt growmng also produces single crystals which cam be very large. ts used. in the production of semiconductors, such assilicon and geranium; metals, including platinum and gold: and synthetic |gemstones. he process involves melting the ingredterts together in a crucible. seed crystal on a carefully positioned ‘od is inserted into the mix. Through a combination of localized froezing {cooing| and pulling ralsing ofthe rod}. a perfect large erystal is formed. By pulling ‘the sapphire melt through a shaped die. a range of geometries is possible, including ‘tube, sheet and bespoke shapes. There have heen many developments fon these techniques. The Kyrapoulos process for example, frst applied to sapphire vos, 6 used to produce very large (tens of kilos) high-quality crystals,SUSTAINABILITY Aswith other mined materials, the precess of digging 2 hole and taking stuf out 's clearly nat sustainable. ts possible to manage the ecological impacts of mining, toa paint. and minimize lose af habitat and biodiversity However, what Is challenging to manage is how the very high economic value of these mineral can negatively affect the local community Conflict minerals are materials derived From parts ofthe world where armed warfare is takirg place and the mining and trading of those materials helps to finance the Fighting. These are predominantly columbite-tantalite, also known as coltan (from which tantalum is derived) cassiterite tn}, gold. and wolftamite (tungsten), which are mined inthe Democratic Republic of Congo. The term conflict diamond or diamond, was.comed in the 79905 9 ineral response te haw sales of the helped furd civil wars in such places as ‘Angola and Sierra Leone: In response, joint governments and industry initiative was established to ster the flow of conflict diamonds, However, only a small portion of the world’s dlamonds. 's traceable Those derived from banned sources ave easily srmugaled act borders and sold into the glabal market x diamond costingMINERAL (820!) Clay Clay is a humble material dug from the ground that, with careful INTRODUCTION processing, becomes fine porcelain, structural building material, raat ceramic eae lans = ‘i storewate, porcelain bricks and tiles — hygienic sanitaryware or aesthetic dental repair. The final See oe er re properties - strength, temperature resistance, colour, water sediment,of different geological ages, absorption and so on ~ are realized with high-temperature firing and composition which has been mined, and depend on the type and proportion of mineral ingredients. Drovessed, molded and fired at high temperature since i's impracticalto vemove impurities from ely.the rawr material ends to undergo very isle processing, Inthe past this meart the quality ard propetiee were determined largely by geographical location This \swhy regions becarre renowned fora certain qual of potery or slour oF building Nowadays.clay nner are catefullymixed and blended to yeld ‘mote predctabe properties regardless aftecation ‘There ae many diferent minerals involved and each plays its rcle nthe physical nd aesthetic properties of the final material.Clays are residual and ) found where they were deposited: or sedimentary, which means they have acces oe i heen moved as a result of weathering Residual or primary.clays yield a material sist a a See cof higher purity, but are quite rare. ‘sedirmentary,av secondary, clays typically have smaller particle size and contain a SFR eee [ anaes vee See eee ee co Aine eenceeeeinaetsad 7 — . seer mt tenner = ea B Bean eeee dares 1 ca =» techies heed ushing and arateCERAMIC |ove andthrowm poreain Ihe lapanese Row Opposite Partally gored ests and tera pn ore diverse mix of ingredients. bath ass, the key components kaon iydrated aluminosilicate) The chemistry and arrangement of its stacked cystal structure, along with the other minerals is fundamental in determining the Dhysical properties the clay. Named after the hill China (G20 Ling) from where twas fst derived, kaolin,o china clay. 1scomposed of 75%or ore kaolinite Kaolin: found throughout Europe the Americas and Asia although matenal from diferent ‘mimes will hve markedly diferent properties its commercial value s determined ay purty. fineness and whiteness. The majority is used in paper ‘making (page 268) where it helps to reduce cost and ‘mprowesprintality In the case of ceramizs, kaolin forms the principal mgredient in the highest quality sanitaryware andl porcelain Bal day's another clas of material As wellaskzlinite, it contains mica and ‘quart (lea) Its added to other clays toenhance the pasticty and robustness ofthe unfired material allowing itto ee oe e - + oe Mambebonding and sath amizhous arangement hus aninenet roymedbyaton stout baking thestonge thekomd——tntlenes mbt depending trae pom‘iwev39 ‘be more easily shaped and molded. As aresul, alten makes up only a small percentage of clay body Fireclay is sedimentary mmudstone, so-called thanks to its ability to resist heat and its original use frebricks {uch as for hing Furnaces) tt has similar composition to ball clay The difference comes from the greater geological age of fireclay, which means it is not as plastic [moldable} ard requites fring at a higher ‘temperature It contains relatvelylitie irom and sa produces a buff coloured ceramic, which is now mainly utilized Inbricks and pipes. Red clay is normal sedimentary clay that is so-called because it tes toa reddish-brown colour Ths is adirect result of iron in the clay,which oxidizes during fing to form red-colouted ferrous ‘oxide. Firing in a reducing atmosphere {without oxygen also called flashing, produces dark gley through black Otter ‘metal oxides result in different colours. Carbonate minerals such as calcite and dolomite, yield paler coloured ceramic exuded Bek): ran inadetaiig tla sme vi be and fomans priced rage 8 nababen ond omnia tuna amenst rapes va hale roldetardestbed tyes at sandman temtoca materials 7 content. long with several other ‘mineralogical ingredients, ate mixed to dive clay bodies the properties required for production and use COMMERCIAL TYPES AND USES. Earthenware, also called terracotta is the earliest-known form of pottery — with evidence dating back 9.000 years ~ and remains popular. Widely available. its used to make huge variety ofoun items, from cookware to brick and sculpture to pipe. ‘Naturally occurring, it consist kaolinite and quartz, among other sedimentary materials, The tron and impurities act as fux substance wers the melting point). which that ‘means it can be fired at relatively low temperature, Other low-fre lux materials Include ta, ft and nepheline syenite milarto feldspar) tis bisque fred (see page 488) to temperatures between ya00 and 1950"C (1830-2100°F) The uur of red earthenware i affected by Firing temperature and atmosphere lower temperatures produce terracotta and higher temperatures with reduced ‘oxygen levels turn the clay brown or ever black White earthenware does not cccur naturally Its manufactured from kaolin and other clay minerals that allow it te be low-temperature fired. During fring, the minerals fuse, but a not vitnfys the clay remains porous and soft Therefore, it must be glazed in ovder tobewatertight. ithas good plasticity which makes steasy to shape by hand or machine. ft can be produced as thin as porcelain, but its poor mechanical properties chipping, relatively thick sare requ cookware and has sufficient temperature resistance to move from the freezer ta the andcase wal ect It is used in wen without falling. Another attribute is Its low shrinkage, which rmeans it can be formed into sculpture with thick sections. Stonenare is also based on kaolinite, bout owing to its slightly different composition it has a higher fring temperature Bisque firing i typically around 000°C (830°) followed by glaze fring of 120010 130 depending on the fluxcontent.t this, temperature, stonewave becomes vitreous glass. or semi-vitreou ‘a more durable material with very low rosy Glaze becomes integral to the samc, forming a glaze-clay interlayer. ely “C(ang0-2370F resulting in vaatertight once fred and does notStonemare 1 ak PRODUCTS, FURNITURE AND LIGHTING require glazing: this is done purely for decorative purposes Body colour ranges fram white to buff and light todark grey depending fon the impurities. It may have a speciled appearance as a result of the inclusion of particles of stone and flint, making each piece unique. Its added robustness makes {i more forgiving during manufacture, although this depends on the ctonoware Applications are similar te earthenware with the addition of ight coloured bricks and chemical storage vessels. broad range of glaze colours is possibleon light coloured stoneware, because it has a lower fring temperature than porcelain Porcelain, or china, is produced from the highest-quality kaolin nch chy, which is mixed with selected ingredients to increase plasticity and reduce the firing temperature. It was developed in ‘medieval China and did not feature in European pottery until the 18th century Asa result of the fine particle size porcelain can be produced bright white, with thin walls and a very smooth surface, The hot fring ternperature ~ between 1200 and 400°C [21g0-2,550"F) results Ina strong and translucent ceranvc ty At this temperature, promoted by the inclusian of flax (such as feldspay),porcela'n becomes vitreous, The kaolinite becomes glassy and mullite Galummosilcate,see High Performance Glass, page 522] crystals develop, which greatly strengthens the ceramic structure Porcelain has the lowest porasity of the clay ceramics and absorbs less than 3°: moisture, but typically claser to eo. By contrast, stoneware absorbs up ‘c ‘earthenware up t0 10% of fe qual and Porcelain is used in all forms of pottery, from sculpture and vases to teacups and val ies. Its very low porosity means that it vil not absorb fats, odour 0 bacteria its tough, and suitable or the freezer, fridge and oven. itis an important Industrial material and appl electrical insulator and enamel coating on metal such as for baths sinks ovens, stoves and white goods), True porcelain isalso referred toas hard: paste. So-called soft-paste porcelain, frst produced in Europe in an attempt tomimic Chinese porcelain, comprises clay and fit (a mixture of silica and fluxes, such as feldspar] among other ingredients it can be fred at sign‘ficantly Tower temperature than hard- past, which means that a much wider range of eloured gl Ietdoes nat ylelé sucha strong, vitreous ceramic. thus remaining somewhat potous andof infetlor quality. tt contin to be used in the production of tableware, such as plates, cups and bowels, one china, fst produced in England during the rath century, combines calcinated bone ash with kaclin and feldspar High-quality bone china may contain as much as half bone ash, by ‘weight. Its prized for its strength chip resistance and high levels of whiteness and translucency. Like soft-paste porcelat itis mainly used in tableware Asa result ofits animal content itis avoided in some culture The durability, biocompatibility and aesthetic qualities of porcelain 1ike materials are utihed in denta restoration wark, such as crowns and veneers, Dental ceram {is avaiable, However, are mainly ‘comprised of feldspar with only ait!kaolin toact as binder, which results ‘ma large proportion of glass after fing. With advances in 3D scanning. it is now possible to create milled ceramic parts that fit patients very precisely Alternatives to porcelain include technical ceramic (such as alumina and zirconia, see Technical Ceram, page 502}, glass ceramic (see High performance Glass} and polymethyl ‘methacrylate (na acrylic) {page 17) SUSTAINABILITY Clay: an abundant material, but requires, ‘mining, which has an impact on the surrounding environment. Managernent of the land is governed by local las, which typically require that the site be relandscaped once mining is complete pen pit mines are often allowed to fill with water ard become lakes Clay has very lonrembodied energy, natural forces have, over the course ofthe many millennia, done most ofthe work Production of the raw material used to be Yocated close by the mine, but this snow ‘not always the case. The mined material is pulverized sieved and washed and major Impurities are remowed (where possible Itisetther mixed wet or dried and mixed Inpowder form, Factories mass-producing ‘wares, such as sanitary tems, commonly imi their owen batches of material from ppovrdered clay at the start of each shift. Studios and potteries.on the ether hand, tend te purchase premixed clay. In the production of cerarmic wares, the firing process accounts for the majorty of the energy consumed, Transportation is asignificant contributor too, because ceramic s heavy, bulky, fragile and shippedall over the world Ceramic may contain a host of recycled ‘material and by-products from other Industries. Bricks may contain pulverized ‘uel ash (PEA) which isa by product of coal fuelled power stations Other types oF waste material including sawdust, stiayy and expanded polystyrene (EPS) {page 132) -may also be incorporated in the imix. As well as reducing the amount of ‘mined material required, waste materials ‘may yield benefts for production (such as Towering firing lemperaturs) or affect the appearance of the Fished article Cerarmies are durable and able to survive for thousands of years, While this isdesirable for building materials and handmade Items,other types of ceramic waste require disposal. Its impossible to recycle ceramic directly, but it may be broken up and used as aggregate or ravel.or bonded together wath resin, such asin the produetion of countertops CLAY IN PRODUCTS, FURNITURE AND LIGHTING Whether clay s used in one-off artuvork ‘or mass-produced by the million, the end result is defined by a combination of ‘material, process and finish There are many variations on the ‘hvee principal materials - earthenware, stoneware and porcelain -and the boundaries between them can become somewhat blurred. Material selection comes dawn to a number of factors: processibty, mishing options, physical properties and cest, Clay is formed in its plastic state, green, by powder forming ar suspended in water asslip.The range of design opportunities depends on how well the clay performs at the desired consistency. Plastic forming isthe most widely used and includes manual (hand building, throwing and carving) semt-automated iggering and jolleying| and mass production (ram pressing and extrusion) techniques, The plasticity, or formability, bf lay depencls.on particle size and water content. Workability i acombimation of plasticity and wet strength, Thus. its possible te Increase workabty without, affecting plasticity such as by adding ‘grog [crushed unglazed ceramic} or sand, This allows for the production of tall and slender items without fear of collapse. Fine or dy cays lack plasticity which ‘means that they are stiffer and less forgiving to work ky hand. Fine grained porcelain is particularly difficult to work Into thin-walled vessels requiring a great deal of skill and exporionce. Earthenware Is much more forgiving and suitable forthick and thin-walled vessels ofl! shapes and sizes siggering and jlieying are ar extension of wheel throwing Both of these processes arelimited to the production of vetationally symmetrical parts although ofcourse, they can be ‘manipulated off the wheel).In the case of siagering and jlleying, the ceramicist’s ‘angers and tools are replaced with a mold and farmer This means that every piece willle the same, They are suitable for semi-automated or fully utornated production, but because the clay is let to dry on the mold, high-wclume production \s somewhat limited, Fully mechanized processes. such as ram pressing and extrusion use much, stiffer clay than is suitable for handwork This ensures that the part holds ts shape throughout the rapid forming geleand's Jess prone to shrink and distort. Ram pressing is carried out in plaster a Drying ane feng once ayeheslay falstrcture Cy Hana hep opera Dingaror at Theva oy shvnveas wud wt Seeowemceniad—— dase-wathre once feasted Melee rum the fentechees rile Mette =o Fonsi nto soma,{page 492) molds, which help to draw ‘moisture from the clay. The process is typically run at high temperature, further accelerating the drying process This aliows for the part to be handled straight out of the mold. te used to produce flatware and in particular non: symmetrical parts, high ate not suitable ‘or jiggering and jlleying Greenwvare is a general term used ta describe shaped clay that has not been ‘red. Clay that is described as leather hhardis partially dry, but remains slightly plisble:ane clay referred to as bone-cry is brittle At the leathner-hard stage, the clay ‘s firm enough to tolerate being handled and plerced, incised or carved ~ adding Aelicate features that would not be Pecan 7 serevedesanedy ed thot emule the (ery ropa m fore panstakiishand iabtedretonrg troescfttetrushARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION possible on wet clay wt stdetorming the item at depressing the surface, Pawder forming, or dry pressing, isa mass. preduction technique w for flatware, such as plates, bowls and cups. tel ‘many advantages: quicker turnaround, reduced shrinkage and less warpa Molds are typically two-part and so suitable for low-profile shapes. in the case sFtechnical ceramics, dirmensional items are shaped wath mutts part molds or by icostatic pressing, quid clay. also called sip or si ‘sused for casting and coating, Casting 'seconomi for large volumes ard allows for the production of complex iesigns A plaster molds created that s a representation of the outsice surface, Thesip s poured into the cavity and the water i drawn out by the plaster causing clay particles to collect on the inside surface of the mold. Once the desired wal thickness Is achieved, excess slip is poured out and the part is ready to be removed from the mold, Repreduction is pr and fine surface details are faithful reproduced. It's a widely used pro and applications span studio werk, such as teapots and lamp bases, through to mass-produced sanitaryware sd mainly ninates drying, which presents smplex three: The next step in the making process is firing, which offers a staggering range of design opportunities. The typical procedu ed previously, Involves two stages. The first stage is bisque firing, which takes the clay up to the point at which it becomes ceramic without going through vitrification Thisis to allowfor glazes tobe apphed without damaging the item, The temperatures raged slowly to reduce the chances af items cracking or exploding, sementh Once glazed, ites are put back into the kiln fora second fring, known as glaze or glost ring. This tie, the materials are ‘aken to their vitrification temperature ‘This eauses chernical changes within ‘Once fring) (or single fring} eliminates the bisque and goes straight tothe witrifcation temperature it is possible with any type of clay (although ‘the glazes are limited}, but requires. careful temperature control, because it \s more stressful an the clay Developed Jn China, the technique is rarely used in studios. Hower production because of the labour and energy savings. Parts are loaded ontoa ‘conveyor at one end ofa tunrel kin and ‘their temperature raised gradually as they progress through. By the time they reach the far end the firing process 1s complete, High volumes of tableware, sanitaryware and industrial ceramics are commonly produced in this way CLAY IN ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION Brick structures dating back to Roman res are testament fo the durability and versatility ofthis unique Bullding material Modem brick tile, pipe ard similar tems are molded ov extruded: fundamental processes and ingredients have changed Before the developinent of suitable twansport systems, most buildings were constructed from local materials. The cal composition of clay is different depending on locat a result, many different strengths and. ours of clay bullding material have ‘evolved over the years nyandas Tradittonal bricks and tiles are stil Inandmade, it's astra ghtforward process, nereby a wet clay mix is pressed into molds by hand. To prevent the clay sticking, the inside surface is coated with sand (sand-struck) or water (water struck], Owing to the natureat the process andl handwork inuslred. the size and shape of items produced in this way say be slightly regular. Over the years, hand processes have been largely replaced by machine rioiding, which helps to reduce cost and improve consistency n the production of ricks tiles and similar ms, clay (wet 1 powered) is presse into steel moldsi aA Badd >: : SLES ZEEE ELSES LE SX< er KOO KO KON KOD ee YHA A AY PANY PRY PORN ERY POY b> <> <> <> - <> > - <> : (PONE RY PONS PONY POR ON LOY LE [2 <> = <> - <> <> <> <> <8 NY AAR AAR PONY PRY PAY OY EY b>: <> <> <> ><> E> <> <> <> Ky <> - <> <> <> <> <> Bye SCE COSYROS ZO Ca RONCONS Lei Kas 20S Ke Kaa ca> ee |MINERAL, CERAM Plaster Plaster enhances the durability and cleanliness of buildings, INTRODUCTION as well as providing a means of artistic expression. Based on Plaster is traditionally used tocoat the ee walls and ceings of budge Ae well clay or calcium minerals, it transforms from a wet and pliable eS ee er mater ‘ to stone-like when dry. It is an ancient medium ~ ‘enhances the durability of masonry (see synonymous with sculpture, stucco and fresco - that has found Clay: page 480} and provides passive fre _ a protection ithas been utilize In this modern application in the form of precision 3D printing. heer aieeop unmet ‘ust by the Egyptians more than 4,000 years ago feature plastered walls that remain intact to this day The gypsum {formulation used then fs almost identical ‘to modem plaster The ancient Greeks continued the use of plaster and covered the inside and outside walls and celimgs of temples They used plaster casting in the reproduction of sculpture and objects As wellas providing a smooth covering for walls plaster 's molded and modelled into elie profiles. Krovn asstuccowork, ‘tisused to decorate bulldings aswell as ‘or free-standing sculnture. "his practice yas along history in the Mediterranean and was employed extensively by the Greeks and Romans It became popular in s8th-century Europe, as can be seen in many elaborately stuccoed monuments and terraced houses of major cities. The original method of three Aimensional printing technology Hand-modeledstuccs eying asso Beier ==[a0 printing) -a form of additive ‘manufacturing rapid prototyping) developed at Massachusetts institute of Technotogy (MIT) in 1993 and commercialised by 2 Corporation mix of gypsurn-hased plaster and water, The plaster is engineered to pre: consistency andl particle sae, and nth additives that maximize strength and quality of surface finish The printed ‘structure is unfitrated with tesin ~ cyanoacrylate (superglue) or epoxy (page 232) for example ~ to fil the pores and create a robust part. Applying the same methodology as ab printing, row possible to create ‘multicoloured 30 printed plaster parts The water binder is dyed and applied according to the colour of the 3D AD rode Thus, the colour becomes permanently embedded in the materia. useda d ‘COMMERCIAL TYPES AND USES ‘Natural plaster is bound with cy. gypsum or lime in tecent years, cement {page 296) has become popular too, ‘thanks to its lowcost and high strength Clay is dug from the grouné and applied asiti.or processed te a more uniform rmatertal. Either way, t has very lov! embodied energy, proving a sustainable solution tt has the highest breathability, but lads strength. Available m a range of earthy colours it typically Yet uncoated, providing a low. maintenance frsh Lime plaster is derived from limestone: calcium carbonate mineral is heated ta over 900°C (n650°F to drive off the catbon diowide and produce catcnumn ‘oxide, known as quickhme. This, inturn,teactee’ with water to form hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide). After application the water evaporates and the lime absorbs carbon dioxide to become calcium carbonate once again. Known as, ‘carbonization, the process relies an water and so the lime must be kept wet during application The process is long, butance set it will not react with water {unlike gypsum). Asa result is very durable and sultable for use outddeors, There ate two principal types of lieve plaster pure (also known as non hyeraulic or air lime) ana hydraulic {also known as bagged lime) The main differences consistency pure lime is ‘mixed with less water and so forms a patty ike material Hydraulic lime modern dry-hydrated hydraulic lime is ‘marketed as"natural hydraulic ime’ (HU) and graded according tocompressive strength after 28 day: ica powder that after mixing with water cures more quickly They ate boch strong and Nexble enough to cope wrth the expansion and contraction of burldings Lime is mote ‘expansive and nat as commen as gypsum for several reasons it takes along time to harden [days or weeks, Its sensitive ‘to working conditions lrequiring just the right weather conditions, humidity and so on and it is prone te shrinkage Lime provides an excellent balance of strength and flexibility tis porous and allows water vapout to pass through, which helps to prevent natural materials rotting. te also helps to stabilize the humidity ofthe bullding by absorbing and releasing moisture, This results in a comfortable ving environment Fresco paintang combines fresh hime based plaster with water hased pigments Famously emplayed by Michelangelo in ‘the decoration of the Sistine Chapel, the pigments ate absorbed into the plaster as ‘tries and retamed by the materal. ts very durable and unlike painting on dry plaster fenown as fresco secco},canmot bbe tubbed from the surface This means. mistakes and changes cannot simply be painted ever, but must be chipped from ‘the wall and rebut Gypsum is produced by detyration of ‘alaum sulphate Heating the mineral to between 150°C (300°F) and 165°C (330°) releases the chemically bound water, teculting in molding plaster iplaster ‘of Paris) Heating to over 190°C (375°F] fully dehydrates the mineral resulting ‘ma material with superior esistarce to moisture and weathering. Itsets by rehydration with water (an almost indefinitely repeatable process) in {an exothermic teaction ne of the main advantages is that this process is rapid. It does not chrink or eracas it dnes, which ‘why is sulfable for making molds, accurate reproductions and casts to smmobilize broken bores, ts temperature resistance is sufficiently high tobe used ‘or molding non fertous metals, such a5 aluminium alloys (page 42) and capper alloys (page 66} Drywall or plasterboard, panels are produced from powdered gypsum pressed between sheets of paper (page 268) Used to make interior walls and clings, tevcutionized the building Industry Prior to drywall lath ard plaster wae the predominant fin'shing method. The techrique involved decking out the Interior with lath (strips of wad}, onto ‘hich plaster was applied. SUSTAINABILITY Mined fiom the grourd, clay goes through the least processing of all ts often available locally, which helps to minimize transportation. At the end of the buileings lie, it can be recycled or pput back n the ground, imeand gypsum require Hin firing.awhich means they have relatively high embodied energy and cause more greenhouse gas emissions lime was a very commonly used ‘matenal up until the davelopmert of cement Since evidence af the damage done by coment has emerged, the use of lime has witnessed a resurgence owever,itsquite an ay material frequent handling can cause skin sensitization leading to eczerna. Gypsum powder may be derived as.2 by-product of coal-fired power stations This material known as synthetic gypsum. the esult of desuiphurzation oF fue gases its chemical structure is almost identical tothat of mined gypsum and it has higher purity (96%). In some countries, it provides asigmifcant proportion of overall aypsum production. Burt this likely to change as our reliance ‘on coal-Frec power stations is reduced, eabtoralsloueforcement; there s na international standard. Each uses dierent criteria for measuting properties and defining physical characteristics, whica means ‘they are virtually non translatable COMMERCIAL TYPES AND USES. ‘The Romans produced concrete by mbxing limestone with volcanic ash and water Volcanic ash from sites such as Carpi Flegrei near the city of Pezzuoll outside Naples is rich in siliceous and alurminous rnerals faluinosilicate) In the presence of water, it reacts with calcium hydroxide, derived by heating limestone to around 900°C (,650°F) (see also Plaster, page 492}, and through a series ‘of chemical factions forms caleium aluminium-silicate-hydrate (CASH), an Inctedily stiong and stable binder. (One of the advantages ofthe chemical process, known as hydration, fs that et willtake place even ifthe material is submerged undervater The many ancient concrete structures that remain standing to this day such as Roman harbours that have tolerated being submerged in the sea for millennia, are ‘testament tots impressive durability. Portland cemment.a recent invention by comparison, is comprised of similar ingredients: imestone derived calcium ‘minerals aluminosilicate, shale, sand and iton ore. Its formed by heating the ‘mixture to around 14so'C 2,640") 10 rive off the chemically combined water and carbon dioxide The calcinated pellets cof matenial,or clinker, are finely ground to produce cement. Manufacturers often ade gypsum orlimestone ta give the desired working properties ‘Mixed with water, the power ‘becomes plastic and meldable and, like Roman cement, forms into hard ‘eramic through a process of rydatian. ‘The sulting compound of caletur, silicates and hydrates {C-5-H) is made up. of around 85% lime and silica. This far higher than the Roman version and partly vwiy Portland is not as strong, durable pr weather resistant. Indeed, modern conerete has a much shorter lifespan ‘There are eight principal types of Portland cement: type |is general Ali pattern Concrete Ye membre potent Fedo, ssl aay to feved may teapledin this cesta hy th coma nacdevlopeda fob and encod sha eager opr ea purpose; type lis sultable for structures Inwater or sail containing moderate amounts of sulphate. or when heat build upisa concern; type Il gets strong faster than the others and so allows forms to be removed sooner; type lV gives off less heat during curing, which is useful for massive structures such as dams;typeY resists chemical attack by soil and water high in sulphates: and types IA Aand it are the same as types It and ll with the addition of air bubbles, caused by the inclusionof alretraining agents Several other admixtures are used, such as to enharce workability.or tosiowsor accelerate the curing process. The majority of concrete ts provided ready mixed It's produced m centralized plants and delivered to the construction site by the familar cement-rnie lorries, Precast concrete is produced ina factory enwitonment. This helps to-ensue consistent physical properties and accurate dimensions Examples include ‘masonry (bricks, locks and pavers} countertops and structural components (beams, ghders and wall panels) ‘Autoclaved celtular concrete (ACC), also known as autoclaved aerated concrete (Ao) is alightweight precast concrete produced under elevated pressure in an auteclave. The mmx of ingredients — ‘including cement, limestone, aluminium, silica (such as fromm y ash) and water ~ go through a chemical reaction that releases a mass of tiny hydrogen bubbles This results in a foam tke matenal that sore than doubles in size before curing and is around one-quarter the weight of conventional concrete The compressive strength of concrete 1s typically n the region of 48 MPa {7000 psi) By refining the ingredients an ‘optimizing the ratios, manufacturers have heen able to produce concrete with compressive strength in the region of 100 MPa (tg.500 psi}. Admixtures, such as fly ash and silica fume (similar tothe Romans'volcanic ash), impart additional strength This has enabled taller structures to be built than previously ‘thought possible with concrete Reinforced corcrete combines the high tensite strength of steel (nage 28) with the bulk and compressive strength of conerete. The resulting composite is able to resist tensile stresses that would cause ‘conventional cancrete to fail In other words, when bent the steel prevents the ‘edge that's under tension from cracking. \Without the use of reinforcement, ‘modern laige-span structures would not exist, Prestressed, or post-stressed (also alled prvtensioned and post tensioned). concrete ts embedded with steo! held under tension This balances the tensile Toads imposed en the member in service and thus means that lighter and more slender structures are possible, Fibre-reintorced concrete (FRC) provides less expensive and more versatile alternative However, while strength is increased mary times compared to conventional concrete, ‘itwillnet be as strong as steal bar reinforced, Fibre selection depend: ‘the requirements of the application. Examples include carbon ipage 236}, glass (page 508), super fres (se2 P80. page 246), polypropylene (°F) (page 98) and. natural flores (see Bamboo page 386,ard Leaf Fre, page 394}. In the past, 3 range cof natural materials was used such as horsehair page 43a} and straw (see Grass page 392). Asbestos was very common until the health risks were recognized, within the last few decades, anew class of concrete emerged known as ultra high performance cancrete (UMPC) or reactive powder concrete (RPC), whose mechanical properties and durability far surpass those af conventional concrete. A, mixture of Portland cement, silica fure, quartz, viater and fibre reinforcement Functional coating saitastit typically stee) produces concrete with compressive strength of 20 to 150 MPa {n.000-22.000 psi So far, it nas been used n the construction of bridges and lightweight roof structures It holds great potential for procucing lighter, taller and longer unsupported structures Abroad range of decarative fishes cexlsts. Concrete shaped within formwork {see also Engineered Timber. page 296) val reproduce exactly the curface of the panels Se. for example, if wood grain is present it will appear on the surface of ‘the finished concrete,a gx Ly) i White cement, produced with modified Ingredients, provides the most satisfying ground for colour pigments (liquid or power), Colour may be applied in situ using chemical stains, painting or screen printing or by exposing the embedded ingredients on the surface (gravel 4g]ass and soon), Chemical stains react chemically with the concrete, metallic salts in the water-based solution react {orm shades of blue, green, brown or black. Brighter colours are achieved with dye ‘Other cement-based material shate many ofthe qualities of concrete but are classed differently clude mortar, ut and stucco (plaster). They consist of similar ingredients and their consistency ard working properties are tailored to thet different roles in construction at SUSTAINABILITY Cement and concrete have seen massive development over the years, Concrete hhas become lighter. stronger are more durable The amount of energy required sn production has decreased but stil, the production is polluting and responsible {or around s% of industrial carbon Aiowideennissions. remarkably low-cost material iti corsumed in vast quantities ard this amplifies its negative impacts, The cement industry concurs 3 lot oF wnaste. The very high firing temperature ‘means that waste with high embodied energy cartyres, chemicals and othe hazardous materials —can be safely incinerated. In addition, concrete may include fy ash (or volcanic ash) fram coal burning power stations, Ultimately its preferential to reduce wast Dum and trap it in concrete. ut far now, cement provides am alternative land LNana0MINERAL Technical Ceramic The ceramics in this class are hard, durable and resistant to chemicals; some remain stable at temperatures in excess of 2,000°C (3,600°F]. As well as providing the grit in abrasives, they are used for some of the most demanding engine, aircraft, military and industrial projects. Consumer products, such as watches and kitchenware, take advantage of their dural “rat epson Sati a ae ee 9 ee ey sie mime mame - Hel We — — | | Atso known as [sreleredie as adunces ceramics enareerg ‘eos, high performance crams reana trademark nares tele ler Zan INTRODUCTION These non-metallic, norganic materials are built fom the ground up The Ingredients are selected according to specific performance requitements, nicluding mechanical, electrical, optical, biomedical and chernical properties. Thiee-dimensional parts are shaped from powder, which is pressed and sintered fused at very high temperature, Just below the materials melting point bbut hot enough to bond the particles to become a seid, functional part Alternatively, the ceramic s formed as a coating. This i achieved by mixing the ingredients asa gas,which condenses to form the ceramic Technical ceramics are avallable in & >huge variety of formulations and formats. The mdustry is growing rapidly as the processes are refed and more poterttal applications are found, Regardless of whether an ordinary abrasive medium cor part ofa missile they ll share some common properties:a hard and inert surface. dimensional stability at high ‘temperature, ard high compressive strength, but heavy with low fr roughness asa result of their inherent brittleness To overcome some of these ‘laws, technical ceramnies are combined with metal or fibre reinforcement. Known as metal matrix cormposite [MMC),oF cermet, and ceramic matrbs composite (CNC), spectively these materials offer some exceptional properties Fracture srecsan-machined unity ependon ‘i se andtypent a trove Ihecomp>v tn focy Injection melded r suming A Sa as tieve it ginder son gold, mporert rom ee dee toughness, shack resistance and strergth- toweight areall improved compared to lunreinforced ceramic. They are expensive and the design is very restricted, so applications have remained lite: MMs are utilized In cutting tools, annour and automotive engine ard brake parts;and CMCS are used in so-called hot zones, such as fighter jet exhaust nozzles and high performance car disc brakes COMMERCIAL TYPES AND USES ‘Alumina aluminium oxide, AiO) isan important industrial material, as well as ‘occurring as a single crystal gemstone (see Diamond, page 476} n the form of sapphire ts also responsible for the durability and longevity of alurminium ally (page 42) -anedizing enhances the naturally occurring oxide layer on the surface to give a tough and passive fm, ‘As a ceramic, itis relatoely Inexpensive and offets a range of useful properties, “The most beneficial ofthese are its ‘exceptional hardness resistance to temperatures up to .650°C (3000°F resistarce to chemicals and low conductivity (both thermal and electrical Fr is available ina range of punities,from around 60% to 993% Lower-purty giades are used as refractories, Higher purity types ate utilized fer applications ‘that are subject to high weator impact, such as industrial seal rings, prostheses, armour and abrasive Zconia ahconium diexide, ZrO} s anotiver popular ceramic that is hard and tough (at room temperature). ts hardness combined with avery fine grain enables an excellent surface finish. These ate the reasons why zirconia is used to make blades (knives, peelers and slicersjtt will take and hold a sharp edge, and wil flex without breaking, Other applications. Include dental repairs (see also Clay, page {4Bo}, watches, bearings and gears ven though its melting points above 2.500°C (430°. zirconia on its own is susceptible to cracking when heated to above 500" [930"F1.Adding stabilizer such as yittia (yttrium tee) or magnesia (magnesium oxide, MgO) reduces thermal expansion and ‘thereby increases toughness at elevated. temperatures, Tungsten carbide (WC) is exceptionally hard and wear resistant, However its vety heavy which limits applications. So, itis more often found im combination vith cobalt o nickel asa MMC, or cermet, The metal proves the binder and when sintered, stiong bonds are formed between the different materials. This results in avery sti and hard material ‘hat fs more versatile tham plain WC tis often known as ‘hard metal’ because t ‘such harder and more wear-resistant than other types. Applications range from the balls in ballpoint pens to high-speed cutters {see image, page 476) and dies. Silicon mitride (iN) offers very high temperature resistance, excellent istance to wear and good resistance to widization, These properties are utilized in some niche applications, such as in automotive engines and gas turbines. ‘Aca coating t provides the antireflective surface on solar panels, which helps to boost efficiency. As a results distinctive blue colour \s becoming an increasingly farniliarsite. silicon carbide (SiC), also Known as carborundum, occurs naturally and very rarely in the form of crystal moissarite It asa Mohs hardness of 9 (see page 477) which is close todiamond As a result hasbecome an important abrasive Its strong for its weight highly conductive of heat and can operate in conditions up to 1,600°C (2g10°F) Therefore, ike SIN, it has\d application in engine, turbine and rocket components iC is combined with carbon fibre page 236) mn the production of high: performance composites fr disc brakes, ‘aerospace and chemical processing, This CMC, known a5 C/SiC, exhibits high fracture toughness (resistance to cracking fs dramatically improved), stability at high temperature low density and exceptional hardness. The fibre reinforcement used may be short or long strane), woven or fel, Boron carbide (6c) isan exceptionally hhard ceramic that ranks just behind. sdlamond on the Mohs s a valuable material for abrasive media, nozzles for abrasive slurries and wear applications. Fors hardness, BCs relatively ight and tough: its density is around one-sixth and elastic modulus ness) is around half that of WC. These properties are utilized in balistic armour protection tor example There ate ather powdered but these are the principal types in use today. They ate shaped by five methods. Die pressing is used te produce high volumes of simple-geometry parts. The predetermined measureof ingredients s combined — including ceramic and binders ~ and pressed to consolidate the powder mtoa sold. tong parts with a continuous cross-section are produced by extrusion, Powder is compacted in a chamber and forced through a shaped die, Prior to sintering, the parts are quite fragile ané must be handled with care, Ceramic injection melding (CIM), uses similar mix oF ingredients, but int case the binder metts to form a liquid This makes Drypresedandhot part uh an inti pressed IH) y.tiorai nwt eonia 2 resi Ir Prakkedtannanont appt ty hn:medium that carries the powder into ‘the die cavity when injected in the die the binder cools and solidifies, Similar to corwentional plastic injection, ‘molding the too's may be single- oF mult-cavity indeed, many of the same design toals used with plastic injection molding may be applied such as mold flow analysis and simulation. t's suitable for higher volumes and more complex. parts than die pressing. The part is around one third larger than its end dimensions m its'green’ state and passes through 2 two-stage Firing process, First the binder is melted out.and then the part sintered Cold isostatic pressing (CIP). developed inthe 1950s, fs used to shape metals, plastics and composites, 2s well as ‘ceramics. Powder is loaded into a flexible ‘mold {membrane or hermetic container) and uniform pressures applied by gas ‘or liquid, Compacting the poweder in this, way reduces the geometry limitations of dle forming Parts are around 60 40 70% dense and strong enough to be machined intheir green state prior to sintering. ‘The sintering process causes the parts to shrink by up to around 20%, Careful process control isesseritial to ensure consistent parts of uniform density nce fully hardened the parts may be ‘machined and polished to be very precise. However this s expensive and time. consuming, typically requlring diamond cutting too's (see Diamond} Hot Isostatie pressing (HIP) iscartied cout at very high temperature and pressure. This produces a fully dense part, vith improved mechanical properties and surface finish, As such, it does away with a separate sintering step and may be applied asa post forrning operation, such as to dle-pressed or injection: ‘molded parts Ceramics ate applied as a coating by physical vapour deposition (PVD) or chemical vapour deposition (CVD). This is typically onto another ceramnlc.or metal {such as steel, page 28, or titanium, page 58), to enhance durability and resistance {to corrosion and abrasion. Ceramics brittle So ifthe substrate being coated is too'soft! such a¢ ahurminiumm, then the ceramic wl offer limited protection. “ne parts tobe coated ae loaded into heated vacuum chamber and theatmosphere evacuated. Asutable powder or target materia s vaporized {with heat or bombardment of ions} And nitrogen hydrocarbon ors Introduced The gases mixand condense asa precse layer of ceramic onthe surface ofthe pat. Coating thickness of upto 30 micronsis posslblealthough its typically just afew microns n some cases, rmuttipllayers ae bl up, which can include efferent properties to provide enhanced protection Arange of coatings exit or diferent applications. As wells augmenting mechanical properties, these coatings bromide cour wich use fr both Atecorative and practical purposes Sitar um nitride (iN) perhaps the most vwelinown and recognized it produces a bright gold eclourfamiiaron high-speed steel and WC cuter, 6 used toiriprove tvear resistance an thusetend the ite ofthe cutting too! ts metalic god colour 's tized in jewelry consume electronics and autcrotive appieat ons it has been Supersecedin many cases by alternative Compositions a follows Titanium aluminium nitride (TAN) a more recent evelopment The depends on te rato ngreien's and anges fom lack to bronze. as Trostly been used pace of TN on cutters and to protect the surface of hes and punches. t provides equivalent wear resistance but oes superior high temperature resistance (800° n.a7"F] versus 500°C [936 Titanvur cabo nite (HCN an excellent all purpose coating that appears biue-grey Irs tough and nard wearing with alow coetfcent af friction “properties utiized in tooling suchas fr injection molding, punching ana cutting, However tsa adrect replacement forthe aforementioned cating, cong to ts relatively ow maxima operating temperature it non-toxic and biocompatible, which means it ssuitable formedical devices anaimplants, Chromium nite (CAN) her coloured and hard an has good resistance to oxidization and chemica's ttoutperforms conventional hard chrome plating. Compared to TIN, Its rot quite as hard but it offers areater temperature resistance and performs wwelln corrasive environments and sliding weat applications. As a result, it's oRen used to protect tooling, such as or plastic molding It bonds very well tothe substrate, so will not chip ot flake, and is non-toxic. This combination of properties is essential fr food processing equipment. Outside industrial applications, the br-ght metallic siver appearance soften used in jewelry, ‘automotive and consumer products Zirconium nitride (ZeN\)} combined with small amounts of carbon to produce gold or brass colour. is used in many of the same situations as TWN, providing “superior toughness, hardness and cortosion resistance. A major advantage ofthis materia is that it can be deposited at relatively low temperature Therefore Itc suitable for ternperature-sensitive substrates biocompatible and commonly used for medical equipment. Additionally, its combination of mechanical properties and gold colour ‘utilised in jewelry, taps faucets) and. oor hardware ‘SUSTAINABILITY “These are energy intensive to produce, but remain ireplaceable in many situations, in particular renewable eneray production, Owing to the high cast of the raw materials and difficulty of processing. they tend to be used only in the most ernanding applications. ‘asa result oftheir limited use and the wide range of formulations available, recycling is virtually non-existent, In some cases abrasive media may be reused. But because of eontammaticn, this isoften ot practical Ceramic coatings offer many advantages. They reduce material ‘consumption by extending the life ine materials they protect.n the case of coated steel and WC cutters, for ‘example, the use of ceramic reduces wear, Improves effeiency and prolongs the Ife ofthe tool, Compared to protective ‘metal coatings, such as chrome plating YD 1s much ess harmful and consumes signvficantly less materialvo coatings Hailes ste!MINERAL / 61.85 Soda-Lime Glass Glass provides an unrivalled combination of transparency and durability. The most common is soda-lime, which has been in commercial production since the mid-19th century. With developments in manufacturing, this once precious material has been transformed into a widely used commodity. Tempering and chemical strengthening enhance mechanical proper! Teetaaniatn aetna eo. ‘ise enown as ‘so referred i298 sada sles fs, Hoa ‘joss commerciales, geen a= INTRODUCTION Class is hard, mmpervious to air and water, and chetnically stable. Combined with the range of wstal qualities avalable these propertiesset apart from plastic, metal and wood. ft was once considered avery precious material: the Egyptians viewed itas.a valuable alternative to gemstones ‘see Diamond, page 476) and began to produce large quantities from silica sand, lime and soda around the and and rst rmillennia «r-These ingredients becarne the basis of modern commercial glass Glassblowing developed with the omman Empire. Wale the tools and techniques have changed litle, glass production developed massively uring the roth and 20th centuries. Fist came ‘mechanical pressing In 182s, hich led to the frst mass-produced glassware This ‘was followed In 1903 by Michael Owens automatic bottle blowing machine. n the 19508, Alastan Pikingion revolutionized. architecture and design with the invention of the lat glass process. This the methad by which most sheet glass is manufactured today. ‘COMMERCIAL TYPES AND USES Soda lime glass is the most common and. lest expensive typeof glass is suitable ‘or the majority of applications where the properties of glass are required. A range of other glasses exist, which are used ‘or specialist applications For example, Fead glass (page 38} has superior optical properties, and high-performance lasses (page 522) ~such as borosilicate, aluminosilicate and glass ceramic ~ are employed for thelr superior strength touginess and thermal shock resistance. soda-lime glass produced from a ‘mixof widely available materials silica {sillean dione SiO}, soda ash (sodium carbonate, NaCO) and ime (calcium oxide. (CaO), The soda ash acts as a fhux, reducingi a the temperature of fusion. However for shaping, As with ste! product: Celourand fish deo there silea and soda alone do not produce {page 28), the furnaces run continuously, thes! tt dss salo rm stable glass. thereora lime isadded Once formed, glass is annealed by sis ait snthags ara oi te counter the soda ash Magnesia eae gaa ca aerogenes (magnesium oxide, MgO} and alumina internal tresses im the molecular atta a si {aluminium oxide, iO} ae used to structure. if glass allowed to cool Ce enhance specific properties. The exact quicky then twillbehighlystranedat_—"Alnriwiduuter 3 tarwat al Ingredients are adjusted according te the room temperature.in otherwords.*twil jyrnnseer ata al method of production and application _easily breakif placed under load eth tthe requirements. Heated in afumace to ‘Tempered glass, also known assafety ra sharey around x600°C (2900'F).the minerals or toughened glss.is produced by heat EN" st PaaS forma viscous mass of molten glass ready treatment, Soda lime glacs is heated toapproximately 656°C (1200°F} and then quenched in blasts of cool am This forces ‘the surface ofthe glass to cool mare rapidly than the core and thus forms a structure under compression. This means ‘the glass s able to tolerate higher tensile Toads, because asthe load is applied the pre-compression force counteracts it. AS 2 result, the tensile strength of tempered glass is 20 to 200 MPa, compared to only 40 MPa for annealed glass. Compressive strength remains the same Hollow containers thefinstoh Pacaying pe ft tranteret the Bropotientmagnesis— thesurhee dle aistgotischarneled — trmunde meted nolivaguera ans dental foton nara neck that theft tage the plunae that ttle, Theohorps fom the sk ph svdiheresh formed glesstotera ae Inn ators toe and fos thea tapdedin none pastas ewend mold stent wtlown bse Cconmetic packaging = ovandfeaance sedans rama Pista | packagr sla Along Seth Urcaghdegn Th Product la esa) Rake p Jeowsandceoratne oie orp Deets thowglt facets tobghight theancent Eagan optical quae in protucet sma wanton hehe nts tersuch fave produc wmunes Fen though rcorpanatng eta (5) prmasly used ghosimthegoh Torpeeatteaions,— ennanesgratas Once tempered, tt cannot be modified or machined, When it breaks, the Fragments tend to be small and blunt as a result of the modified structure, soit is used in safely applications such as door lazing car windscreens and dinnerware, Heat strengthening similar except tat the cooling is slower. This means it provides only around twice the tensile resistance of annealed glass. This type of glass is used where the additional strength required, such as to resist wind pressure or thermal shock, dees nat justity tempering However it isnot suitable where safety glass is required, because it fractures in the same way as annealed lass formn'ng long sharp Fragments, CChernical strengthening prod: a similar effect to toughening except ‘does not thermally strain the glass and so results in superior fatness and optical quality. However, t cannot be considered safety glass, because ‘shatters ie anneaied glass. The surface is put under tension through anion exchange process, whereby sodium lons are replaced by relatively larger potassium ones. This results ina glass sx to eight times stronger than annealed glass. thas been used in the production of canopies for fighter jets and helicopters, for example. The most widespread use of ths technique i= strengthening aluminasilcate ola [see High-Performance Class) ‘Glass sheets are laminated together for safely, security and decorative effect. aminated safety glass is produced by bonding together sneets af glass with a polyvinyl butyral(PV8) film. Combining the strength and durabiity of withthe toughness of plastic results ma composite that is more difficult to penetrate (break through) and is prover toreduce noise transmission When broken, the shards or pleces of glass are held im place by the adhesive The pracess ses heat and pressure to remove ary alt bubbles so the sheet appears solid. [Depending on the design requirements, aminated glass may be produced with armealed, tempered, heat strengthened or chemically strengthened lass This product is primarily used |nautomotive and construction PACKAGING applications. Bullet resistant and bulletproof glass is produced from three lor more layers of glass with two or more polycarbonate (PC) {page n4q interlayers The composition and thickness of the Jaminate will determine its eHectiveness Armoured glass 's produced with a wire mesh encapsulated between two layers of glass. The non-oxidlzing ware ls introduced while the glass is semi motten and laminated under pressure SUSTAINABILITY Classis produced directly rom readily available materials which eliminates the inefficiencies associated with widely distributed production, such as s the case with plastics and metals it s inert non toxicand completely food safe, Production is continuous ancl the temperature n the furnace is maintained covery day all year round. This is more efficient than producing materia in batches, which means soda-lime has only around one-sixth of the embodied energy of polymethy! methacrylate (entvia, acrylic) (page 174), for exarnple Classis fully recyclable and loses ‘none of ts strength during reprocessing Infact, cule (recycled glass) plays an Important role n glass production by lowering the firng temperature required This provides the economic incentive for collection and reeycling. Glass bottle recycling is in the region of 50 to 80%. For ‘the manufacture of green glass bottles up