Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
An Illustrated History
TheMiddleAges
An Illustrated History
Barbara A. Hanawalt
ISBN 0-19-510359-9
57986
Frontispiece: Image of knight praying on 14th century
Printed in Hong Kong stained glass window, Kreuzenstein Armory,
on acid-free paper Kreuzenstein, Austria
Contents 7
9
Introduction
Chapter 1 / The Three Cultures that Made the Middle Ages
25 Chapter 2 / Settling Down in the Old Empire
39 Chapter 3 / Three Empires: Carolingian, Byzantine, and Arab
55 Chapter 4 / The Turning Point
71 Chapter 5 / The Flowering of Medieval Europe
91 Chapter 6 / New Architecture, Ideas, and Monastic Orders
111 Chapter 1 / Communities and Their Members
129 Chapter 8 / The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
146 Chronology
150 Glossary
152 Further Reading
156 Index
Introduction
T
he terms "Middle Ages'' and "medie- Another artificial boundary imposed on
val" were first used by Italian Ren- the Middle Ages is geographical. Medieval
aissance historians of the 15th and scholars did not use terms such as "western
16th centuries. They regarded their Europe" and "eastern Europe" or names
culture as similar to that of the classical world for nation-states such as France, Greece,
of ancient Greece and Rome, but very differ- Germany, Turkey, and Italy. They were
ent from the period between the fall ofRome more inclined to draw boundaries along
and their own enlightened time. To Renais- religious lines, by which they could distin-
sance scholars that long interval was a period guish their Roman Catholic culture and
of superstition, ignorance, and barbarism, beliefs from those of Islam or of the Greek
which they also called "the Dark Ages." Christian (Orthodox) Church. By the end
The scholars recording history during the of the Middle Ages, people began to de-
Middle Ages, however, perceived the pe- velop national identities—a sense, for
riod very differently. Their chronicles show example, of being French as opposed to
that they saw history as a continuous proces- English. But most people would have had
sion of events from the Biblical creation a very local identity, defining themselves
down to their own time. Augustine of first by their father's or mother's name,
Hippo (354-430), one of the early writers on then by their village or town of origin, and
Christianity, explained in The City of God perhaps then by their overlord, their king
that events such as wars and the formation of or queen (if they had one), and their
empires and kingdoms were not significant religion.
divisions in history. He instead maintained Before the 1970s, books on medieval
that human history progressed continuously history would deal exclusively with emper-
from the creation to the end of the world. ors, kings, battles, crusades, feudalism,
Like Augustine, people living in the Middle manorialism, the rise of towns, the growth
Ages did not discern a chronological break of parliament, universities, and the Church.
from the Roman period to their own. In the past several decades, however, histo-
Medieval maps of the world were al- Modern scholars of the medieval period, rians have been researching how average
ways round and showed Jerusalem, or medievalists, often struggle with the ques- people experienced life in the Middle Ages.
the place of Jesus' resurrection, in the
tion of when the Middle Ages began and Histories of the period now contain infor-
center. The top of the map is east so
that the sun rises where Jesus stands, ended. The question is not easy to answer, mation about Jews, women, children,
flanked by two angels. Africa is the because for the most part change takes place peasants, heretics, mystics, and criminals.
landmass on the right side (south), gradually and periods form their character- Such histories include a skeleton of tradi-
Europe is at the bottom (west) and
istics over centuries. But generally the tional historical narrative fleshed out with
extends almost to the nine o'clock po-
sition (north). The Mediterranean Sea medieval period is considered to stretch stories about the ordinary as well as extraor-
separates Africa and Europe. Asia is from the fifth to the 15th century, or from dinary people who lived through the events
to the left of Jesus. about 400 to 1500. of the Middle Ages.
INTRODUCTION • 7
Chapter 1
B
ecause Augustine of Hippo (354- Homer, Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, Virgil,
430) wrote the first autobiography, and Cicero, among other authors. The study
his Confessions, we know more about of rhetoric was considered useful for the
his personal life than we do about political and administrative role he would
almost any other medieval figure. Augustine one day play. (This education—with the
came from one of the most prominent exception of the study of Greek language—
Roman provincial families of North Africa. would become the model for medieval
His father, Patricius, was a Roman noble scholars and universities.)
who accepted the Greco-Roman pantheon Away from home, he pursued interests
of gods and thus worshippedjupiter, Venus, then typical of a teenager. He took a mistress
and Mars. But Augustine's mother, Monica, at the age of 18 and eventually had a son by
was a Christian, and urged him to worship her. He also came into contact with new
only the Judeo-Christian God. philosophies that questioned the old order
Otherwise, Augustine's early life was of the gods and instead addressed moral
typical of boys of the upper class. He learned issues, including questions about the nature
Latin and Greek; read stories of the exploits of good and evil behavior.
of the gods, goddesses, and heroes such as Moving on to Milan in Italy, Augustine
Hercules and Odysseus; studied histories of continued his preparation for a career in
the founding of Rome; and memorized the keeping with his upbringing. He became
Two of the early "Doctors of the speeches of great Roman orators such as engaged to a wealthy young woman of his
Church"—prominent interpreters
Cicero. His parents expected that he would own class and cast aside his mistress and their
of Christianity—were Augustine
of Hippo (left) and Ambrose of go on to take a position in the Roman son. But he also attended the sermons of a
Milan. Bishop Ambrose's ser- imperial government and sent him to persuasive Christian orator, Bishop Ambrose
mons were in part responsible for Carthage for further education when he was of Milan. Christianity made Augustine feel
Augustine's conversion. Augus- in his teens. Augustine's training included increasingly guilty about his life of pleasure
tine went on to write his
Confessions, an autobiographi- the study of Greek and Latin rhetoric (the art and his ambitions to play a major role in
cal account of his spiritual life, of making convincing arguments) and lit- Roman politics. A friend furthered his anxi-
and The City of God. erature, geometry, and philosophy. He read ety by telling him the story of two young
10 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D HISTORY
The Roman government began as a The physical remains of the remarkable The Roman Empire was a large land
republic governed by a senate that repre- Roman culture still exist throughout Eu- mass stretching from Britain down
into Egypt. Its trade and administra-
sented wealthy established families and an rope, Asia, and Africa. In all parts of the tion focused on the Mediterranean. Its
assembly that represented the plebeians, or former empire, portions of the Roman borders in Europe were exposed to
ordinary free citizens. As the territory ex- roads used during the Middle Ages can still Germanic tribes to the North; in
panded, this representative form of be seen today. In Britain, the remnants of Asia the Persian Kingdom to the east
posed a threat. In the fifth century the
government no longer worked, and an Hadrian's Wall (a stone barrier erected to
Germanic tribes flooded across the
emperor became the titular head of Rome keep out the Picts, or natives of Scotland) border.
and the large land mass it had acquired. still stand; in Trier, Germany, a large Ro-
Some aspects of the older form of govern- man gate (Porta Nigra) is the focus of the
ment were retained. The senators, for town; and in Syria and Egypt the ruins of
instance, still served as generals in the army major Roman buildings are a common
and governors in the provinces. They also feature of the landscape. Still standing in
oversaw a highly sophisticated bureaucracy other areas of the Romans' vast territory are
that administered laws and public services the remains of country villas (often with
and collected taxes. (In his youth, August- only their magnificent mosaic floors intact),
ine had been grooming himself to become aqueducts for carrying fresh spring water to
just such an imperial administrator.) A com- the heart of the cities, theaters and colise-
mon language for administration (Latin), a ums (public stadiums) for races and gladiator
system of paved roads that made it possible fights, forums for political debate and mar-
to send mail and move troops rapidly, and kets, public baths, and temples for the
Roman law held together this vast geo- worship of the gods and goddesses.
graphic area with its diverse ethnic groups. The most remarkable ruins are found in
The peace that the Roman Empire secured Pompeii, a city that was buried under a layer
for its conquered peoples was called the of volcanic ash in A.D. 79. Here a whole city
"Pax Romana," or the peace of Rome. is preserved—from the corpses of those
killed in the disaster, positioned just as they however, only members of the upper
were when caught unawares in their houses classes—the senatorial families, well-paid
or streets, to the wall paintings in villas and bureaucrats, and others with considerable
even the graffiti in alleys. The remains of wealth—enjoyed such a high standard of
Pompeii reveal that the houses of the rich living. The Roman Empire did not provide
This amphitheater in Arles, France, were brilliantly painted and had glittering such comforts for ordinary people, and
was built in the late first century A.D.
mosaic floors. Although the furniture was ill-fed and over-worked slaves and laborers
in imitation of the Coliseum in
Rome. The people of Roman cities sparse, statuary was common. Indoor plumb- made up 80 to 90 percent of the population.
came to see chariot races, wild beast ing added to the comfort of these private Many slaves were highly educated Greeks
hunts, and gladiatorial games. Dur- houses. who tutored young patrician boys such as
ing the persecution of Christians in
Booty and slaves from conquests further Augustine. Others were skilled artisans, and
the early third century, the imperial
authorities had wild beasts kill enhanced the wealth that the upper classes still others from conquered tribes were fit
Christians in the amphitheaters as received from their vast country estates only for fieldwork, the army, or fighting as
entertainment. (latifundia). Unfortunately for most people, gladiators. As slaves, they suffered violent
removal from their language and culture,
disruption of family life, sexual exploita-
tion, brutality, and other abuses. Under the
empire, plebeians no longer served in the
army, but they continued to have political
influence. To keep this restive group from
rebelling against the senators and emperors,
they received public support in the form of
"bread and circuses," that is, free grain and
sporting events.
An empire composed of diverse and
hostile populations is difficult to hold to-
gether, but more severe problems arose
from the chaos in the central government
of the Roman Empire. By the third cen-
tury, generals were declaring themselves
emperors and leading armies of profes-
sional soldiers (mercenaries, or non-citizen
soldiers paid to fight) against each other. Of
the more than 20 emperors who served
during one 50-year period, only one died
of natural causes. The taxes levied to pay
the mercenary soldiers became so burden-
some that bureaucrats, retired soldiers, and
others of the middle class fled to the coun-
tryside to avoid them. Added to the internal
12 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
When the volcano Mt. Vesuvius
erupted in A.D. 19 it buried the
city of Pompeii in volcanic ash,
killing hundreds of people. It also
preserved the city as it was on the
day of the eruption, The walls of
wealthy villas were painted with
vividly colored scenes, including
this one of a Roman city.
execution by Roman officials. Of the his- water is used to wash away the original sin
toricjesus of Nazareth little is known aside of Adam and Eve—distinguished member-
from what is told in the Gospels. He was ship in the sect. Baptism and the Eucharist
Jewish and probably born sometime be- (Greek for "thanksgiving")—the com-
tween 8 B.C. and 4 B.C., rather than the memoration of the last supper Jesus had
traditional date of A.D. 1. He was an itin- with the apostles, which is also known as
erant preacher who attracted followers. communion—were the religion's chief sac-
The period in which he preached was one raments. Soon Christians were meeting in
of unrest in Palestine. Jews were hoping small groups under the leadership of bish-
for the advent of a messiah who would ops. Paul gave advice on issues of worship
deliver them from Roman rule. Where through letters to these communities, and
Jesus fell afoul of the Jewish population, these were preserved in the New Testa-
however, was his claim that he was a ment as the Epistles of Paul. Although
spiritual messiah, seeking religious renewal Christianity was most popular in the eastern
rather than war. (Christ is the Greek trans- part of the Roman Empire, the disciples
lation of the word messiah.) traveled all over the empire, and Christian
Christianity spread through the preach- tradition maintains that Jesus' chief disciple,
The Byzantines closely associated ing of the first apostles and the efforts of an Peter, was martyred in Rome.
Constantine (wearing crown) with early convert, Paul. Speaking in the mar- As the religion spread, Roman officials
Christianity and called him "the
equal of the apostles. " Pictures repre-
ketplaces, the apostles and other missionaries became suspicious of its followers. After all,
sented him as the religious leader of encouraged people to convert to the Chris- the sect worshipped a man who reportedly
all Christians. tian faith. Baptism—a ceremony in which was executed by crucifixion—a common
Roman punishment for criminals that en-
tailed either binding or nailing their hands
and feet to crossed pieces of wood and
leaving them to die. The organization of the
religion into congregations under a bishop
and the possibility that it would cause upris-
ings in the Jewish communities also suggested
that it was a politically dangerous move-
ment. Furthermore, Christianity's message
was finding acceptance among the urban
poor, slaves, women, and even soldiers. For
the downtrodden, its promises of the for-
giveness of sins and eternal salvation for
those who suffered in this world had a
strong appeal.
In the early fourth century, Diocletian
issued an edict against Christians and their
worship. It called for the confiscation of
14 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D HISTORY
The Four Gospels as Mythical Beasts
I n medieval illustrations
and sculpture, the four
Gospel writers, or the
evangelists—Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John—
his gospel starts with the
human genealogy of
Christ. The human figure
also represents Christ's
Incarnation or birth.
ox or calf was the symbol
of Luke, whose Gospel
opens with an account of
Zacharias making sacrifices
in the temple. Sacrificial
were represented symboli- Mark was represented as animals such as oxen and
cally as beasts. This sym- a lion. His Gospel begins calves are also used to rep-
bolism was drawn from dramatically with the resent Christ as the
the book of Revelations preaching of John the atoning sacrifice for hu-
(Rev. 4:6-10). Baptist, described as a man sin. Lastly, John was
The beasts used to "voice crying in the wil- symbolized by an eagle,
copies of the Gospels and Epistles of Paul symbolize each of the derness" like the roar of a His gospel begins with
Evangelists reflected both lion. The lion also stood Christ as the Word of
and the execution of Christians who would
the way in which they be- for Christ's resurrection. God, existing in heaven
not renounce their faith. The response of gan their Gospels and an In the Middle Ages lion before the Incarnation,
Christians to this repression is recorded in aspect of the life of Christ. cubs were thought to be The eagle also represents
both official documents and the traditions Matthew was represented stillborn and roared into Christ's ascension into
of the Church. Some turned over their as a winged man because life by their mother. An heaven.
16 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D HISTORY
circle with a cross in it, during the battle and the New Testament as the manifestation of Gladiators fight a variety of wild
converted to Christianity. God in people and the Church) were con- beasts in this fourth-century mosaic.
Fighters risked their lives in these
Constantine's grasp of Christianity was sidered divine, then the religion would no
animal fights to the delight of
limited. He continued to worship Mythras longer be monotheistic. They further main- amphitheater crowds.
and the Roman pantheon of gods, but he tained that if Jesus, the Holy Ghost, and God
won over Christians by revoking the edicts were all divine, then Christianity began to
of persecution. Only toward the end of his resemble the polytheism of the old Greco-
life was he baptized. Despite his poor un- Roman system. Tempers ran high over the
derstanding of the Christian faith, he had a question of Jesus' divinity; street fights even
profound influence on the development of broke out over the controversy. In a similar
the religion. Following his lead, many people debate a century later, St. John Crysostom
of all classes converted, including patricians. wrote that when he asked the price of bread
This large number of new converts pre- in the market he was given an argument
sented certain problems, however. Some, about the nature of Christ in return.
like the emperor, did not understand the In 325 Constantine called a council of
religion, and others believed that only their bishops at Nicaea to decide the question of
interpretations of the doctrines were cor- Jesus' divinity once and for all. He disliked
rect. One of the early disputes arose from the civil unrest the dispute had created, but
the question of whether Jesus was divine or he may also have been discomforted by his
human. Arguing for the humanity of Jesus own doubts about the power of a religion
was a monk named Arms; the movement that harbored so much controversy. At the
that arose from his teachings was called council, Constantine oversaw the adoption
Arianism. The Arians argued that if both of the Nicene Creed, in which the concept
Jesus and the Holy Ghost (who appears in of the Trinity was formulated. According
18 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
While at Golgotha Egeria wrote of the
rituals of Holy Week—including fasting
and night-long services—and finally of
glimpsing a piece of the cross on which
Jesus had been crucified: "As long as the
holy Wood is on the table, the bishop sits
with his hands resting on either end of it
and holds it down, and the deacons round
him keep watch over it. They guard it like
this because what happens now is that all
the people come up one by one . . . stoop
over it and kiss the Wood. . . . But on one
occasion one of them bit off a piece of the
holy Wood and stole it away." Egeria's
account gives a flavor of the devotion that
early Christians felt for the religion, and
records their desire to visit the shrines of its to Christianity. Indeed, he was such a St. Jerome, a doctor of the Church,
origin. persuasive preacher that patrician fathers translated the New Testament from
Greek into Latin. His translation is
Among those who found Christianity supposedly did not want their daughters to
still used in the Catholic Church and
attractive were Roman patricians, such as hear his sermons out of fear that they would is known as the Vulgate. This I5th
Augustine of Hippo, who had received a take vows of perpetual virginity and refuse century illustration of Jerome in his
traditional education in Greek and Latin. marriages that were advantageous to the study is obviously updated because the
scene behind him is Florence.
Drawing from their intellectual back- family. Among Ambrose's converts was
ground, the patricians tried to fit Christian Augustine of Hippo. Augustine became
teachings into the context of Greek phi- deeply interested in reconciling Greek phi-
losophy and rhetoric. The greatest of these losophy with Christianity. The problem
thinkers were known as the Doctors of the was not a new one. In the early first century
Church. Among them was St. Jerome, who A.D. Jewish scholars, including Philo Judaes,
translated the Bible from Hebrew and Greek had tried to combine Biblical study with
into Latin. (His translation, called the Latin philosophy.
Vulgate Bible, is still used in the Catholic Even though Augustine died just be-
Church.) Jerome's pagan heritage caused fore one of the so-called barbarian tribes
him considerable anxiety. He had a dream took over his home city in North Africa,
in which Jesus admonished him by saying, his writings only indirectly reflected the
"You are a Ciceronian [an admirer of the major changes such peoples would bring
essays of the Roman orator Cicero] rather to the Roman Empire. Their contribution
than a Christian," because Jerome valued to the unique culture of the Middle Ages
his rhetorical training so highly. Ambrose can best be understood by looking at their
(c. 340-397), the bishop of Milan, used his way of life before they entered the empire.
great skill as an orator to convert his listeners Historians have categorized the invaders as
20 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Sutton Hoo: Ship Burial for a Chieftain
monster came to the mead hall that night and slaves. War chiefs attracted a warrior band, or so laws evolved calling for murderers to pay
ate a Geat, Beowulf tore off his arm, and commitatus (literally, a group of fighters who wergeld (human payment), or money com-
Grendel retreated to his lair to die. The Geats have gathered together), by their prowess in pensation, to their victims' families. The
rejoiced in the prince's victory until the next fighting and by their success in taking plun- amount depended on the value of the
night, when Grendel's mother came seeking der, which they distributed to their followers. person killed. For instance, the murder of a
revenge and killed one of the king's men. Family groups and the commitatus formed king or a woman of childbearing age de-
Beowulf then pursued her into a cave at the loose units, but they coalesced into a tribe manded very high wergeld. Other
bottom of a sea, where he killed her. under the leadership of a king, particularly losses—such as the loss of limbs, teeth, and
Beowulf's return to Sweden with rich when they faced an external threat. virginity—also required monetary com-
rewards was brief. The king of the Geats The tribes near the Roman Empire's pensation. The compensation for knocking
died, and Beowulf returned and served as borders were partially romanized. They out a front tooth was greater than for a
their king for 50 years. But his story ended as knew something of the Roman economy, molar because of its ill effect on a person's
it began, fighting a monster. The aged which was based on money rather than looks. Likewise, a thumb was worth a great
Beowulf again killed the enemy, but this barter. They also had some knowledge of deal more than a little finger.
time was mortally wounded. The story of the Latin language and Roman military Other laws governed theft, rape, adul-
Beowulf provides a sense of the tribes' wan- organization and law. Despite this expo- tery, and treason. Even relations with the
dering and mingling even before they moved sure, however, the Germanic tribes Roman population were incorporated into
into Roman territory. It also shows that they preserved their own language and laws. the laws as the tribes moved across the
viewed nature as containing threatening, Their laws dealt mainly with violence in empire's borders. A Frankish (the Franks
hostile elements, compared with the Roman's interpersonal relationships. Because family invaded northern Gaul) law read: "If any-
view of nature as providing an abundance of honor was an important value, when a one has assaulted and plundered a free
food for their benefit. family member was killed, his or her rela- person, and it be proved on him, he shall be
Germanic society was organized accord- tives were bound to kill the murderer or sentenced to 2500 denars, which make 63
ing to both family ties and a social hierarchy one of his relatives in revenge. Such ven- shillings. If a Roman has plundered a Frank,
of kings and war chiefs under whom the dettas between families were obviously the above law shall be observed. But if a
warriors served. Below these groups were disruptive to the peace of the whole group, Frank has plundered a Roman, he shall be
22 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
God." Attila had his sights set on Rome. He ers. However, the eastern part of the
claimed that he was coming to liberate empire, including Constantinople, re-
Honoria, a Roman princess who had been mained wealthy and powerful, and its
disciplined for having an affair. She sent a emperors came to resemble eastern poten-
ring to Attila proposing marriage. A tates. Also during this period, the Christian
Roman-Visigothic army forced him to re- church gained considerable stature and
treat, but within a year he was plundering power among the Roman population. It
his way toward Rome, where only the had preserved Latin, the language of Ro-
city's bishop stood in his way. Again, prob- man culture, and in the west bishops
ably because of plague in his army, Attila increasingly took on the roles of Roman
retreated. Taking yet another wife to join officials. They effectively governed cities
the many he had already, he died on his and the surrounding countryside (called
wedding night, perhaps of a surfeit of food dioceses) for their Germanic overlords. The Vandals quickly assumed the
and drink. With so much change taking place in the comfortable life of the upper-class Ro-
The Hunnish incursions again moved space of a century, the lives of people mans, adopting their dress and living
habits in northern Africa. They even
Germanic peoples to regroup into invading caught up in the new religious enthusi- learned to use Roman ships, and with
tribes. The Vandals moved through Gaul asms and in the myriad invasions and a fleet they attacked and destroyed
and Spain to set up a kingdom centered in settlements also changed dramatically. Rome in 455.
Carthage, in North Africa. Augustine died
only months before Hippo fell to them.
The Vandals took to the sea as pirates, and
in 455 they too sacked Rome. Their raid-
ing left a permanent legacy in the English
language—the word vandalism. Their name
also remains as Andalusia, a province in
southern Spain.
Once again Italy lay open to attack. The
group that moved in this time was the
Ostrogoths (or east Goths). The parts of
Gaul that were not controlled by the
Visigoths were invaded by the Burgundians
and Franks, whose story will be told in the
next chapter.
By the end of the fifth century, Rome,
the founding city of the empire, had been
sacked and its earlier prominence super-
seded by Constantinople. The Roman
Empire had fragmented into a number of
smaller kingdoms dominated by tribal lead-
Settling Down in
the Old Empire
M
ajor historical events usually cre- and new forests when they had exhausted
ate traumas and drastic changes the old, becoming part of the empire meant
in individual lives. The Visi- encountering people who lived in one
goths ' sack of Rome in 410 had place and cultivated the same land year after
an enormous impact on the invaders and the year. Loose tribal confederations became
invaded. One Roman of patrician rank, for kingships (rex was the Roman term for
example, wrote to a friend complaining that their leaders); Germanic laws had to be
the Visigoths had stolen his land, which reconciled with Roman laws; and for the
ruined him and reduced him to beggary. Germanic tribes individual ownership of
Strangely, some years later one of the plun- land created an entirely new concept of
derers located him and offered to pay for the making a living, that is, from cultivation
land he had taken. Although the Roman rather than plunder. Adding to the confu-
claimed that he did not receive the fair sion were Roman prejudices against the
market value, he confessed that the return of Germanic tribes. The Roman population,
a part of his wealth helped him to again hold now Christian, regarded their new neigh-
his head up in the Roman society of Gaul. bors as land grabbers and heretics (religious
With the invasion of Rome, people lost dissenters who held incorrect views of
not only land. Many lost their lives, and Christianity), because many of the tribes
many others faced the possibility of marriage had converted to Arianism (the interpreta-
to people whose appearance and customs tion of Christianity that had been banned in
were strange. 325 at the Council of Nicaea).
Clovis was baptized after he promised For people living in Europe from the fifth The letters and some poetry of a patrician
his wife that he would convert to through the seventh centuries, waves of Roman named Apollinaris Sidonius (431—
Christianity if he won an important change altered or removed many of their 489) provide an insight into the experiences
battle. When he was successful, he familiar institutions. As a result, their chil- of at least one man and his correspondents
also had all his troops baptized with
him. This 14th-century manuscript
dren had to be reared differently from the during this turbulent period. Sidonius had
shows a bishop pouring the baptismal way they themselves had been. For tribes followed the traditional career pattern for
water over the king's head. accustomed to moving to greener pastures his class. He had entered public service,
tongue is long banished from Belgium and rial traditions, but Christianity was strong.
the Rhine; but if its splendor has any- He wrote of his embarrassingly poor Latin,
where survived, it is surely with you; our which indicates that he was not schooled by
jurisdiction is fallen into decay along the the old standards. His interests also show a
frontier, but while you live and preserve shift of perspective from that of Sidonius.
your eloquence, the Latin language stands He recounted stories of brutal Frankish
unshaken." rulers and relished miraculous events rather
becoming an official in Rome. He was of Sidonius also wrote of the transforma- than classical literary works. For example,
such high status that he married the tion taking place among the tribespeople. Gregory wrote of an army of Franks who
emperor's daughter. After retiring to his He described Sigismer, a Germanic prince, plundered the church of the holy St. Vincent,
country estates, he spent the final 17 years who walked at the center of a victory a martyr who died for his Christian beliefs.
of his life serving as bishop of Clermont in procession: The troops found it filled with treasure that
what is now central France. As the Church had been deposited by Christians who
With charming modesty he went
became the last vestige of the old imperial afoot amid his body guards and foot- trusted in the saint's power to save their
system, many members of the patrician men, in flame-red mantle, with goods. Unable to open the church, the
class became bishops and continued to much glint of ruddy gold, and gleam Franks set it afire. When they tried to
of snowy silken tunic, his fair hair,
administer both spiritual comfort and civic retrieve the goods inside, however, divine
red cheeks and white skin according
services to the urban population. Like with the three hues of his equip- vengeance was visited on them. According
many other bishops, Sidonius was charged ment. But the chiefs and allies who to Gregory, their hands were "supernatu-
with the task of organizing the defense of bore him company were dread of as- rally burned, and sent forth a great smoke,
his city against the Visigoths and other pect. . . . Their feet were laced in like that which rises above a fire."
boots of bristly hide reaching to the
tribes who besieged the countryside in the heels; ankles and legs were exposed. Gregory also recounted the vicious poli-
470s. He wrote in 473: "Our own town They wore tight tunics of varied tics of the Franks, who gradually seized all
lives in terror of a sea of tribes which find color hardly descending to their bare of Gaul. Clovis (481/2-511) emerged as
in it an obstacle to their expansion and knees, the sleeves covering only the the victorious ruler after many battles in
upper arms.
surge in arms all around it." When the which his family members were often killed.
town fell, he spent three years as a prisoner Cloaks of skins secured with brooches com- Gregory reported an emotional speech
of the Goths. pleted their garb. Clovis delivered before a large gathering of
Despite the sack of Rome, Sidonius Bishop Gregory of Tours (538—594), Franks: "Oh woe is me, for I travel among
continued to consider the city "the abode writing about a hundred years later, pre- strangers and have none of my kinsfolk to
of law, the training-school of letters, the sented a very different picture of Gaul. By help me!" Gregory went on to suggest that
font of honors, the head of the world, the this time, the Visigoths had moved on into "he did not refer to their deaths out of grief,
motherland of freedom, the city unique Spain, and a new tribe, the Franks, had but craftily, to see if he could bring to light
upon earth where none but the barbarian crossed the Rhine and settled in what was some new relatives to kill."
and slave is foreign." But he was fully once Roman territory. The area eventually Clovis and the Franks, however, were
aware that the "Roman state has sunk to took the name France from this tribe. The set apart from other tribes by their conver-
. . . extreme misery." Writing to his Franks had had little contact with Romans sion to Roman Christianity, that is, the
friends, Sidonius praised his correspon- and had not converted to any version of Christian beliefs of the bishop of Rome
dents' dedication to keeping the study of Christianity. Bishop Gregory's own world (also known as the pope) as opposed to
Latin and Greek alive: "The Roman was far removed from Rome and the impe- those of the Arian heretics. Clovis married
26 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D HISTORY
a Christian woman, Clotilda. Her uncle Italy enjoyed a generation of peace and
had killed her father and drowned her order under another tribal invasion, the
mother by tying a stone around her neck. Ostrogoths (or east Goths). Their leader
Clotilda's sister had retreated to a nunnery, was Theodoric (reigned 471—526), who
and Clotilda might have followed suit if had been a hostage at the court in Con-
Clovis had not been taken by her beauty stantinople and therefore was very familiar
and married her. Gregory of Tours wrote with imperial government. Although the
that Clotilda immediately tried to convert Ostrogoths were Arians, Theodoric did not
Clovis to Christianity. She persuaded him try to persuade the non-Arian population
to allow the first two sons she bore to be to convert. Rather than destroying what
baptized, but because they died soon after remained of the Roman Empire and Ro-
birth her husband remained unconvinced man ways, he worked with the conquered
about the new religion's worth. Finally, in people to restore their aqueducts, repair
a battle with another tribe, Clovis looked to their buildings, and improve the general
heaven and promised to convert if he won. order and economy of the Italian peninsula.
After his victory, he fulfilled his promise by In return for aiding the local population and
being baptized along with 3,000 of his defending them against other tribes, the
followers. Clovis knew even less than Ostrogoths taxed a third of the proceeds
Constantine about Christianity, but be- from the estates of the wealthy. This policy
cause he and the Franks were baptized as was kinder to the local population than the
Roman Christians, they were loyal to the outright plunder and confiscation of goods
pope. Later, when the Church needed and land that other tribes had committed.
help, its leaders looked to the Franks for aid. With the establishment of a general
Clovis unified the Franks under a peace between mainstream Christians and
long-lasting dynasty, the Merovingians—a heretical Arians, between Romans and Amalsuntha, daughter of a sixth-cen-
name derived from a mythical ancestor, Ostrogoths, learning once again flourished tury Byzantine emperor, became
Merowech. The Franks practiced partible in Italy. Boethius (c. 480-524), a Roman regent far her young son on her
father's death. This ivory shows her
inheritance—that is, a father's lands were who became an official for the Ostrogoths, holding an orb, the symbol of ruling,
divided equally among his sons. Upon their realized that Greek might die out as a wearing a typical Byzantine crown
father's death, brothers would fight each language of learning. Thus he translated and sitting on a throne surrounded by
other until one dominated. Each change of portions of Greek philosophy, including pillars to suggest a palace.
king, therefore, resulted in the same sorts of the entire works of Plato and parts of
brutal fights between brothers in which Aristotle's writings. His translations were
Clovis had engaged. The queens were no used throughout the Middle Ages.
less capable of bloodthirsty tactics. Despite Cassiodorus (c. 490—585), another scholar
such fighting, the Franks became a strong who was close to Theodoric, retired from
power in Europe. They successfully assimi- government service and became the abbot
lated their kin from across the Rhine and of a monastery. He set his monks the task of
encouraged missionaries to convert their copying and preserving the works of Chris-
brethren. tianity and of pagan Greece and Rome.
T
of Jerome and Augustine. Preservation of
he bubonic plague, the clinical symptoms of the inhabitants having the past became the overwhelming preoc-
like many other epi- the disease: caught the disease. The
infection did not spread cupation for the surviving Romans, as it
demics, comes in
cycles. The first plague At this time it was re- through the residential had for Sidonius. Even Boethius's great
of the medieval period ported that Marseilles quarter immediately. work, The Consolation of Philosophy, had
occurred during the was suffering from a se- Some time passed and more to say about the comforts of contem-
reign of Justinian (527— vere epidemic of then, like a cornfield set
plating Greek philosophy than it did about
565); the second, called swelling in the groin. . . . alight, the entire town
I want to tell you exactly was suddenly ablaze with his Christian present.
"The Black Death,"
struck in 1348. Plague how this came about. . . . the pestilence. . . . At The comfortable compromise between
a ship from Spain put the end of two months Theodoric and the Pope did not long
is a bacterial infection
into port with the usual the plague burned itself
normally spread to hu- survive. The Roman emperor of the east,
kind of cargo, unfortu- out. The population re-
mans through the bite Justinian (527-565), began an ambitious
nately also bringing with turned to Marseilles,
of a household flea that it the source of infection. program to reconquer Italy, North Africa,
thinking themselves
has picked up the bac- Quite a few of the safe. Then the disease and Spain—the wealthiest parts of the former
teria from an infected townsfolk purchased ob- started again and all
household rat. Gregory western empire. The expeditions were very
jects from the cargo and who had come back
of Tours, who saw the in less than no time a expensive, however, and Justinian's victo-
died. On several occa-
plague's effects first- house in which eight sions later on Marseilles ries were few. The Byzantine armies defeated
hand, wrote a very people lived was left suffered from an epi- the Vandals but could retain only a small
accurate description of completely deserted, all demic of this sort. portion of North Africa. They did gain
Sicily and southern Italy; however, the
protracted campaigns weakened the
Ostrogoths and destroyed more towns, vil-
las, and Roman roads and viaducts than all
the previous Gothic invasions. The senate
finally ceased to meet, and the last public
entertainment in the Coliseum was held in
549. Only Ravenna remained as a glorious
outpost of Byzantine civilization in Italy.
The mid-sixth century was a grim time
for Italy. Bubonic plague—the disease that
would be called the Black Death in the 14th
century—decimated the population. As a
result of the Ostrogoths' campaigns and the
The plague killed three-fourths of the people that it infected, so burial of the dead be- plague, Italy lay open to invasion by a
came a problem. In some places mass burials replaced the usual ritual of washing the savage new tribe, the Lombards. As earlier
body, putting it in a shroud (pictured in the center), and putting it in a coffin. in the face of the Huns, the bishop of Rome
was left alone to ward off invasion. He
28 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
During the Middle Ages, sick people
made pilgrimages to the shrines of
saints, hoping to be cured by praying
at the tomb or consuming dust from
it. A superstructure with niches pro-
tected the tomb from being entirely
scraped away by the pious; it allowed
them to get only part of their bodies
close to the tomb.
managed to preserve Rome and the land resent becoming wives to husbands who In it one is conscious of the fear of God and
around it, but the Lombards took over most wore hides rather than tunics or had blond of a great brightness."
of the northern part of the peninsula around hair and blue eyes rather than dark hair and The cathedrals often contained the bones
Milan, which became known as Lom- dark eyes? (Some women preferred a life in of early Christian saints. Pious Christians
bardy. The Lombards represented yet a nunnery to marriage, but not necessarily traveled to the shrines to cure their illnesses,
another challenge for conversion and as- because they objected to the physical and for the religious experience of being near
similation into something resembling the cultural characteristics of a prospective hus- the body of a martyr, for the adventure of
Roman way of life. band.) In any case, the invaders settled, travel, or for the opportunity to buy and sell
The brutality of the times is depicted in married into the local population, adopted goods at their destination. They also left
a story about a Lombard king and his wife. hybrid languages of Latin and Germanic gifts, including extensive land holdings, to
The queen's father had been a rival chief- words, and produced children of mixed the cathedrals and churches that housed the
tain, whom her husband had killed. Proud ancestry. Indeed, the entire Ostrogothic bones of notable saints. Gregory had par-
of his deed, he carried the father-in-law's population was assimilated into the popula- ticular success as a bishop by making the
skull about as a trophy. During a banquet, tion of Italy. The western Mediterranean shrine of St. Martin of Tours one of the
he filled the skull with wine and forced his culture as well as the appearance of its most venerated stops for pilgrims. Another
wife to drink his health. She complied but people changed through genetic mixing famous shrine was that of St. Denis the
vowed to murder her husband—a promise that introduced fairer skin and blond and martyred, first bishop of Paris. His remains
she kept. Despite the gruesome infighting red hair into their population. rested in a large and wealthy monastery.
of the Lombard royal family, eventually the For some time the Romans managed to That monastery became even wealthier
Lombards, too, were Christianized. keep for themselves the distinction of serv- when it established an annual fair that
Although the original written legal codes ing as bishops in the old Roman towns. attracted merchants from all over Europe as
of the Germanic tribes were intended to Gregory of Tours, for example, boasted well as the eastern Mediterranean.
keep the Roman and Germanic popula- that all but five of the bishops of Tours had Despite the popularity of St. Denis and
tions separate, the distinctions between the been connected with his family. But his St. Martin among pilgrims, the status of
two could not be maintained. Intermar- power and that of the other bishops de- these saints was far lower than that of St.
riage frequently occurred, and the languages pended on the tribal rulers. The bishops Peter, one of Jesus' original apostles. The
blended to create the Romance (or Latin- governed the towns and their surrounding bishop of Rome held a special place in the
root) languages: Italian, French, Spanish, countryside in a unit of land and govern- hierarchy of bishops because Rome had
and Romanian. The two groups slowly ment called the diocese. The church in been the center of the empire and because
assimilated into a common culture, but it is which the bishop officiated was called a Christian tradition was woven around Jesus'
not known how people felt about this cathedral. Gregory of Tours described one words to Peter: "Thou art Peter and on this
transition as it was taking place. Did Roman built in Clermont-Ferrand: "It is one hun- rock I shall build my church." According to
fathers think that their Germanic sons-in-law dred and fifty feet long, sixty feet wide Christian tradition, Peter had founded the
had crude table manners? Did Germanic inside the nave and fifty feet high as far as the first church in Rome and was martyred
boys think that their dark-haired Roman vaulting. It has a rounded apse at the end, there. The bishop of Rome, as the succes-
brides, whatever land and wealth that they and two wings of elegant design on either sor of Peter, was considered the head of the
brought to the marriage, were less beautiful side. The whole building is constructed in Church and came to be called pope or papa
(or more beautiful) than the blonde girls the shape of a cross. It has fifty-two win- (Latin for father). But the superior position
they were used to? Did Roman women dows, seventy columns and eight doorways. of the bishop of Rome also owed much to
the able men who held the office and their designs in their books and of their statuary
heroic leadership in both church and state and altar ornaments combined motifs de-
matters. For example, Leo the Great (pope rived from indigenous animals with
from 440—461) had defended Rome against Christian symbolism. Their saints were re-
the Huns, and Gregory the Great (c. 540- markable for their perseverance and their
604) did much to increase the power of the relationship with animals. For example, the
papacy through missionary activity, reform Irish saint Brendan set out in a small boat in
of the church, and administration of the the Atlantic with few provisions, but birds
papal estates around Rome. ensured that he was fed. St. Cuthbert once
While the peoples within the old em- stood up to his neck in the cold waters of
pire were gradually being Christianized, the North Sea to meditate. When he got
those on the fringes were either pagans or out, otters came to dry his feet.
Peter, as the favored apostle of Jesus, Arian heretics. Monks served as mission- While the Irish and Anglo-Saxons in
held a place of special reverence in the
aries to these peoples. St. Patrick (c. 389—c. the far north were practicing their own
early Church. Tradition maintained
that he had founded the first Christian 461), for example, was a missionary in type of monasticism, a young Roman
church in Rome and had suffered a Ireland. According to his early biogra- noble, Benedict (c. 480-c. 550), decided
martyr's death in that city. In medieval pher, he came from a Christianized family that he did not want to follow the usual
illustrations he is depicted carrying two in Britain, but at the age of 16 Irish raiders career path for his class. Instead of entering
keys—the keys to heaven. The sym-
bolism of the keys derives from words
captured him. He spent six miserable politics, he became a hermit. His reputation
Jesus said to Peter: "I will give you the years as a slave in Ireland before he escaped for piety grew, and he soon had more
keys to the kingdom of heaven: What- and returned to Britain. He received fur- followers than he could easily settle near
ever you bind on earth will be ther education in Christianity among the him. Furthermore, his disciples were over-
considered bound in heaven; whatever
Roman population of southern Gaul. whelmed by worldly temptations, and
you loose on earth shall be considered
loosed in heaven." The name Peter, Summoned in a dream to go back to fought with one another. To provide them
from the Greek word for rock (petra), Ireland and Christianize the people there, with a more peaceful refuge, Benedict
becomes a pun when Jesus says "Thou he accepted the mission and began preach- moved his followers from outside Rome to
art Peter and on this rock I shall build ing and baptizing new converts. Although Monte Cassino in southern Italy. His sister,
my church." The term "apostolic suc-
cession" —which was used often by
many of his followers were killed and he Scholastica, set up a hermitage nearby, and
medieval papacy—meant that the popes was nearly martyred, Ireland became Chris- became the patron saint of Benedictine
were directly descended by ordination tian. The Irish then sent their own nuns. Eventually, Benedict wrote a set of
from Peter and that they also held the missionaries to the north ofEngland, where rules for his followers—the Benedictine
power of the two keys.
a remarkable monastic culture was estab- Rule—that monastic orders in the west still
lished at such places as Iona. The follow. Indeed, the Benedictines are among
monasteries housed both men and women the most numerous of the monastic orders
and were often supervised by an abbess in the world today.
rather than an abbot. The Benedictine Rule was based on
The monasteries in Ireland and the north three simple precepts: a vow of poverty, a
ofEngland (in the Anglo-Saxon kingdom vow of chastity, and an acceptance of com-
of Northumbria) produced remarkable art- plete obedience to the abbot. When a
ists, scholars, saints, and missionaries. The person entered a monastery or nunnery, he
30 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
The Illuminated Manuscripts
The word "illuminate"
comes from the Latin
illuminare, which means
"to light up." In the
Middle Ages, illuminated
manuscripts were texts
decorated with letters and
images formed from col-
ored inks. Usually red ink
was used for the capital
letter of the first word on
or she gave all personal possessions to the a page or the first word in
a paragraph. Such red let-
community and adopted the simple robes
ters were called rubrics
and sandals of the order. An initiate, or new (from the Latin rubricare,
member, commonly went through a pe- "to make red"). Decora-
riod of trial, called a novitiate, before taking tions of important
manuscripts were much
the final vows. The novitiate helped people
more complex. They fea-
make sure that the rigors of monastic life tured illustrations of
were what they really wanted. Once ini- scenes from the text or
tiates had passed through the novitiate and small pictures within the
taken their final vows, they wore the sym- first letter of a word.
Many of the most beauti-
bols of their order. Men shaved their heads,
ful existing manuscripts In this illumination from the Lindisfarne Gospels, snakes
leaving only a ring of hair on the top called are Bibles and Books of curl to form the initial letters (L, I, and B) of
a tonsure. Women donned a distinctive veil. Hours (books of daily St. Matthew's gospel. The Celtic patterns within the
Within the religious community, re- prayers). The paintings snake's bodies transform into the heads of dragons and
were usually small be- other creatures. In illuminated Bibles the first page of a
sponsibilities were assigned according to
cause they appeared Gospel was generally the most ornate, containing large
the skills of its members. Some adminis- within the text; for this decorative images with few words.
tered the monastery, while others copied reason, they are often
and illuminated (decorated) manuscripts, called miniatures. decorated manuscript of and dragons surround re-
educated children, worked in the kitchens Illuminating manu- the four Gospels made in ligious scenes. The book
scripts was exacting work, the eighth century, con- was made in northern
and barns, or became priests. Everyone said particularly in elaborate tains some of the most England or possibly Scot-
prayers seven times a day. Recognizing the books in which various interesting early motifs, land or Ireland, but its
difficulty of waking up before sunrise to colors of inks were used. combining Celtic and name comes from the
pray, the Rule asked that brothers gently Design motifs varied from Christian artistic tradi- monastery of Kells in Ire-
century to century. The tions. In its complex land, where it was housed
encourage one another to do so. Their
Book of Kells, a richly borders, images of snakes from about 1006 to 1653.
simple diet consisted of cheese, fish, bread,
beans, and a good measure of wine every
day. The young, sick, and elderly were also founded. Among the early adherents was a
encouraged to eat some meat for strength. young man who would become Pope Gre-
The residents of the monastery lived in gory the Great. Gregory, like Benedict,
dormitories supervised by the older monks. came from a noble Roman family but
Other monastic buildings included a large preferred the monastic life. When he was
kitchen, storage areas, barns, a chapterhouse selected as pope, he tried to hide from those
for meetings, a chapel, a scriptorium for who sought him out. Nevertheless, he was
writing and keeping books, and a cloister able to preserve and increase the power of
for meditation and growing medicinal herbs. the pope. He made peace with the Lombards
The monk's life was simple, orderly, and and carefully administered the Churches'
dedicated to prayer, learning, and service to estates around Rome, which gave him the
the poor. resources to defend the papacy against the
The Benedictine Rule was very popu- Lombards. He also wrote a life of Benedict
lar, and soon many new monasteries were and a number of works on relics and the
32 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
is the History of the English Church and People, on its borders. Through these efforts, the The plan for the Benedictine monas-
which recounts the Synod of Whitby, vari- wealthy crescent of territory around the tery at Canterbury shows Canterbury
Cathedral at the top. The two squares
ous political events, and the lives of kings, eastern Mediterranean retained its rich,
are the cloisters with their open, arched
queens, abbots, abbesses, and saints. urban-centered culture. corridors shown as a scalloped border.
By the middle of the seventh century, Justinian (reigned 527—565) was the last The center cloister has an herb garden.
separate kingdoms had begun to emerge in of the Roman emperors to attempt to At the bottom is the necessarium or
latrines for the monks. To the left is a
the western part of the former Roman control the whole of the empire once again.
chapel and infirmary; the dormitory
Empire. The Anglo-Saxons, divided into Justinian was a colorful figure who sur- abuts the cloister.
several kingdoms, occupied England; the rounded himself with equally dramatic
Franks had settled much of France; the people. Because he had a keen sense of
Visigoths controlled Spain; the Lombards history, he hired a historian, Procopius, to
had taken over Italy; and the papacy, with write an official account of his reign. Al-
its estates, was established in Rome and the though Procopius enjoyed this patronage
surrounding countryside. Only the vast and dutifully wrote two books about
region of modern Germany had yet to be Justinian's wars and buildings, he also wrote
Christianized. a secret history containing all of the court
In the eastern half of the Roman Em- gossip. Procopius particularly wanted to
pire, however, the fifth and sixth centuries discredit the Empress Theodora, Justinian's
brought both great victories and major wife, whom he maintained had an earlier
defeats. The eastern empire was able to career as a pornographic entertainer and
preserve its territory partly through a policy courtesan in Constantinople. Rather than
of encouraging the Germanic tribes to move seeing the rise of this intelligent, beautiful
into the west and partly through diplomacy woman to the position of empress as a
and bribes to the new tribes that appeared heartwarming rags-to-riches story, he con-
A historian during the partook of every kind of not bad looking, for he
reign of emperor food and drink; and many had good color, even
Justinian, Procopius hours she devoted to when he fasted for two
lived between 500 and sleep, by day till nightfall, days.... Now such was Jus-
554. While writing his by night till the rising of tinian in appearance; but
official histories for Justin- the sun. Though she his character was some-
ian, he composed another wasted her hours thus in- thing I could not fully
book, in which he reviled temperately, what time of describe. For he was at
the emperor and his "wife, day remained she deemed once villainous and ame-
Theodora. Of Theodora, ample for managing the nable; as people say
he wrote: "To her body Roman Empire." colloquially, a moron. He Justinian decided to rebuild
she gave greater care than Procopius was equally was never truthful with Constantinople on a grand scale. The most
was necessary, if less than scathing in his descrip- anyone, but always guile-
memorable monument was the Hagia
she thought desirable. For tions of Justinian: "Now ful in what he said and
Sophia, a great domed church that still
early she entered the bath in physique he was nei- did, yet easily hoodwinked
and late she left it; having ther tall nor short, but of by any who wanted to de-stands today. It was once lined with mosaics
bathed, went to breakfast. average height; not thin, of semi-precious stones and gold that shim-
ceive him. His nature was
After breakfast she rested. but moderately plump; an unnatural mixture of mered in candlelight or filtered sunlight.
At dinner and supper she his face was round and folly and wickedness." The dome had a series of windows around
its base so that in bright sunlight it appeared
to be floating. One of the favorite ways to
impress visiting barbarians was to take them
to a religious service in the church. On one
occasion a child was suspended from the
dome to play the part of an angel and fill the
dome with heavenly singing. Justinian and
Theodora also built churches in Ravenna
(St. Vitale) and Venice (St. Mark's).
Another of Justinian's cultural achieve-
ments was the codification of Roman law
in the Corpus Juris Civilis. The Roman laws
were a jumble of old practices and decrees
of Roman emperors that had governed
commercial transactions, criminal offenses,
and the relationship of the emperor to the
This mosaic of Theodora, wife of Justinian, appears opposite his in Ravenna. The
people. Justinian's jurists worked on elimi-
magnificence of court clothing and jewels indicate the wealth of the Byzantine Empire.
nating duplications and inconsistencies to
produce a unified code of laws, the Codex
sidered Theodora a sorceress. In fact, she Justinianus. He also had them compile a
was very much her husband's partner in summary of the main legal principles in the
running the empire and showed consider- Institutes.
able courage early in their reign when In the 12th century, the emperor's
rioters burned much of Constantinople and compilation of laws found its way back to
threatened to depose them. Theodora re- the west, where it had considerable influ-
fused to leave the city, declaring that she ence on western legal thinking. It also
would rather die wearing the imperial purple played a large role in the establishment of
(a color reserved for the clothing of the universities and legal practices. Much of
emperor and his family) than live in exile. modern commercial law and legal thought
Theodora and Justinian were able to quell about the relationship of rulers to the
the riots, and continued to rule. ruled originated in the Roman law pre-
34 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
served in the Codex. It suggested that
emperors were subject to the law just as
the people were and that the power of
emperors derived from the people. These
ideas reflected the older Roman tradition,
but Justinian himself was more of an eastern
despot, inclined to take law and governance
into his own hands.
The reign of Justinian marked a transi-
tion for the Roman Empire. His
government was oriental in style, that is,
power was concentrated in the office of the
emperor and his subjects had little access to
him. Those Justinian did see had to pros-
trate before him while he sat wearing a
multilayered diadem instead of the tradi-
tional crown of laurel leaves. But Justinian
was also the last of the Latin-speaking
emperors. Greek language and culture had
become so predominant that even though
the people continued to refer to them-
selves as Romans, to westerners they were
"the Greeks."
Justinian and Theodora envisioned the
reconquest of the west, but their wars proved
more devastating than successful. The ex-
pense of these campaigns, along with the
couple's elaborate building projects, drained
the treasury. Further religious conflicts over
whether Christ was divine or human also
left many people disaffected. Some argued
that Christ was entirely divine (these adher- The Persians had managed to capture a The interior of Hagia Sophia, commis-
Byzantine emperor, forcing him to serve sioned by Justinian and Theodora, was
ents were called monophy-sites, meaning
originally covered with mosaics that
one purely spiritual body), while others held the Persian emperor on bended knee. When shimmered with gold in the sunlight.
that he was entirely human. The compro- he died in this humiliating service, he was The massive windowed dome seemed
mise position maintained that he was both stuffed and hung from the roof of the float in golden light. When the
palace. After defeating the Persians in 641, Turks conquered Constantinople, they
perfectly divine and perfectly human.
painted over the Christian mosaics in
Because of threats from the east, the the Byzantines finally were able to give the
accordance with Islamic beliefs.
reconquest of the west proved impossible. unfortunate emperor a Christian burial.
36 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D HISTORY
Islamic artists perfected elaborate geo-
metric designs for daily objects such as
this bowl, the walls of mosques, rugs,
and clothing. The Koran forbade rep-
resentations of God's creation,
including humans and animals.
the phases of the moon, and eclipses. They from the names of the Germanic gods Tiu,
also found the writings of the Greek philoso- Woden, and Thor. Sacred groves that hon-
phers and medical experts. These manuscripts ored these gods were referred to by
had come to Persia by a curious path. When Christianized names such as "Holy Wood"
Christianity became the dominant religion or "Hollywood."
in the Roman Empire, the intellectuals who Although its land mass was much re-
remained true to the pantheon of the gods in duced, the Byzantine Empire remained
Athens and elsewhere left the Christian area powerful in the eastern Mediterranean.
with their books and settled in Persia. There Constantinople was a huge city with a
their works were translated into Persian. population of a million people. Other large
Arab scholars then translated them into Ara- cities in the empire produced rich silks,
bic and added their own commentaries. glass objects, tapestries, carved ivories, and
These texts made their way through Spain fine jewelry that were much in demand in
to western Europe centuries later. the west. The Roman traditions were lost,
The Arabs also drew on the decorative and the emperors became more like east-
traditions of other peoples to create their ern autocrats, with the ceremonies
remarkable and beautiful mosques (Islamic surrounding their persons becoming in-
houses of worship). Islam prohibited repre- creasingly elaborate. Although they now
sentations of God or his creation, humans, ruled much of the former territory of
so Muslim artisans developed their own Byzantium, the Arabs were unable to bring
intricate geometrical designs for pottery, such a large territory under one ruler.
The Koran is the religious book of Islam.
mosaics, and fabrics. Instead, parts were overseen by powerful "Koran" comes from the Arabic word
Although Muhammad created his new leaders called "caliphs," who acted as both for "recitation." Muhammad recited his
religion for Arabs, Islam and its culture the supreme religious and political leaders revelations with his followers every day
first in Mecca and later in Medina. In
proved very attractive to their subject popu- of their lands.
Medina, he assembled a group of scribes
lations. Large numbers of Christians, Jews, By the beginning of the eighth century, to take down his words. After
and Persians converted, and mosques re- the period of expansion of different Muhammad's death, several different
placed some Christian churches. peoples—from the Anglo-Saxons in north- collections of his revelations circulated
By 700 the Mediterranean and northern among his followers. Under the third ca-
western Europe to the Arabs in western
liph, Uthman, an official version of the
Europe were very much changed. Rather Asia—was coming to an end, leaving popu- Koran was assembled. It is written in a
than consisting of provinces in one large lations coping with new cultural learned Arabic, which remains the stan-
empire, northern Europe was splintered experiences and new neighbors. This chap- dard for all scholarly Arabic writing.
into a number of smaller, semi-tribal units ter has told the story of how the wealthy
ruled by kings. Although nominally Chris- and powerful experienced these vast
tian, the people who made up these units changes. The next will examine their in-
retained many pagan practices. For in- fluence on the population as a whole, both
stance, the names used for the days Tuesday, members of the invading tribes and those
Wednesday, and Thursday were derived they conquered.
Three Empires:
Carolingian, Byzantine, and Arab
I
n 510, on the night that Clovis, king of and eventually conquered and ruled much
the Franks, converted to Christianity, of the Frankish territory in the east. Their
legend says that his wife Clotilda dreamed early leaders held the position of mayor of
first of a lion, then a wolf, and finally a the palace under the Merovingians, the
jackal. When she awoke, she told Clovis equivalent of a prime minister. However,
about her dream and prophesied that his they never forgot their religious origins and
royal line would follow the same sequence. were great supporters of monasteries and
The first rulers, including Clovis, would be missionaries.
lions among kings, but after a few genera- The era of colorful medieval nicknames
tions they would become wolves, and in began with the Carolingians. Charles Martel
time his line would turn into jackals, or mere (meaning Charles the Hammer, born 688)
dogs. The prophesy was probably made embarked on a policy of fighting those who
much later and with hindsight, because the would not recognize Merovingian rule. By
Merovingian dynasty Clovis established did the beginning of the eighth century, he had
follow that pattern. The last of the brought most of the territory that Clovis had
Merovingians were so inactive that their ruled into the Frankish kingdom. But Charles
subjects saw them only when they appeared, Martel was still not king, only mayor of the
riding in ox carts, on their estates. palace.
As the Merovingians increasingly became While Charles was unifying the Frankish
figureheads, the real power passed to another territory, a new threat crossed the Pyrenees
Charles the Bald receives his crown
family, who became known as Carolingians in the south—the Arabs. The Arabs swept
from the hand of God, which reaches
down from the heavens. He is flanked after their famous leader, Charlemagne (742— into southwestern France just as they had
by, but superior to, the two bishops 814), also known as Charles the Great or earlier entered the Byzantine Empire, North
standing on either side of him. To in- Carolus Magnus. The Carolingians de- Africa, and Spain. Charles marched to the
dicate that their power came from God scended from a line of bishops from the region between Poitiers and Tours with an
and that they were heirs to the Ro-
northeastern frontier of the Frankish king- army partly composed of a heavily armed
man emperors, the Carolingians took
care to represent themselves below dom. They rose to prominence through cavalry—the forerunner of the medieval
God and in Roman dress. their military and administrative abilities knights—and defeated the Arabs in 732. He
40 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
This silver reliquary holds the bones of
Charlemagne, who was regarded as the
ideal Christian emperor. The crown
and the scepter in his hand indicate his
role as ruler, the small replica of a
church in the other hand represents his
role as protector of the Church, and the
halo behind his head shows him to be
a religious figure.
and nobles. He sometimes invited a troop scholars studied astronomy, grammar, and
of his bodyguards to swim with him as well. rhetoric. Perhaps their most lasting contri-
According to Einhard, Charlemagne bution was the development of Carolingian
drank and ate moderately, preferring roast minuscule, a form of handwriting with
meats to the boiled ones that his physicians capitals and small letters that influenced
recommended when his health was failing modern writing and typography.
in old age. In dress, he favored Frankish It is remarkable that Charlemagne ever
clothing over Roman garb. (Only on two had time to sit and listen to books being read
visits to Rome did he dress like a Roman.) or to pause for a swim. He spent most of his
Next to his skin he wore a "linen shirt and reign in military campaigns or supervising
linen breeches, and above these a tunic his vast kingdom. He pushed the bound-
fringed with oriental silk, while hose fas- aries of the Frankish lands north into the
tened by bands covered his lower limbs, modern Netherlands, east of the Rhine into
and shoes his feet." He always carried a Saxony, and into other areas that even the
sword with a gold or silver hilt. Over Romans had not conquered. Using monks Charlemagne's exploits as a warrior
everything he wore a blue cloak. as missionaries, Charlemagne encouraged are commemorated on a panel of the
Both Christianity and learning were dear the peoples of these newly conquered terri- reliquary above. The emperor sits in
to Charlemagne. While he ate, he liked to tories to convert to Christianity. The monks his tent dressing for battle. His fully
armed knights, clad in chain mail, are
have Augustine of Hippo's books read to used extreme measures, such as cutting either sleeping or already on horse-
him, particularly The City of God. But he down the oak trees that the local people back. Charlemagne spent almost
also enjoyed recitations of the old Frankish worshipped and using the timber to build every year of his life in warfare.
stories similar to Beowulf. He could, Einhard
tells us, speak Latin as well as Frankish, but
he could not write: "He used to keep tablets
and blanks in bed under his pillow, that at
leisure hours he might accustom his hand to
form the letters; however, as he did not
begin his efforts in due season, but late in
life, they met with ill success."
Charlemagne saw that both his sons and
daughters were educated. He also encour-
aged the education of the clergy by starting
schools in the cathedrals. To keep himself
informed of intellectual matters, he sur-
rounded himself with scholars from the
monasteries of northern England and other
parts of Europe. Notable among them was
Alcuin, a scholar from England who brought
to the continent the learning preserved by
English and Irish monks. He and other
T he Romans used a
script composed of
all capital letters
(majuscule). In formal
documents these capitals
In some parts of Europe,
notably Ireland and
Northumbria, a combi-
nation of the majuscule
and the cursive were
liturgical documents,
Bibles, and government
records resembled these
scripts.
Capital letters were
looked much like our used. The beginnings of clearly distinguished from
capital alphabet. The Ro- sentences were in capi- small letters. Space was
mans also developed a tals, but the rest was in a left between words, and
churches where the oaks had stood. When
cursive (informal) script cursive. Because many of the letters themselves
that was written so Charlemagne's scholars were well rounded and peaceful conversion did not work,
quickly that the words ran (including Alcuin) came distinct. Carolingian mi- Charlemagne backed up such efforts with
together, making reading from northern En- nuscule outlasted the threats. He told the Saxons that if they did
very difficult. gland, the writing that Carolingian kings and in-
not convert, he would put them all to
Merovingian scribes Charlemagne mandated fluences our printing
were even more careless. for preserving laws, today. death. They converted.
The most famous of Charlemagne's
battles was recorded in a distorted form in
The Song of Roland, a poem that was written
down several centuries after the event.
Charlemagne thought that he could take
advantage of internal dissension among the
Arab rulers to take over Spain. He was
unsuccessful, and on his return from Spain
in 778, his troops were attacked by Chris-
tian Basques at a pass in the Pyrenees
Mountains called Roncevaux. In the epic
poem, Count Roland, the leader of the
rearguard, is attacked by Arabs (rather than
Basques) at the pass because of the treachery
of Ganelon, another of Charlemagne's
nobles, who was jealous of Roland. The
poem first appeared in written form in the
12th century as the story of a warrior's
loyalties to his fellow warriors and of a man
to his lord.
Charlemagne's relations with the pope
in Rome were as intense as those of his
father. He finished the task of subduing the
Lombards and took their territory in north-
ern Italy. But squabbles in Rome brought
him back there as a peacemaker during the
Christmas season of 800. The pope, Leo III,
had been deposed, and his enemies had cut
out his tongue. When he appealed, in
writing, for help, Charlemagne came to
Italy with an army. He reinstated Leo as
A page from the book of Exodus from a Bible written in Tours about 834—43 shows pope on December 23, and on December
the capital letter and the small letter combination typical of Carolingian minuscule. 25 Leo crowned him emperor.
Einhard claims that Charlemagne did
42 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
In a 14th-century manuscript illus-
tration of The Song of Roland,
the aged emperor Charlemagne bids
his nephew Roland goodbye as
Roland stays behind to protect
Charles's army.
44 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Electeus and Abrahil were slaves, but their ing. Abrahil, Ceslinus, and another lidus,
wives were colona, or free peasants. Berthildis, Godalbertus, held a farm together. During
Ceslinus, and Leutberga were described as the month of May, they had to cart goods
Mi, or half-free peasants, because they owed to local city markets for their lord. They also
labor on the estate. They may have been had to transport two loads of wood to the
Germanic settlers. Those with free status estate in the winter, mend the fences to
were free only in terms of their bodies, keep the lord's cattle from wandering off,
labor, marriages, and families. They were and harvest his crops. They, too, plowed for
not free to leave the land or estate on which winter and spring planting and hauled ma-
they lived. nure. In addition, they paid four pennies a
The invasions of the fifth century de- head as a tax.
stroyed much of the long-distance trade in The records from Carolingian estates are
Europe and around the Mediterranean. complete enough to allow us to imagine a
Although luxury items were still traded and day in the life of Abrahil and his family. It
an active trade continued in local markets, is early spring, the day that the lord's plow-
most of the population of Europe lived by ing must be done. Berthildis has risen early
farming the land, and most of the land was to start a fire in an open hearth in the center
organized into large estates. In Roman of the family's hut. The smoke rises through
times these estates were called latifundia, and a hole in the roof. She heats water for the
they provided people such as Sidonius, the family to use for washing. The morning
Peasant women provided services for
bishop and Roman patrician, and his friends meal—a gruel of cooked grain—needs only
both their family and the owner of
with a comfortable, pastoral life. The estates to be heated. Abrahil sends his son, Abram, the manor. Transporting water and
changed hands in the Middle Ages. The to the shed that serves as a barn to fetch the milk and caring for livestock were
large estates then became known as manors, ox and make sure that it has water and some daily activities.
and were owned by abbots, bishops, popes,
counts, dukes, marquises, kings, and em-
perors. Part of the land, the best part, was
put aside for the exclusive use of the owner.
The rest was divided among the agricultural
laborers or peasants, who produced crops
and raised animals to feed themselves and
their children. They paid their lord for the
use of this land by performing services on
his portion of the property, by giving him
goods such as cheeses, or by paying rent in
money. Electeus, for instance, held half a
farm that included both arable land and
meadow. In return for the use of the land,
he carted manure and plowed a portion of
the lord's fields for winter and spring plant-
46 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Omens of Charlemagne's Death
A s Latin ceased to be
the language of every-
day speech, vernacu-
lar languages took its
place. French is a Ro-
loyalty to one another.
English translation:
"For the love of God and
the common salvation of
the Christian people and
et in adiudha, et in
cadhuna cosa si cum om
per dreit son fradra salvar
dist, in o quid il mi altresi
fazet; et ab Ludher nul
mance language, meaning ourselves, from this day plaid numquam prindrai,
that it derives from the forth, as far as God gives qui meon vol cist meon
Roman language of Latin. me wisdom and power, I fradre Karlo in damno sit."
German belongs to the will treat this my brother German: "In Goddes
Germanic language as one should rightfully minna ind in thes
group, which also in- treat a brother, on condi- Christianes folches ind
cludes the Scandinavian tion that he does the same unser bedhero gealtnissi,
languages. English is a by me. And with Lothair fon thesemo dage
combination of French I will not willingly enter frammordes, so fram so
and German elements. All into any agreement which mir Got gewizci indi
these languages belong to might injure this, my madh furgibit, so haldih
a greater, Indo-European brother." thesan minan bruodher,
language group. French: "Pro Deo soso man mit rehtu sinan
The earliest texts writ- amur et pro Christian bruodher shal, in thiu,
ten in French and poblo et nostro commun thaz er mig sosama duo;
German are the Strasbourg salvament, dist di in indi mit Ludheren in
Oaths. By reciting these avant, in quant Deus savir noheinin thing ne
oaths, Charles the Bald et podir me dunat, si geganga, the minan Charles the Bald, shown here in an illustration
and Louis the German salvarai eo cist meon willon eino ce scadhen from his own Bible, became the king of the original
publicly pledged their fradre Karlo et in adiudha werben." Frankish part of the empire.
energetic father. He was well educated and eldest, had been made emperor of the
very devout—deserving of his nickname whole territory, with his power base ofland
"the Pious"—but he was neither a good in Italy. Charles the Bald was made king of
statesman nor a skilled military leader. Rev- the west Franks (in the original part of the
erencing the language of the Old Testament empire), and Louis the German was made
and of Jesus, he learned Hebrew, and en- king of the east Franks (in the newly con-
couraged Jews from the Mediterranean to quered territories east of the Rhine in
settle in the empire, particularly in the newly modern-day Germany).
conquered German areas. Perhaps the Charles and Louis quickly made an alli-
Carolingian Empire was too large and made ance against Lothair to curtail his power. To
up of too many different groups for one cement this alliance, they swore the
person to govern. Louis soon divided his Strasbourg Oaths. Louis swore loyalty to
land among his sons, giving them some of the Charles in French and Charles made the
responsibility for ruling, but this move sim- same oath to Louis in German. They used
ply created further divisions. His sons had no these vernacular languages so that the re-
sooner claimed their titles and property than tainers and troops of each would understand
they began to fight among themselves. what their king had said. The oaths are of
When Louis the Pious died in 840, civil great interest today because they are the first
war broke out among his sons. Lothair, the written examples of French and German
48 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
and indicate that Latin was no longer un- chariot-racing and raised to power his
derstood by ordinary people. favorite horse trainer, a Macedonian named
Charles and Louis defeated Lothair and Basil. Basil repaid the favor by having
imposed on him the Treaty of Verdun in Michael murdered and taking the crown
843. The treaty confined Lothair's power for himself.
to a central section of land running north One way the Byzantines tried to dis-
from Italy into the Netherlands. This suade the tribes on the northern border of
"middle kingdom" included no natural or the empire from attacking was to convert
linguistic boundaries. On the west side of them to Christianity. Michael III sent two
Lothair's kingdom was that of Charles the brothers, Cyril and Methodius, as mission-
Bald, which included much of modern aries to the Slavs. Before they left, the
France. On the east side was the kingdom brothers devised a Slavonic alphabet based
of Louis the German, which included the on Greek letters and translated the Gospels
German provinces of Saxony, Franconia, into Slavic. Their missionary efforts and
Swabia, and Bavaria. Some historians have those of their disciples were successful. By
suggested that the rationale behind the 867 they had also devised a liturgy (mass) in
territorial divisions was to distribute the Slavonic, which is still used. (The early
estates that still belonged to the monarchy version of the Slavic language is called Old
among the three brothers. Whatever the Church Slavonic.)
reason, the middle kingdom continued to Meanwhile the Bulgars, a tribal group
present a problem into the 20th century, from central Asia, had moved into an area
because both France and Germany would south of the Danube River in modern Bul-
claim parts of it as their own. Some histo- garia and mingled with the local Slavic
rians even claim that World War I and population there. They too agreed to accept
World War II were the direct result of the Christianity. But by now the pope and the
Treaty of Verdun. patriarch of Constantinople, the head of the
While Charlemagne was expanding his Greek-speaking Byzantine church, were en-
empire and his grandsons were fighting gaged in both political and theological struggles.
over its division, the Byzantine emperor Among the issues was whether the clergy and
was trying to preserve as much of his the population of the Balkan peninsula would
empire as possible. Political intrigues in accept the pope's or the patriarch's version of
Byzantium initially hindered an effective Christianity. In the end, Croatia accepted
fight against northern encroachers, includ- Rome, while Serbia and Bulgaria adhered to
ing Slavs, Bulgarians, and Russians. Irene Constantinople. These two types of Chris-
(reigned 797—802), the empress whom tianity are now called Roman Catholicism
Charlemagne proposed to marry, had risen and Greek Orthodox.
to the throne by having her own son The final triumph of Byzantine mission-
blinded and deposed. Further intrigue ary work was the conversion of Russia a
brought the Macedonian dynasty to power. century after the conversion of the Slavs
Michael III (reigned 842-67)—"the and Bulgars. The Rus were Swedish Vi-
Drunkard"—was a great devotee of kings who had come from the area around
50 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Persian so that part of the split was along
national lines. But deeper religious divi- Mosques
T
sions created more serious differences. The
he Arabs did not have mosques, the Dome of the was surrounded by mina-
followers of AH, or the Shiites, rejected
a building tradition Rock, was built in Jerusa- rets, slender towers from
many of the oral traditions of Muhammad before they had con- lem in the seventh which a muezzin (cryer)
in which the majority group, the Sunni, quered the Byzantine and century. The dome was called the faithful to wor-
believed. The split among Muslims contin- Persian empires. Initially, set on an octagon of ma- ship. Mosaics were also
they used the structures sonry, and the entire used to decorate the Dam-
ues to this day.
they found in their new building was decorated in ascus mosque. In addition,
The Abbasids, who replaced the original territories as mosques. But fine mosaic. The mosque mosque architecture in-
Arab caliphs, were far more worldly. They in rime the caliphs wanted in Damascus, built in the corporated several types
resembled the former Persian emperors more to construct their own re- eighth century, was the of arches, which showed
than the original followers of Muhammad. ligious buildings to rival first to serve as a place of more variation in design
the Christian churches. worship, political center, than those found in
The Abbasids established their capital in and school. The building western cathedrals.
The first of the grand new
Baghdad and built fine palaces there. The
grandson of the dynasty's founder, Harun
al-Rashid (reigned 786-809), became a great
patron of writers and scientists. He knew of
Charlemagne and sent him an elephant
along with other gifts. Charlemagne used to
take the elephant with him as he traveled
throughout his realm.
In spite of the religious and political
splits, Arab culture remained unified by the
Arabic language and a common acceptance
of Islam and the Koran. All scholarship was
in the language of the Koran, even though
the population was now a mix of Greeks,
Jews, Egyptians, and Persians, among oth-
ers. With Arabic as the common language,
the Abbasid dynasty became a time of
remarkable learning. It was at the court of
Harun al-Rashid that the Thousand and One
Nights, or Arabian Nights, was composed.
Thousand and One Nights is a series of anony- The Dome of the Rock mosque is built over the stone on which, according to the
mous oriental stories, including those of Ali Bible, Abraham was going to sacrifice Isaac. Islamic tradition calls it Ascension Rock,
Baba, Sinbad the Sailor, and Aladdin. The from which Muhammad was taken to heaven.
52 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
(980-1037) wrote medical books that ex- could not hold on to this advantage. Weak-
pounded on those of Galen (200—130 B.C.), ened internally, the empires fell prey to
the Greek physician. Arabic thinkers also outside attack. The west was attacked by
studied Greek, Persian, and Hindu as- Muslim pirates to the south, Magyars or
tronomy and improved on the astrolabe, a Hungarians in central Europe, and Vikings
Greek invention. The astrolabe helped to from the north and west. The Byzantine
determine the position of a heavenly body and Arab empires were threatened by the
so that mariners could establish the latitude Turks. In a sense, Clotilda's prophecy held
of their boats. The first known division of true for all these empires: they started with
musical melodies into equal intervals of lions and ended with jackals.
time, or measures, was also the work of an
Arab mathematician.
Of the three empires that grew out of the Astrolabe
old Roman Empire, the Muslim one had
The astrolabe was the had to withstand the ing on them. Texts on
perhaps the greatest influence on learning.
most widely used astro- winds on the oceans. how to use the instru-
While the Carolingians studied fragments nomical instrument of the Treatises on the construc- ment were widely
of Greek scholarship preserved by the Irish Middle Ages. It could de- tion of astrolabes survive available. Even Geoffrey
monks and Boethius, the Muslims had termine the elevation of from as early as the sixth Chaucer, the great En-
the sun or another star century B.C. Most surviv- glish writer of the late
access to the full body of work by both
above the horizon. In ad- ing astrolabes have Arabic, 14th century, wrote a
Greek and Hindu philosophers and scien- treatise on the astrolabe.
dition, the charts incised Latin, and Hebrew writ-
tists. The learning of Baghdad spread west on its moveable plates
into Spain, Sicily, and southern Italy. From helped solve the complex
these centers, Latin scholars of the west geometrical problems that
arose in astronomy and
eventually came to learn more about their
navigation. The instru-
own Greek tradition and the Arabic addi- ment had a round brass
tions to it. In contrast, the Byzantine Empire plate with a sighting bar
did not add significantly to the learning that attached at the center.
the Greeks originated. The outermost plate was
a star chart—the apparent
All three empires, however, experienced movement of the con-
problems intrinsic to large political units stellations around the
put together by conquest and governed earth could be simulated
largely by single individuals and their advis- by rotating this plate. A
horizon plate helped lo-
ers. Even the empire of Charlemagne had
cate the angle of a star
been shattered by fighting among his grand- overhead. Different hori-
sons. The Arab Empire splintered into zontal plates had to be
various smaller caliphates and other politi- used in different latitudes.
Sailors' astrolabes were Astrolabes were usually made of brass so that the plates
cal units. The Byzantines managed to
simpler than those of as- could move smoothly and they could stand up to frequent
recapture some of their territory in the tronomers because they use eitherfor astronomy orfor navigation.
north through war and the spread of Chris-
tianity, but a succession of weak rulers
N
ew invaders swept into Europe in German parts of the empire. Who then
the late ninth century. Most dev- could withstand the determined groups of
astating were the Vikings, the men raiders and pirates who came from
from the fjords of Scandinavia. Scandinavia?
The anguish of the local population was Scandinavia had little agricultural land—
well expressed in a contemporary Irish ac- mostly concentrated in southern Sweden
count: "In a word, although there were a and Denmark—but a growing population
hundred hard steeled iron heads on one in the ninth and 10th centuries. As in the
neck, and a hundred sharp, ready, cool, fourth century, when the Goths left
never-rusting, brazen tongues in each head, Scandinavia, the population outstripped the
and a hundred garrulous, loud, unceasing ability of the land to support it. Fishing,
voices from each tongue, they could not trading, and plunder supplemented the
recount, or narrate, or enumerate, or tell, people's farming, but were still not enough
what all the Gaedhil [Irish] suffered in com- to sustain their growing numbers.
mon, both men and women, laity and To facilitate their trade and plunder, the
clergy, old and young, noble and ignoble, of Swedes had developed remarkable boats
hardship, of injury, and of oppression, in that could navigate both the rough seas of
every house, from these valiant, wrathful, the Atlantic and the shallow rivers of Eu-
foreign, purely-pagan people." rope. The boats used oars and sails and
The weak governments of ninth-century varied in size, from those built for crews of
Europe were no match for the vigorous 40 to those capable of carrying 100 warriors.
new invaders. England was split into small They traveled at speeds of up to 10 knots.
The Vikings buried their dead with kingdoms. Ireland had never had a strong The boats permitted the Swedes to travel
goods that they thought would be use- government. The Carolingian Empire had throughout the Baltic Sea and down the
ful to them in the afterlife. These first divided into three parts, and then, as rivers to Constantinople. They established
included boats, carts, sleds, and
wars continued over the Middle King- the cities of Novgorod and Kiev, where
horses. Decorations on these objects,
such as this wagon stave, were often dom, the provinces became more and they were known as the Rus and gave their
fierce dragons or warriors. more independent in both the French and name to Russia.
56 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Ships were so important to the Vi-
kings that they appeared on their
coins. One side shows the high-
bowed ship with its sail up. The
other side shows the boat loaded
with shields of the fighters.
In the eastern Frankish kingdom, the following on a horse, hit his head on the
Carolingian monarch, Arnulf, defeated the beam on top of the gate and broke his neck.
Danes in battle and thus spared Germany After his death, the Carolingians offered
from further Viking attacks. In fact Arnulf's their subjects little leadership or protection.
victory was doubly fortunate for the Ger- King Alfred of England (849-899) was
mans, because they were also facing an renowned in his own time and after. Like
attack from the east by the Hungarians, or Charlemagne, he had a biographer, Asser,
Magyars. Traveling on horseback, the Hun- who modeled his life of Alfred on Einhard's
garian raiders took plunder and murdered life of Charlemagne. Asser describes the
the population. They eventually settled in idyllic life of the young Alfred. He was loved
what is today called Hungary. by his parents, brought up in the royal court,
The western Carolingians were less ef- and learned to write and hunt. He had a
fective. The Vikings wanted to plunder wonderful memory, and Asser wrote that
eastern France by taking their boats up the "his mother one day was showing him and
Seine. The bridges of Paris, however, were his brothers a certain book of Saxon poetry
not as easily destroyed as the one in Lon- which she held in her hand." She promised
don. Furthermore, the count of Paris had the book to the first boy who learned it by
strung a chain across the Seine. The Vikings heart. Alfred was attracted by the beauty of
offered to spare Paris if the Parisians would the illuminated initials in the book and took
let them pass the city. The Parisians refused, it off to ask his tutor to read to him. He then
and the city withstood two years of siege. In returned to his mother and repeated it word
the end, however, their heroic stance was a for word, thereby winning the book.
wasted effort. Emperor Charles the Fat Alfred's interest in learning and books
eventually allowed the Vikings to go be- was evident throughout his reign and was
yond Paris to plunder the interior of France. shared by other Anglo-Saxons. He encour-
As the Vikings became Christianized aged the translation of Boethius and other
and settled down, their threat to Europe authors from Latin to Anglo-Saxon and
diminished. Still, this process took one and contributed to the translations himself. In a
a half centuries. In the meantime, the popu- preface to Gregory the Great's Pastoral Care,
lation sought protection against the invaders. he noted that it was written "before every-
With the exception of Alfred in England thing was ravaged and burned, when
and Arnulf in Germany, the kings had England's churches overflowed with trea-
The Vikings used long, double-
proven useless in defending their subjects sures and books." But more significant for
edged swords that took two hands to
against outside attack. The Carolingians our appreciation of the rich culture that swing. The cross bar was designed to
had agreed to give away a whole province, flourished under Alfred's encouragement keep the hands from sliding down
now called Normandy after the Norse who was the recording of Anglo-Saxon hymns the blade. The pommel (handle)
settled it. The most able of the Carolingians, and poems, including a written version of was of wood, bound with leather to
soften the effects of blows to the
Charles the Simple, had died chasing a Beowulf. user's hands. Since this sword comes
peasant girl. She ran into the enclosed Under Alfred's successors, the kingdom from a tomb, the pommel has long
courtyard of her father's house, and Charles, of Wessex gradually spread even farther. In since rotted away.
THE T U R N I N G P O I N T • 57
time the whole of England as far as the gift of land and membership in the upper
Welsh and Scottish borders was united class. All men in the nobility trained to
under one king. The Danes, however, did become knights—that is, they were in-
not give up their ambitions to conquer structed in the use of arms in preparation
England, and, with new invasions in 1016, for becoming professional warriors. Some
King Canute managed to take Norway and of them were warriors all their lives. Others
England and incorporate them into his were given land by the lords and became
kingdom of Denmark. He died in 1035, vassals, men who swore to defend and
and his successors were unable to hold on to serve their lord in return for the land. In
England, which reverted to a pious descen- the hierarchy of the nobles, kings had the
dent of Alfred's Wessex dynasty, Edward highest title, followed by dukes, counts,
the Confessor. marquises, and barons. What set these nobles
In France and elsewhere royal authority apart from knights was their possession of
had failed to provide the protection that land and enough wealth to secure other
Alfred had given his people, and the popu- lords or at least knights as their clients.
lation sought help from local strongmen. In Boys began the training in arms for
Paris, the local count, Hugh Capet, proved knighthood when they were seven or eight.
capable of defending his city, so the inhabit- Often they were taken into another noble's
ants were more loyal to him than to the household where they would be trained
Alfred (right) successfully defended his Carolingians who had sold them out to the with other boys of their age. They learned
kingdom from Viking invasion. In Vikings. In 987 Hugh Capet took the title of to ride horses, wear helmets and chain-link
making the peace with one of their king and thus founded the Capetian dynasty mail (armor), use swords and spears, and
leaders, Guthrum (left), he was able
that ruled France until the early 14th cen- carry a shield.
to settle them in a region of northeast-
ern England called the Danelaw. But tury. Initially, however, Hugh controlled Warfare had changed under the
the victory was hardly complete, and only the area around Paris. Other counts and Carolingians. Romans had used legions of
the Anglo-Saxons had to pay tribute, dukes assumed control over their own terri- foot soldiers, while the Germanic tribes had
or Danegeld, to the Vikings to keep tories and fought off the Viking raiders in a light and highly mobile cavalry. Battles
them from invading again.
these areas. Sometimes a local strongman or were often fought on foot. But the
a bishop had the greatest success in defending Carolingians had acquired, perhaps from
the people against raids. Whether or not the the Byzantines, a larger type of horse that
strongmen had a title, they were generally could support a rider wearing a shirt of mail,
referred to as "nobles." leggings, and helmet and carrying a shield,
The nobles maintained households of lance, and sword. Romans stayed on their
armed retainers to help them defend their horses by clasping their knees around them.
territory. In many ways, the idea of a war The Carolingian mounted warriors, how-
chief surrounding himself with a band of ever, had stirrups that permitted them to
fighting men resembled that of the Ger- remain in their saddles on the large horses
manic commitatus (literally, a group of fighters even when they were hit by a lance held by
gathered together). But this system was another warrior riding toward them at full
more formal: the nobles were assured of a speed. The stirrups may have first been used
58 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
by the nomadic tribes that invaded Europe.
Not only was the training exacting for
knights, the horse and equipment were
very expensive. A war horse was equivalent
in price to four oxen. Adding the armor and
weapons, the cost of equipping a knight was
22 oxen. The biggest plow teams used by
the peasants had only eight oxen, therefore
becoming a knight was far beyond the
means of any of them.
Another military development during
the period of invasions was the castle. Be-
cause the Vikings did not want to waste
time on protracted sieges, they tended to
leave fortresses and protected cities alone
and raid the surrounding countryside in-
stead. The castles at this time—called
motte-and-bailey castles—did not resemble
the elaborate stone structures of the later
Middle Ages. The motte was a natural hill
or one that had been built up from nearby
stone and earth. It was topped with a fort or
stockade made from tree trunks sunk into
the ground and sharpened at the top. The
bailey had a larger, lower palisade con- castle's defenders, who shot arrows and Anglo-Saxon society valued literacy.
structed in the same way that enclosed a threw stones at the besiegers. As castles In addition to histories, poetry, in-
structional literature, and religious
larger space and was attached to or sur- became more permanent, the wooden walls
texts, they preserved their legal docu-
rounded the motte. The bailey was large were replaced with stone ones, which had ments in written form in Old English
enough to hold and protect animals and the added advantage of resisting fire. or Latin. This charter, by which King
other valuables of the lord and his peasants. Castles represented an investment of Canute granted land to a monk,
Aefic, is written on parchment in
If the raiders took the bailey, the people labor and money. Those who had them
Latin in the careful lettering typical of
could retreat into the motte fort and, they built became the protectors of their neigh- the Anglo-Saxons. The land is de-
hoped, at least save their lives. bors, who in turn became the castle owners' scribed above and the names of the
Building up the motte often left a circu- clients, beholden to them for protection. A witnesses are written below.
lar trench around the mound that was called whole system of personal ties and mutual
the moat. Filled with water, it was so obligations, which modern historians have
muddy that attackers sank in it. The mounds termed feudalism, characterized the social
themselves were quickly covered with grass and governmental arrangements of France
that was slippery to climb. At the top was at the time. Powerful lords, such as the
the stockade of tree trunks that shielded the counts and dukes, needed a group of fighters
THE T U R N I N G P O I N T • 59
Chain Mail and Knight's Weapons
60 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
A noble father presents his reluc-
tant young son to the care of
monks. Since the first-born son
was the only one who could in-
herit property, fathers often
dedicated younger sons to monas-
teries, whether or not they wanted
to become monks. Since fathers
had to make marriage alliances for
daughters, they often found it
convenient to put extra daughters
in nunneries. If the noble family
had endowed the monastery, the
The vassal was to serve his lord in war at his son or daughter might rise to be
own expense. He was required to provide the abbot or abbess.
THE T U R N I N G P O I N T • 61
Other younger sons became knights in bowels had fallen out of his body, and his military aid. Thus, the Duke of Aquitaine's
the service of various lords, and still others brains are oozing out of his forehead." only heir, a young daughter, Eleanor of
tried to conquer land for themselves. Fight- Count Roland lay down to die under a pine Aquitaine, was married to Loius VII, king
ing was so disruptive that influential abbots tree and called to mind "all the lands he had of France. Through this union, Eleanor's
and bishops in France acted as peacekeep- won by his valor, and sweet France, and the entire estate, which included a large portion
ers. They persuaded the local lords to agree men of his lineage, and Charles, his liege of southwestern France, came under the
to the Truce of God, which protected the lord, who had brought him up in his control of Louis VII. The couple was so
vineyards and the peasants' animals and household." He then wept and died. mismatched, however, that the marriage
limited fighting to about four days a week, Absent from The Song of Roland and was eventually annulled.
excluding holy days. They also established other such poems of valor and warfare from When the nobility were not at war they
a treasure chest that could be drawn upon this period is a strong role for women. spent their time in and around the castle.
by local lords to ensure the Peace of God by Roland has a fiancee in France, but as he Hunting was very popular, and even women
supporting armed intervention in local fights. dies he thinks of his liege lord, not of the girl took part. Banquets and feasting, accompa-
The social values that feudalism pro- he would have married. Noble women in nied by recitations of chansons de geste
duced are best expressed in the poem The this period of constant warfare had to be (literally, "songs of great deeds"), were also
Song of Roland, which was first written resourceful and capable of taking control of favorite pastimes. Off the battlefield, men
down in the early 12th century. A nephew a castle. They did not learn to fight, as their wore a loose-fitting tunic that was belted at
and vassal of Charlemagne, Roland was a brothers did, but they did learn to admin- the waist and dropped to the knees or
member of the rear guard for Charlemagne's ister estates, run a household full of rough slightly above. The legs were covered with
troops. The army managed to fight off the warriors, and defend a castle if it was be- a sort of tights. A mantle, fastened at the
Arabs, but in the end was reduced to himself, sieged. If they were heiresses to a fief, they throat or the right shoulder with a brooch,
his friend and fellow nobleman Oliver, and took the vows of homage and fealty to their completed the costume. They wore their
Archbishop Turpin, who was armed with a lord but had to supply a knight to fight in hair short and are frequently represented as
mace as befitted his clerical status. their place. Likewise, many abbots and clean-shaven.
A somewhat foolhardy young man, even bishops held their lands from the king Women wore long tunics that covered
Roland could have summoned help long or another lord and had to swear homage them from the chin to the feet. They too
before this desperate situation occurred and fealty for their fiefs. wore belts and mantles attached by brooches.
because he had a famous horn, Oliphant (a As membership in the nobility and the When they were young, their hair hung
horn made from an elephant tusk). When, transfer of fiefs became increasingly heredi- free, but later it was bound up with ties.
at last, he decided to blow it, Oliver chas- tary, women became more and more Older women and married women wore
tised him by saying, "Wise courage is not important as pawns in marriage alliances. A headdresses or veils over their hair. Hoods
madness, and measure is better than rash- woman who had no brothers was a valuable provided both sexes with protection from
ness. Through thy folly these Franks have heiress because the man she married would rain and other inclement weather. Most
come to their death; nevermore shall Charles get the use of her fief. Women in such clothing was made of linen and wool. Furs
the king [Charlemagne] have service at our circumstances were married off by their might be used as decoration or as lining for
hands. Hadst thou taken my counsel, my fathers or liege lords when they were quite mantles to provide additional warmth. Silk
liege lord would be here, and this battle young. They had no say in the matter, but was reserved for special occasions and for
ended." Charlemagne heard Oliphant but would be married to the man who offered use by the clergy. Women in all ranks of life
arrived too late to save the three. Arch- their father or their lord the best potential used a spindle to turn wool and linen into
bishop Turpin died on the ground: "His for political alliance, land acquisition, or thread for weaving. In addition, upper-class
62 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Poems Recount the Lives and Battles of Heroes
T
also set members of the class apart from
he warrior societies of as Leif Ericsson and the which he is bound to four
those of lower rank. Most importantly, to
both the Vikings and discovery of Vineland. war horses and pulled in
be noble meant being born into the class, the early feudal period The chansons de geste, or, four directions:
because its privileges of membership could enjoyed the recitation of literally, songs of great
be gained only by heredity. The members poems, which recounted deeds, were more deliber- And so they order four
histories, battles, tales of ate compositions in French. war-horses brought out
of the noble class, along with the clergy, To which they tie
deceit and valor, and Although harkening back
who were often the younger sons of nobles, deeds of gods, kings, and to the Carolingian era, they
Ganelon's feet and
hands.
comprised about 5 to 10 percent of the total adventurers. The poems reflect the society of llth-
These are proud chargers,
population. The other 90 to 95 percent were recited to the ac- and 12th-century France. spirited, bred for speed:
were peasants. Very few people fell outside companiment of a harp. The Chanson de Roland Four servants urge them
The Icelandic sagas (Song of Roland) is the the way they ought
the categories of noble and peasant during were written down in best known of the chansons to go.
the early Middle Ages. Artisans and mer- the 12th and 13th centu- de geste. The poem includes There where a river across
chants were few. Long-distance trade was ries. Some of them, such stirring battle scenes and a meadow flows,
as the Volsungasaga, tell descriptions of an aged and Count Ganelon is utterly
much less important than it had been in destroyed:
the same story as the venerable Charlemagne,
Roman times. The populations of towns His ligaments are twisted
German Nibelungenlied— who is presented as a pro-
had dropped to the level of villages, and the and stretched out,
that of a dragon totype of the ideal feudal
His every limb is cracked
inhabitants engaged as much in agriculture protecting a magic trea- king. Also memorable is and split apart;
as in crafts. sure. Others narrate the the trial by battle of the On the green grass the
adventures of actual traitor, Ganelon, and his bright blood runs in
The Roman latifundia system of farm-
people and events, such final execution, during streams.
ing on large estates was readily adaptable to
the needs of both the peasantry and the
nobility in the early Middle Ages. The cultivated. Usually, but not always, they
Carolingians had adapted the system on coincided with villages. Fiefs ranged in size
estates that included both the remnants of from a portion of a manor to many manors.
the Roman agricultural population and The peasants had houses in the village with
the more newly arrived Franks. It was some garden and yard space around them
further modified during and after the pe- for fruit trees, outbuildings, and straw stacks.
riod of Viking invasions. The village also had a church and residence
These agricultural estates were called for the local priest. It might also have a
manors. Manors were an effective system manor house for the lord to stay in when he
for organizing agriculture and were found visited and a residence for his estate man-
all over Europe in areas where grain was ager, the steward. The fields, which
THE T U R N I N G P O I N T • 63
Women worked mostly around the
house and village, caring for children,
cooking, brewing ale, making cheese,
gardening, and tending to domestic
animals. When the crops were ready
to harvest, however, the women as
well as men went out to bring in
the crops.
64 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
free peasants could leave the manor as they society. The larger horse was not only a
wished, serfs were bound to the land and better cavalry animal, but also made a better
had to pay the lord if they wished to leave. cart horse and plow beast. Romans had not
Certain other dues were also part of a used horses as draft animals because they did
serf's lot in life. When his daughter married, not have the horse collar. Instead they used
he had to pay a special tax to the lord, oxen, which could be yoked to a plow or a
known as the merchet, and if his son wished cart. Horses in harnesses could pull only
to leave the manor, he had to pay for that as light objects, such as a chariot, because they
well. He also owed special rents and gifts, would choke if the harnesses were pulled
including the traditional gifts of fowl on too tightly around their throats. The medi-
feast days such as Christmas, and eggs at eval invention of the horse collar, however,
Easter. Our customs of having fowl for distributed the weight around a horse's
Christmas dinner and eating eggs at Easter shoulders so it could pull a plow or heavily
derive from these practices. loaded cart.
As in the Carolingian period, marriages In the early Middle Ages the horseshoe
between the free and unfree peasants were also came into use. It allowed horses hooves
common, so it was hard to keep the two to withstand a heavier load, be it a fully The new plow used in the Middle
groups distinct. In practice, there was little armed man, a cart, or a plow. Oxen contin- Ages for the heavy soils of northern
difference between them in the 10th and ued to be used for agriculture, but horses Europe had wheels to help move the
plow along and a coulter, a sort of long
llth centuries. A free peasant could move were faster as draught animals. They were,
knife, to cut through the sod. The ac-
his family about if he wished, but there however, more expensive to feed because tual plowshare is attached to the end of
were few places to move. If he had a lord they needed grain rather than just pasture. the shaft that the man holds. A mold
who offered him protection from the Vi- Improved plow technology revolution- board on the shaft turned the soil over
and formed a furrow. The horses are
kings or Hungarians (Magyars), he was ized agriculture in the Middle Ages. The
equipped with collars that distributed
happy enough to stay where he was. If the Romans had used a simple plow that was the burden of pulling the plow to the
manor was sacked, both the free and unfree really a hardened, sharp stick drawn by horses' shoulders. The man in the
peasants might leave and seek their fortunes oxen. It was very effective in the sandy, background is planting seeds.
elsewhere. Basically, livelihoods were so
tenuous that people were grateful for the
security of having land to work and protec-
tion during invasions. Only in the 12th
century, when new lands opened up and
towns began to grow, offering an opportu-
nity for new ways of earning a living, did
peasants begin to care about whether they
were free or unfree.
Like the innovations in knights' fighting
equipment, innovations in the tools of
cultivation profoundly changed medieval
THE T U R N I N G P O I N T • 65
period, every bushel of wheat planted
yielded only two or three bushels at har-
vest. One of those bushels, of course, had
to be saved for seed wheat for the next
year. With crop rotation and a better
plow, yields went up to as much as seven
bushels harvested for every bushel planted.
The implications of this early agricultural
revolution were immense for medieval
Europe. Everyone's diet improved, so the
population increased in all social classes.
Lords and peasants alike began to trade
their surplus grain for other items. This
desire, in turn, encouraged a renewal of
long-distance trade and the development
of towns where goods were manufactured
for expanded markets.
In 1066 the Norse made one more
major foray into England—the Norman
Conquest. The English king, Edward the
Confessor, had married Edith, the sister of
When William the Conqueror won light soils of the Mediterranean area, but the Anglo-Saxon nobleman Harold
the Battle of Hastings in 1066, he not adequate for the heavier clay and allu- Godwinson, but they had no children. As
commemorated his victory by estab-
vial soils of the fertile river valleys of northern the king aged, three powerful men
lishing a monastery on the site of the
battle. The monks kept a chronicle of Europe. The plow invented for these areas weighed the possibilities of taking over his
events and in this 12th century employed a coulter, or knife, to cut the kingdom. Harold Godwinson's family was
manuscript initial depicted a king on heavy grass sod before the plowshare turned not of royal blood. Still, for the
a throne to represent their benefactor.
it. Added to the plowshare was a mold- Anglo-Saxons, his was the strongest claim
It is not a real likeness.
board that turned the soil over into furrows, because ofhis sister's marriage. King Harald
thus burying the weeds and grass to rot. Hardrada of Norway, who was the subject
After plowing, a harrow (a tool used to of a Norse saga, made his claim through
pulverize lumps in the soil) went over the Denmark's King Canute who had also
furrows to break up the soil and prepare it been king of England. Duke William of
for planting. Such improvements in plow- Normandy, a Dane by descent, main-
ing meant that lands that had not previously tained that Edward the Confessor had
been used for agriculture could now be promised the throne to him and that
brought into cultivation. Harold Godwinson, on a visit to
The overall result of these improve- Normandy, had sworn an oath to uphold
ments was that yields from planting this claim. Edward the Confessor was half
increased dramatically. In the Carolingian Norman and had grown up in Normandy.
66 • THE MIDDLE A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
In 1066, as Edward the Confessor neared
death, a comet appeared in the sky. Mod-
ern astronomers have since identified it as
Halley's Comet, but people in England
interpreted it as a dire prediction of terrible
events to come. The Anglo-Saxons met
and elected Harold Godwinson as their
king. Harald Hardrada immediately in-
vaded the north of England and pressed
toward York. Harold Godwinson man-
aged to defeat him, but two weeks later, on
October 14, Duke William's fleet arrived
from Normandy. William was well pre-
pared. He brought supplies, war horses,
and even a prefabricated castle. His neigh- route of his conquest, he killed or drove out The Bayeux tapestry was commis-
bors in France and many of the younger the Anglo-Saxon noblemen, but married sioned by the Normans to tell their
version of events leading up to the
sons of the nobility joined his army in the their women to his followers when he gave
conquest and battle. The Normans
hope of being rewarded with fiefs of their them the noblemen's land. His followers brought food, horses, weapons, and
own. The two armies met at Hastings on were thus richly rewarded with fiefs, and even a prefabricated castle in boats
the southern coast of England. Harold's England came to experience the feudal that were still built in Viking style.
troops had the better position on a rise, and They wore chain mail, carried sail-
system as it existed in France. Likewise, the
like shields, and were armed with
made a shield wall to protect themselves. English peasantry became serfs and were swords and lances.
The Normans had to attack by going organized into the manorial system by their
uphill. At some point, however, the shield Norman and French overlords.
wall broke down, and Harold was shot in When the conquest was complete and
the eye with an arrow. The Normans were the English population subdued, William
victorious. returned to Normandy and ruled England
One battle did not amount to a con- from a distance. By 1086 he began to
quest, however. William set off to the west survey the real estate and wealth he had
with his army, building castles in every acquired in such a brutal way. He sent out
county and castles in every location where his officials to inquire about and record the
he met resistance. He proceeded north, number of fields, farm animals, agricul-
where he met the greatest opposition. He tural implements, and people he had under
killed many people there and destroyed his control. This great survey was pre-
much of their farmland. London was his served and is called the Domesday Book, or
final target. By the time he reached the city, the lord's (dominus) book.
the rest of England had been conquered, In addition to the Domesday Book, two
and London could no longer hold out. remarkable sources survive for the study of
There William built the biggest of his the Norman Conquest. One, which gives
castles, the Tower of London. Along the the English side, is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
THE T U R N I N G P O I N T • 67
that there was not a single hide nor a rood of
land, nor—it is a shame to tell though he
thought it no shame to do—was there an ox
or a cow or a pig that was not set down in the
accounts." But in the end, the author con-
cedes that a man could travel from one end
of the kingdom to the other with a bosom
full of gold and not be robbed. William had,
at least, brought peace.
The other source is the Bayeux Tapestry,
named for the town in France in which it is
housed. Commissioned by the Normans, it
is really an elaborate embroidery rather than
a woven tapestry and tells the story of the
conquest from the Norman point of view,
through pictures and a running commen-
tary in Latin. The tapestry is 230 feet long
and 20 inches wide (70 meters by 51 cen-
timeters). The death of Edward, the comet,
Harold's oath, the preparations for the ex-
pedition, the feast before the battle, the
battle, and the portable castle are all repre-
St. Maurice brings Otto I into the It had been started in the days of Alfred and sented. On the border are other illustrations,
presence of Christ. Otto carries a rep- including plowing scenes.
continues through the death of William. In
lica of the church he has built in honor
it William is described as: Germany's response to the end of the
of St. Maurice. St. Peter stands to
the right holding his symbol, two a very wise and great man, and more Viking invasions was very different from
keys. The Ottomans were great pa- honored and more powerful than that of France or England. Germany had
trons of the Church. any of his predecessors; ... he not suffered as much, so its recovery was
caused castles to be built and op- quicker. Otto I the Great (reigned 936-
pressed the poor; ... he was of great
973) managed to bring some unity to the
sternness, and he took from his sub-
jects many marks of gold and many territory of Germany and even to the Middle
hundred pounds of silver, and this Kingdom that had been given to Lothair by
either with or without right and the Treaty of Verdun a century earlier. He
with little need. . . . The rich com-
defeated the Magyars, and the process of
plained and the poor murmured, but
he was so sturdy that he recked Christianizing northeastern Europe began.
naught of them; they must will all Moving down into Italy to rescue the pope,
that the king willed, if they would much as Charlemagne had done, Otto took
live, or would keep their lands. the title of "Roman Emperor" in 962. The
The author comments that for the Domesday German Kingdon became known eventu-
survey "so narrowly he had them investigate ally as the Holy Roman Empire.
68 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Feudalism was late in coming to Ger- family, but his genius was recognized by the
many. Although the great lords became local monks who educated him. He was
vassals of the emperor, they did not have taken to Spain, where he came into contact
vassals of their own. The emperors gov- with the great learning of the Arab and
erned their territory with bishops and abbots Hebrew populations in Barcelona. Although
rather than their vassals because they could he studied with Christian scholars there
appoint the churchmen, whereas the vassals because he did not know Arabic, he learned
held their positions by hereditary claims. something of Arab mathematics. Back in
Furthermore, the bishops and abbots were Europe, he demonstrated the mathematical
educated men and made very good admin- basis of music by using vibrating strings. He
istrators. They were also loyal to the emperor also taught astronomy. Although he had an
who appointed them. abacus with Arabic numerals, he did not use
Under the patronage of Otto and his the zero as the Arabs did. His fame in France
dynasty, the Ottonians, learning flourished brought him patronage from the Ottonians,
in Germany. Two scholars stand out from who appointed him pope. He served as
this period. One is the nun Roswitha of Sylvester II. So great was his knowledge
Gandersheim (c. 937-1004). She came from that people thought he was a necromancer,
a noble family of Saxony but was put into or sorcerer. In reality, he was a man ahead
a Benedictine nunnery at an early age. of his time.
Gandersheim was founded by the Duke of By 1050, Europe was beginning to de-
Saxony in 852 and was governed by women velop a strong economy and a vibrant
who belonged to the Saxon dynasty. Otto culture that brought Roman, Christian,
the Great's younger brother, a bishop, encour- and Germanic elements into a coherent
aged learning at the nunnery, so Roswitha whole. The feudal arrangements among
was educated by a series of learned nuns. the nobility, and the manorial system for
During her early education, she wrote organizing land and labor, spread all over
religious poetry on the life and miracles of Europe. Kings such as William the Con-
the Virgin Mary and lives of other saints. queror of England and Otto the Great of
She then read the comedies of Roman Germany were reviving a sense of unified
playwrights. Roswitha was beguiled by monarchies. Towns and trade were begin-
their language but bothered by the world- ning to develop and Europeans began to
liness of their subject matter. Nevertheless, travel, explore, and conquer new territo-
seeing the potential of drama, she began to ries. Once again scholars had the leisure and
write religious plays—the first plays written intellectual curiosity to ask new questions.
since Roman times. Finally, she turned to Even the weather cooperated as Europe
writing histories, including the Deeds of experienced several centuries of warmer
Otto about Otto the Great. than usual weather. The 12th century was
The other great scholar of the age was such an expansive period that a growth
a monk, Gerbert of Aurillac in France metaphor is often used to describe it: the
(d. 1003). Gerbert came from a peasant flowering of the Middle Ages.
THE T U R N I N G P O I N T • 69
Chapter 5
The Flowering of
Medieval Europe
E
leanor of Aquitaine, heiress of the ian prosperity. It also led to a revival of piety
Duke of Aquitaine, married the king among the ordinary people—inspiring them
of France as a teenager. While in to build new churches and undertake pil-
Paris she perhaps heard the leading grimages and crusades. Philosophy and
philosopher of the day (Peter Abelard) lec- learning revived as scholars reinterpreted
ture, was chastised by a saint (Bernard of ancient texts. The peace of the era forced the
Clairvaux), and advised by Abbot Suger, rough manners of war to give way to the
who commissioned the first Gothic build- polite behavior of the court, creating a new
ing. Eleanor also went on the second Crusade impetus to write romances and love lyrics.
to the Holy Land before, at the age of 30, she The founding of one new monastery had
divorced her husband and married the particularly far-reaching consequences for
18-year-old king of England. As Duchess of lay piety, architecture, learning, and the
Aquitaine and Queen of England she par- papacy. It had become customary for kings
ticipated in the creation of the culture of and lords to endow monasteries and nun-
courtly love and bore four sons, two of neries with sufficient land for their inhabitants'
whom would become kings. While Eleanor's livelihood and with laborers to support them
life was extraordinary, her personal experi- so that they could spend their lives in prayer.
ences reflected the remarkable burst of Their motives were twofold. They wanted
creativity and energy of the period between the monks and nuns to pray for their souls so
1050 and 1150. It was a time of new ideas, that their afterlife would be spent in heaven
increasing prosperity, and fervent religiosity rather than hell. But they also saw these
which to some degree touched all the people establishments as offering an honorable ca-
and institutions of Europe. reer for the extra daughters and sons who
Courtly love, the recommended stan- In the political arena, both the papacy and would not marry or could not be endowed
dards of polite relationships between the monarchies began to bring stability to with lands.
knights and ladies in medieval Eu-
their respective domains. Political stability Placing these superfluous noble children
rope, changed manners at the time
and has had a long-lasting influence allowed trade to flourish once again and all in monastic institutions sometimes had good
on our ideas of courtesy. classes to take advantage of increased agrar- results. Some became worthy abbots and
THE F L O W E R I N G OF M E D I E V A L E U R O P E • 71
derived from previous Roman models and
is therefore called Romanesque. Ro-
manesque architecture incorporated
rounded arches and vaults, and ceilings or
The Order of Cluny was responsible abbesses and occasionally even saints. But roofs of masonry (including barrel vaults
for great church reform, for an increase often the children had no taste for monas- and cross vaults). The buildings also tended
in piety, and for a new style of archi-
tic life and lived very corruptly. They to be low, and required a massive amount
tecture known as the Romanesque.
The rounded arches on the windows spent more time with their married broth- of masonry to hold up their stone ceilings.
and the massive walls of the abbey ers and sisters in their castles and, against Some churches had wooden ceilings that
church at Cluny are typical of the monastic rules, took lovers and concu- allowed for height in the nave, which in
Romanesque style.
bines themselves. turn allowed more windows in the clere-
To counteract the strong lay influence story (the wall extending above the aisles to
on monasteries, the Duke of Aquitaine the roof of the nave).
founded a monastery at Cluny in 910. The To counterbalance the massive appear-
Cluniac monks used the Benedictine Rule ance of the masonry and the absence of
and were permitted to select their own large windows, the interiors of churches
abbot rather than accepting the duke's were brightly painted with Biblical scenes,
choice. The abbot was answerable only to including the lives of the saints, pictures of
the pope, not to the duke. The monastery heaven and hell, and other such paintings
gradually gained respect and adherents. that would instruct the congregation as
Other monasteries reformed and declared they attended services or visited the churches.
themselves Cluniacs. The movement in- In the apse (a semi-circular room on the east
spired Emperor Henry III of Germany, end of a church) was a very large picture,
who reformed the Church in Germany. He often a mosaic, of Jesus giving the law to
then crossed the Alps to Rome, where Christians. The effects of the heavy ma-
three men were claiming to be pope. He sonry were further lightened both inside
deposed all of them and put in their place a and out with carvings featuring biblical
series of popes who also supported the scenes, saints, and Christian symbols. A
reform of the Church. popular theme for the carvings over the
The new wave of piety inspired the laity main entrance to large churches was the
as well as the clergy. Because they no longer symbols of the four gospel writers, Mat-
feared that their churches would be de- thew, Mark, Luke, and John. This set of
stroyed in warfare, the laity began to carvings was called the tympanum, from
contribute some of their excess profits from the Greek word for drum.
agriculture to building parish churches, Romanesque architecture could be found
cathedrals, and new monastic houses. The throughout Europe, although it varied
architecture of the churches they built was from area to area. William the Conqueror
72 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D HISTORY
Romanesque Cathedrals Show
New Building Techniques
THE F L O W E R I N G OF M E D I E V A L E U R O P E • 73
In 1073 Hildebrand himself became Pope
Gregory VII (1073-1085), but not through
an election by the College of Cardinals. He
was so popular in Rome that the clergy and
populace alike proclaimed him pope. Em-
peror Henry IV went along with Hilde-
brand's elevation to the papacy because he
was trying to establish control over his
rebellious German nobles.
Contemporaries described Gregory as a
small man with a weak voice, but a strong
vision of what the papacy should be. He
claimed that the mission of the popes was to
be the voice of St. Peter on earth and argued
that, by the doctrine of the Petrine Succes-
sion, the pope was accountable to St. Peter
and to God for the sins of humans. If an
emperor sinned, the pope had a duty to call
even him to account. In Gregory's eyes,
Henry IV had become a sinner because he
The struggle between Emperor Henry an electoral system called the College of continued to appoint bishops and abbots in
VI and Pope Gregory VII showed Cardinals. In his plan the pope was to be Germany and to invest them with the
the tensions between the secular rulers
elected by the most important clergy in symbols of their spiritual office—the bishop's
of European monarchies and the
power of the pope. In the famous fight Rome, that is, by the bishops, priests, and crook (staff) and ring. Investiture by a
between Henry and Gregory, each deacons of the churches in Rome and its layman such as the emperor, as Gregory saw
used his most powerful weapons. The surrounding countryside. The plan was an it, was unacceptable. From the early days of
pope used his spiritual power to ex- the church, monks customarily elected their
adaptation of the old custom of having the
communicate Henry in the first
priests attached to a bishopric (or district) abbots and the clergy elected their bish-
round, but Henry appeared as a peni-
tent and had it removed. Later Henry elect the new bishop. The College of Car- ops—a principle that Gregory had invoked
used force of arms to set up an anti- dinals, which still exists, was later enlarged in creating his system for papal elections.
pope, Guibertus, and expel Gregory to represent all of the clergy by giving some Henry IV had learned the hard realities
from Rome. Gregory again excom-
of the archbishops and important ecclesias- of politics as a young boy. His mother had
municated Henry, but the pope died
soon afterwards in exile. tical officials outside of Rome the title of acted as regent, ruling in his stead while he
Cardinal so that they could vote. was too young to do so, but during this time
Hildebrand's plan removed the emperor he became the virtual prisoner of the Bishop
entirely from the process of electing a new of Cologne. After freeing himself from
pope. The first election went smoothly these influences when he came of age, he
because Henry III had died, and his son, began an active campaign to form his own
Henry IV (1056—1106), was only a boy and power base. Realizing that he needed a
too young to interfere. wealthy region under his control, he se-
74 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
lected Saxony, in part because it had silver In 1076 Henry responded in a letter to lievers. If Henry were excommunicated,
mines. By 1075 he was successful in his his bishops. He called Gregory "not pope the German nobles were released from all
campaign and feeling flush with impending but false monk" and referred to Gregory's feudal vows and could select anyone they
victory. own assumption of the papal throne as a wanted as their ruler.
By the same year, however, Pope Gre- usurpation because he was neither appointed Gregory excommunicated Henry in
gory VII was also feeling powerful enough by the king nor elected by the College of 1076. The German nobles immediately
to strike at the heart of lay investiture. Cardinals. The salutation of one of his met and declared that, if Gregory did not
Although Gregory was adamantly opposed letters to Gregory reads, "Henry, King not revoke the excommunication order within
to lay rulers selecting abbots and bishops, he by usurpation, but by the pious ordination one year, they would depose Henry.
recognized that ecclesiastical authorities of God." Henry argued that he too had a Gregory's triumph was short-lived, how-
might hold fiefs from a lay ruler, and he sacred trust from God because of his conse- ever. Because Henry could find no loyal
would permit them to receive those from a cration during the coronation ceremony. supporters among his nobility, he made a
monarch, but he would not permit lay In his estimation, a monarch had a duty to trip to Italy in January 1077 to waylay the
rulers to appoint ecclesiastical officers or God to cleanse the Church of a false pope. pope, who was on his way to a meeting
invest them with the spiritual symbols of He rallied the bishops of Germany and with the German nobility.
that office. In 1075 Gregory wrote several Italy, who were loyal to him, and with their At Canossa in the Alps, Henry appeared
letters to Henry—calling him "beloved support closed his letter with the statement: before the walls of the castle in which the
son"—in which he praised the emperor for "I, Henry, King by the grace of God, pope stayed, standing barefoot and clad in
not selling ecclesiastical offices and for up- together with all our bishops, say unto you: the rough wool garments of a repentant
holding the principle of unmarried clergy. Descend! Descend!" He was asking that the sinner. After the penitent king had stood in
But he then attacked Henry for appointing pope abdicate because of his false election. the winter cold and snow for three days, the
bishops. Gregory realized that he could make no pope finally relented. As he wrote to the
In one letter his address moved beyond headway with the bishops that Henry had German nobility, Henry "ceased not with
a firm remonstrance: "Gregory, bishop, appointed in northern Italy and Germany, many tears to beseech the apostolic help and
servant of God's servants, to King Henry, so he appealed to the German lay lords. comfort until all who were present or who
greeting and the apostolic benediction— They had resented Henry IV's conquest of had heard the story were so moved by pity
but with the understanding that he obeys Saxony, and distrusted his plans to curtail and compassion that they pleaded his cause
the Apostolic See as becomes a Christian their own independence. They were quite with prayers and tears. All marveled at our
King." He went on to stress his own spiri- willing to listen to Pope Gregory's sugges- unwonted severity, and some even cried
tual power over Henry, "considering and tion that they rebel against their feudal out that we were showing, not the serious-
weighing carefully to how strict a judge we overlord if he were excommunicated. Ex- ness of apostolic authority, but rather the
must render an account of the stewardship communication meant that a Christian was cruelty of a savage tyrant." As pope, Gre-
committed to us by St. Peter, prince of the not allowed to participate in Holy Com- gory could not refuse absolution to a sincere
Apostles, we hesitated to send you the munion, but its ramifications went far penitent, so the excommunication order
apostolic benediction." Gregory was angry beyond this religious ceremony. It also was lifted.
that Henry was appointing and investing dissolved all feudal bonds of loyalty and Henry regrouped his power and in 1084
bishops in both Germany and Italy against forbade anyone from serving the excom- marched into Rome and selected a new
the papal edict and threatened him with municated former member of the Church. pope. Gregory died in exile in 1085, re-
excommunication (expulsion from the In other words, excommunication put the portedly exclaiming: "I have loved
Church) if he continued to do so. offender outside of the community of be- righteousness and hated iniquity; therefore
THE F L O W E R I N G OF M E D I E V A L E U R O P E • 75
I die in exile." But Henry did not triumph, ters. Milan was known for its fine armor and
either. Papal reform was by now too strong its control of the overland trade with Ger-
a movement for the emperors to control, many. Venice, Pisa, and Genoa rivaled each
and future popes continued to pressure other for their overseas trade in the Medi-
Henry. While Henry was engaged in Italy, terranean and even across the Atlantic to
the German nobles again rebelled and sup- countries including France, England, and
ported Henry's son against him. In 1122, at the Low Countries. As townspeople pros-
the Concordat of Worms, the Church was pered, they also sought freedom from kings
able to persuade his son, Henry V, to agree and bishops so they could govern them-
that only the clergy could invest the bishops selves and set their own rules of trade,
with the symbols of their office and that the government, and citizenship. Towns came
emperor could not appoint bishops and to be governed by the merchants who dealt
abbots. But the bestowing of fiefs remained in luxury items and bulk shipments. The
the right of a king or an emperor. merchant class, in contrast to the nobility,
The papacy was not the only institution enjoyed wealth derived from trade as op-
that reestablished itself in the late 11 th posed to land. Furthermore, the merchants
century. The surplus of grain and the resto- needed goods to trade overseas. This de-
ration of peace also allowed trade to flourish mand encouraged artisans to produce high-
once again. Both peasants and nobles had quality cloth, art, and other products that
In Florence and other cities, the grain surplus grain to sell and, therefore, money would be valuable in trade. Peasants, who
supply was crucial for the survival of to buy practical items such as plowshares as were also enjoying new prosperity because
the population, so the city regulated
well as luxury goods such as silks and crop yields were improving, wanted to
it. When grain was scarce, the poor
and indigent who did not contribute ribbons, and spices to make their bland purchase better shoes, plows, tools, and
to the economy of the city were foods taste more interesting. pottery. Town markets and trades flour-
evicted. When the city had abundant With the revival of trade and crafts, ished, and so did the artisans.
grain, officials distributed it liberally towns became an important part of the The growing population moved into
to the poor (right).
European landscape, just as they had been previously unsettled parts of Europe. As
during the Roman period. Lords were so village populations became too large for
interested in attracting people to their towns their old sites, lords who held forests and
that they offered peasants freedom from swamps urged their serfs to clear the trees
serfdom if they migrated. Other serfs took and drain the fens. To encourage them to
advantage of town laws that promised free- take on this extra work, the lords offered
dom to those who managed to live for a serfs better terms and freedom from the
year and a day in town without their former servile duties they performed in return for
masters claiming them. "Town air breathed their land on established manors. The new
free" is how they put it at the time. settlements adopted place-names that are
Towns flourished throughout Europe, still in use. Some of them were named for
but none as much as those in Italy, where nearby settlements; for example, Little
Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Milan, and Florence Horewood was a new settlement whose
became major trading and industrial cen- population came from Great Horewood.
76 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Others had names that indicated a new with them their technology of plowing and
foundation, such as Newcastle or Villeneuve draining fens.
(literally, New City in French). If the peasant population was expanding
During this period, Netherlanders be- both within the old territories and in newly
gan to settle the marshes bordering the conquered lands, the nobility was growing
North Sea, establishing a system of dikes at an even faster pace. Noble mothers had
and windmills to drain these areas. The a better diet than peasant mothers and
German emperors also conquered more produced children who were more likely to
land in the Slavic east in an expansion called survive the dangers of childhood. The siz-
the drang nach Osten (drive to the east). They able family of a minor noble, Tancred de
encouraged people in the heavily popu- Hauteville in Normandy, serves as a notable
lated areas of the Low Countries to move example of the circumstances of this large
east and settle along the Baltic Sea and in and aggressive group. He had 12 sons; five
Hungary and Bohemia. Just as in the United by his first wife and seven by his second.
States during the 18th and 19th centuries Because only one son could inherit the
the call to the adventurous was "Go West, small ancestral lands, the others set out to
Young Man," in the 11th and 12th centu- seek their fortunes.
ries, agents of German lords recruited serfs Three of the brothers—William
to go east and settle the new lands, bringing Iron-Arm, Humphrey, and Drogo—
THE F L O W E R I N G OF M E D I E V A L E U R O P E • 77
recognition as ruler of the territory. His
brother, Roger, captured Sicily and held it
with papal approval by 1072. The brothers
established a Norman kingdom in these
two areas similar to the organized state that
William the Conqueror had established in
England.
Other younger sons of the nobility sought
their fortunes in Spain by fighting against
the Moslems there and carving out princi-
palities. This fight became known as the
Reconquista (reconquest) and was portrayed
in the epic poem El Cid. The poem's hero
is based on a historical figure, Rodrigo
Diaz, a Castilian noble who is born in
about 1043. (His nickname, "el Cid,"
means "lord" in Arabic.) In the poem, Diaz
is a champion of the Christian faith. In
reality he was an opportunist who fought
both Christians and Moslems, plundering
both churches and mosques. By the early
12th century, Moslem control in Spain
started to crumble, and the kingdoms of
Aragon, Castile, and even Portugal began
to expand.
The Reconquista in Spain was part became warriors, sometimes acting as mer- During this period, the Arab world be-
of the armed expansion of Europe in cenaries and sometimes as bandits. During gan experiencing reverses that would lead
the llth and 12th centuries. The
their pilgrimage to Jerusalem, they discov- to its decline. While the French and Norman
knights who sought their fortunes tak-
ing land from the Arabs and from ered that Sicily and southern Italy were fine nobility were creating separate kingdoms in
each other viewed their warfare as a places to practice their skills of warfare. The Sicily and Spain where the Arabs had pre-
holy endeavor. A century after the Arabs and Greeks who were fighting in viously ruled, the Seljuk Turks (a nomadic
events, a Spanish king who was also these places were both willing to hire tribe that had converted to Islam) were
a crusader commissioned a book that
mercenaries. Soon the remaining de making major conquests in the east. The
showed the blessing of the troops be-
fore battle (top), the final victory of Hauteville brothers had joined their kin Turks conquered Baghdad and moved west,
the Christians (center and bottom and began carving out their own kingdoms where they defeated the Byzantine army
left), and a ceremony of thanksgiving rather than fighting for local factions. The and acquired Anatolia (part of modern
for victory before the Virgin and
half-brother of William, Robert Guiscard Turkey), which they called the sultanate of
Child (bottom right).
("the Fox" or "the Sly"), managed to Roum (an adaptation of "Rome"). Jerusa-
conquer southern Italy and receive papal lem and other areas of the Christian and
78 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Jewish heritage came under the Turks' tine Empire. While the
control. Thus, when western Christians ideal of crusading—
began to make extended pilgrimages to the to make Jerusalem a
Holy Land, they were greeted at inns and Christian city—lived on
shrines not by the tolerant Arabs, but by the for centuries, many cru-
Turks, a group newly converted to Islam. saders simply wanted to
Pilgrimage thus became more difficult and gain territory.
much more dangerous, and the native Greek A volatile combination of in-
Christian population complained to the terests, ambitions, and religious feeling
pilgrims of persecution. gave rise to the first crusade. Pilgrims com-
The liberation of Jerusalem from the
Relations between the Greek-speaking plained that they risked their lives going to
Turks became the goal of the Crusad-
church in Byzantium and the Latin-speaking Jerusalem, and that the Greek Christians, ers. A map of the city drawn at the
church in Rome also were strained. Al- even though they were erring in their time of the Crusades showed the city
though both parties believed that they were ways, were in grave danger of being killed. wall with its five gates. The three ma-
jor religions, Judaism, Christianity,
part of the same Christian church, the The merchants of Italian towns maintained
and Islam, all had their sacred struc-
Roman Church, flexing its muscles during that they were being ill-treated in tures in the city: the Temple of
the reform movement, sought to dominate Constantinople because of the schism and Solomon, the Church of the Holy
the patriarch of Constantinople. The "Great that trading in the former Byzantine and Sepulcher, and the Dome of the
Schism" of 1054 was the culmination of a Arab territories had become increasingly Rock.
number of clashes over the centuries. Con- dangerous. The economy of the Italian
troversies had arisen over such issues as the towns was suffering as a consequence. The
use of the Roman or Cyrillic alphabet Byzantine Emperor, Alexius Comnenus,
among the Slavs, the wording of the Nicene wrote to the pope in consternation after a
Creed, the question of whether Christians defeat suffered by the Byzantine army and
should use two fingers or three to cross asked that he send mercenaries, perhaps
themselves, and the position of the pope in some of those fierce and footloose Normans.
Rome as the titular leader of Christianity. In return for such help, the emperor hinted
These tensions led to a split between the that he would mend the schism by invest-
two branches of the Church. ing Rome with greater power than that of
The increasing strength and belliger- the patriarch of Constantinople.
ence of the European nobility and the The pope at the time, Urban II, held a
papacy, together with the Turkish threat council of French clergy and nobility at
to Constantinople, led to an explosive clash Clermont in 1095. There he preached a
of cultures called the Crusades. Literally, sermon that was a stirring call to arms to
the word crusade meant "pilgrimage," but liberate the Holy Land. Addressing the
the pilgrims were armed men from Europe French laity, he flattered them by praising
who sought to retake the area around their fame as warriors and called on them to
Jerusalem and any other rich territory that avenge the Christians in the east. He noted
they could conquer, including the Byzan- that the Turks, followers of Muhammad,
THE F L O W E R I N G OF M E D I E V A L E U R O P E • 79
Holy Land, the traditional land of milk and
honey, and carve out estates there. For
those who went, he promised remission of
their sins so that they would go to heaven,
for this was to be a glorious pilgrimage.
The audience responded enthusiastically,
crying out "Dieu le veut!" ("God wills it!").
But Urban quickly realized that too much
enthusiasm would not raise an army but a
rabble. He cautioned that "we neither com-
mand nor advise that the old or feeble, or
those incapable of bearing arms, undertake
this journey. Nor ought women to set out
at all without their husbands, or brothers, or
legal guardians. Let the rich aid the needy;
and according to their wealth let them take
with them experienced soldiers." Clergy-
men were not to go without the consent of
their bishops.
Urban had, indeed, anticipated the prob-
lems that might arise. He and Emperor
Alexius Comnenus needed an army of
knights under the direction of a western
king or at least a duke. But the pope's first
appeal inspired a mob of second sons, peas-
ants, poor knights, and members of the
clergy. Persuading the nobility to join up
took more time. Finally, the Duke of
Pope Urban II met with the French had killed Christians, destroyed churches, Normandy (Robert, son of William the
nobility at Cleremont in 1095 and and dismembered the Greek empire. The Conqueror); Count Raymond of Toulouse;
gave a stirring sermon calling upon his
Franks could liberate the Holy Sepulcher Bohemund, son of Robert Guiscard; and
audience to recapture the Holy Sepul-
cherfrom the Turks, relieve the (the tomb in which Jesus had been buried) several other French nobles agreed to go on
Byzantine Empire from the threat of and aid the Greeks. The pope also alluded the crusade.
annihilation, and enrich themselves to the overpopulation of France: "This While the main army of nobles and
by conquering fiefs for themselves in
land which you inhabit, shut in on all sides knights took time to organize themselves,
the biblical land of milk and honey.
He called upon them to undertake a by the seas and surrounded by the mountain amass supplies, and negotiate with Italian
glorious holy war—which became the peaks, is too narrow for your large popula- merchants for ships, the popular crusade set
First Crusade. tion. '' He pointed out that instead of fighting off by foot across Europe. It was led by an
one another for land, they could go to the impoverished knight, Walter the Penni-
80 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
less, and a preacher, Peter the Hermit. fellow counselors, who, eager to obtain the Medieval bestiaries described ani-
Their followers believed that the year 1100 Roman Empire for themselves, had been mals, both real and fictional.
Sometimes the animals were charac-
would bring a second coming of Christ, looking with avarice upon it for a long
ters in fables written to teach the
and they wanted to be in Jerusalem when time." Anna was right about Bohemund. readers moral lessons about covetous-
this happened. They also believed that the She described an incident in which her ness and other sins. Other times the
walls of Jerusalem would come tumbling father greeted Bohemund and invited him descriptions are of animal behavior,
habitats, and origins of names.
down like those of Jericho, when they to a feast. Knowing that Bohemund would
marched around them and blew their horns. be suspicious of this, Anna's father had his
Some people argued that they did not even cooks bring raw meat to his guest and told
need to go to the Holy Land to fight Bohemund to have his own cooks prepare
infidels; they could do just as well by it if he preferred. With a great gesture of
attacking Jews in Europe. The first po- liberality, Bohemund divided up the cooked
groms—in which Jews were rounded up, food and gave it to his followers, but did not
robbed, killed, and burned—occurred in take any for himself. The next day he asked
Cologne. Most of the popular crusade, them if they were feeling well or if the meal
however, headed on through Hungary had been poisoned. They were all well.
and the Balkans. The crusaders also be- Anna concluded: "Such a man was
lieved that, as an army of God, the local Bohemund. Never, indeed, have I seen a
inhabitants should feed them. When this man so dishonest. In everything, in his
charity was not forthcoming, they stole words as well as his deeds, he never chose
food. When they finally arrived at the right path."
Constantinople, the emperor was so dis- After numerous squabbles between the
gusted with them that he forced them to crusaders and the Greeks, Alexius and the
camp outside the city. Even so, they com- leaders of the crusade reached an agreement.
mitted petty thefts and harassed the local Alexius would supply the crusaders with the
population. Finally, the emperor agreed to provisions necessary for their warfare, and in
ferry them over the Bosporus. There the return the crusaders would deliver to him the
Turks attacked them, and most were killed. cities of Asia Minor, which the Byzantine
Peter the Hermit, however, managed to Empire had lost to the Turks. The emperor
return to Constantinople. would also continue to supply the crusaders
In the meantime, the main body of with food and drink. The first town the
crusaders assembled in Constantinople. crusaders captured was Nicaea. Anna wrote
Relations between Emperor Alexius and that they did not, however, turn over the city
the westerners were not cordial. A remark- as promised, but forced Alexius to pay for the
able account of the Greek viewpoint was city once again.
written by Alexius's daughter, Anna The crusaders' real test came at the siege
Comnena. Anna claimed that the crusaders of Antioch in 1098. Alexius stopped their
could not be trusted: "There were among supplies just as they attacked the city. The
the Latins such men as Bohemund and his situation became desperate as food ran short
THE F L O W E R I N G OF M E D I E V A L E U R O P E • 81
The assault on Antioch was long and
brutal. The Turks held the city while
the crusaders tried to attack it from
the outside. The crusading army suf-
fered from hunger and disease that
decimated their ranks and led to fights
among the leadership.
82 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
manners. The knights who went on the
crusades had been warriors, trained to fight Anna Comnena, Byzantine Princess and Historian
in battle. Those who remained in Europe,
Anna Comnena, born in another man. Thereafter, not unpracticed in
however, imbibed a new culture of military 1081, was the firstborn she blamed her brother, Rhetoric and having read
virtue called chivalry, from the French term daughter of Emperor John, for her failure to thoroughly the treatises of
for a mounted warrior, the chevalier. Ac- Alexius and the oldest of become empress. With a Aristotle and the dia-
his 11 children. Because male heir, Alexius did logues of Plato, and
cording to the code of chivalry, a knight
of the long gap between not need her for the having fortified my mind
was to be courageous (sometimes to the her birth and that of her succession. with the Quadrivium of
point of foolhardiness), loyal, trustworthy, oldest brother, John, she Anna received a fine sciences (these things
generous to a conquered foe, and eager to harbored the idea that education that included must be divulged, and it is
defend the Christian faith. But chivalric she would become em- the study of literature, not self-advertisement to
press. In her book, the medicine, astronomy, and recall what Nature and
behavior was to be practiced only by nobles Alexiad, she wrote that the mechanics of siege my own zeal for knowl-
and, for the most part, by males. The her real troubles with equipment. She wrote in edge have given me, not
12th-century refinements in living led to John began when she the introduction of her what God has appor-
additional requirements for knights' behav- was eight. She was to be book: "I, Anna, daughter tioned to me from above
married to the rightful of the Emperor Alexius and what has been con-
ior: Noble women became objects of respect
heir to the throne, who and the Empress Irene, tributed by opportunity)."
and elaborate courtesy; religious ceremo- was then a boy of about born and bred in the She not only observed
nies surrounded the initiation of knights; her age. She assumed that Purple [born and raised as firsthand the events of her
and tournaments, or ritualized combat and together they would take a princess], not without father's reign, but also had
warfare, became an entertainment. over from her father, some acquaintance with access to men who had
who had usurped the literature—having de- advised him and to other
Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine, estab- throne. But the marriage voted the most earnest writings, including those
lished a court in which the new noble never took place, and she study to the Greek lan- of her husband who also
values flourished. Her grandfather, Duke was eventually married to guage, in fact, and being wrote history.
William of Aquitaine, was a romantic figure
known both for his love affairs and for the
lyrical poetry he sang to his mistresses. become a member of the clergy, perhaps
Eleanor became the Duchess of Aquitaine even abbot of St. Denis, and was more
upon her father's death when she was a clerical than knightly in temperament. He
teenager. The adviser to the French king, was forced to take the throne on the death
Abbot Suger of the monastery of St. Denis of his elder brother.
outside of Paris, had arranged a marriage, The real difficulties between the couple
with her father' s blessings, between Eleanor occurred during the Second Crusade.
and the young king of France, Louis VII Eleanor had given birth to two daughters
(1137-1180). but no sons, so she accompanied her hus-
The marriage was not a happy one band on the crusade in the hopes of
because the two were so different. Eleanor conceiving an heir to the French throne
had come from a sophisticated, worldly along the way. Dressed as female warriors,
court in the south of France and disliked the she and several other noble French ladies set
damp chill of Paris. Louis had been raised to off in high spirits. As if this behavior did not
THE F L O W E R I N G OF M E D I E V A L E U R O P E • 83
Battling dragons (left) and fearsome cause enough scandal, when the couple Normandy, Anjou, and England with that of
knights (right), the legendary knight arrived in Antioch Eleanor announced to Eleanor. Together these counties and duch-
Lancelot fulfills his chivalric duties. In
the Middle Ages, romances about the
Louis that she would remain there with her ies were larger than the land that Louis
feats of the nobility were popular in uncle, Raymond. Rumor abounded that personally controlled in his kingdom. As a
the courts, and the most popular sub- she and Raymond, a handsome man and further wound to Louis's dignity, Eleanor
jects of all were the stories that related great warrior, were having an affair. She produced four sons by Henry. A mighty feud
to King Arthur, Queen Guinevere,
was said to have commented of Louis, "I arose between Henry and Louis.
Lancelot, and the other knights of the
Round Table. thought to have married a king, but I Her marriage to Henry left Eleanor with
married a monk." After their return to responsibilities for maintaining his interests
France, she still had not produced a male in the duchy of Aquitaine, but it also gave
heir, and Louis agreed to solicit the pope for her a considerable amount of free time.
an annulment of their marriage. The mar- Henry had political responsibilities in En-
riage was dissolved and she returned to gland, Normandy, and Anjou, so Eleanor
being Duchess of Aquitaine. was often alone in her own duchy. Her
But as an heiress, Eleanor remained a very court was one of the most cosmopolitan in
desirable marriage partner. She was pursued Europe. Her personal understanding of the
by Henry, Count of Anjou and Duke of world included the learned philosophy of
Normandy, who had met her in Paris when Paris, the ways of Norman and English
he had come to pay homage to Louis VII. He nobility, the exotic culture of the East, and
was only 18 and she was nearly 30, but the traditions of her grandfather, the poet.
marrying her would make him the Duke of Poets and nobles were attracted to her
Aquitaine. Furthermore, he was in line to brilliant court at Poitiers.
become the king of England. They were The combination of poets and young
wed barely eight weeks after the annulment courtiers with the time to pursue refine-
of Eleanor's first marriage. It is hard to ment produced new standards of polite
imagine a bigger blow for Louis VII. Henry behavior around the court (courtoisie, or
was his greatest rival, and now his rebellious courtesy), a new emphasis on the impor-
vassal had combined his inheritance of tance of women as epitomized by courtly
84 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
love, and new lyrical poetry and tales of "but of blood and butchery and yearns for
romance that celebrated the changing rela- death or victory."
tions between men and women of the Authors of romances included Marie de
noblility. Under the patronage of Eleanor France, an educated woman living in En-
and her daughter, Marie (daughter of Louis gland. She told the story of one of Arthur's
VII), rules of behavior in love were estab- knights who had never known love. He
lished. Men were instructed concerning in was out hunting one day and shot an arrow
how to address ladies and were punished in at a white doe, but the arrow glanced back
a "court of love" if they offended a woman. and struck him in the thigh. The doe told
Poets known as troubadours composed him that he would not be healed until he
lyrical poetry in celebration of their love for won the love of a lady. He then took to the
women and wrote tales called romances, in sea, but his boat was shipwrecked on the
which the love of the hero and heroine shore of a beautiful garden. There a lady,
were tested by a number of separations and who was imprisoned in a tower by her cruel
adventures. Many of the romances retold husband, found him and nursed him back
legends from the past about King Arthur, to health. But the husband discovered the
Lancelot, Guinevere, and the knights of the knight and sent him off again. After a long
Round Table. Troubadours traveled widely separation, the husband was slain, the knight
seeking patronage from various nobles, and and his lady love were reunited, and they
in this way the poetry, tales, and rules of lived happily together. Having found love,
behavior of courtly love became fashion- the knight's leg healed. Stringed instruments, perhaps adopted
from the Arabs, accompanied lyric
able all over Europe. The music for lyrical poetry differed
songs and played carols for round
Troubadours could be either professional from church music. The plainchant, in dances. The fiddle was an oval instru-
musicians or nobles. Bernard de Ventadour, which all voices sang the same parts in ment with three strings that was
for example, was the son of a servant in a unison without instrumental accompani- played with a bow. The guitar was
castle. Viscount Ventadour was his patron, also a popular instrument in court
ments, had been common in church services
music.
but Bernard was very attracted to the vis- since the time of Gregory the Great. But the
countess and addressed a number of his love chansons de geste were sung to the accompa-
poems to her. When her husband became niment of a harp, and the troubadours
jealous, Bernard sought the patronage of played a stringed instrument with a bow—
Eleanor of Aquitaine. Other poets included probably in imitation of Arabic musicians.
a noble man, Bertran de Born, who wrote Polyphonic compositions, which include
with tenderness about his love of war. He parts for different voices such as tenor and
wrote of his enjoyment of the lusty spring bass, gradually became part of both reli-
with the songbirds singing and of the sight of gious and court functions.
the tented armies in the field. But what he St. Bernard of Clairvaux, one of the
liked most was to hear the cries of battle and most influential figures of the day, contrib-
the din of swords on armor and to see "horses uted hymns to the Virgin Mary to the music
mad, with rolling eye, who frenzied through and poetry of the period. Bernard was raised
the battle fly." The warrior, he wrote, thinks with the traditional values of a nobleman,
THE F L O W E R I N G OF M E D I E V A L E U R O P E • 85
Tournaments, or mock battles, became
both a way of keeping up fighting
skills and of entertaining the nobility.
They were an opportunity for rich dis-
play of fashions, feasting, horses, and
armor as well as feats of fighting
prowess. Ladies attended, cheering on
theirfavorite knight. The fighting was
highly ritualized, with lists (wooden
barriers) to confine the fighting space.
Heralds made sure that the rules of
fighting were followed.
but had a conversion experience during an terms of adoration as the noble ladies were
outing with some of his companions and in love lyrics.
joined a monastery at Citeaux, where he Noble men organized tournaments, or
entered the new Cistercian order. Although war games, that were suitable to the new
they followed the Benedictine Rule, court culture. Knights who did not go on
Cistercians tended to be stricter in their crusades or engage in combat for long
observance than the Cluniacs, and empha- periods saw tournaments as an opportu-
sized manual labor. By the time of Bernard's nity to exercise their skill with arms with
death in 1153, the same year that Eleanor minimal potential for loss of life and limb.
established her court in Aquitaine, the Tournaments were organized by nobles
Cistercian order had spread throughout to celebrate the knighting of a son, the
Europe. It was Bernard who had persuaded marriage of a daughter, the coronation of
Louis VII to undertake the Second Cru- a king, the heroic entrance of a prince into
sade, and he had been an adviser to Louis a city, or as part of yearly urban celebra-
and Eleanor. But he could not prevent their tions. In fact, any excuse was a good one
separation, and he grieved at the failure of for these mock battles. If single com-
the crusade. bat was the order of the day, then lists
Bernard was a great leader in theology as were set up in such a way that the com-
well as an inspiration for monks and mon- batants could charge each other on
archs. Among his major accomplishments horseback with lances. If a mock battle, or
were the hymns to the Virgin Mary, which melee, was planned, then a field for two
greatly increased her popularity in the opposing sides was laid out. Elevated seat-
Church at the time. More and more, ing permitted spectators, including
The worship of the Virgin Mary be- churches were dedicated to Mary, and women, to view the fights. In elaborate
came very popular in the 12th century ordinary worshipers found that addressing contests, whole towns were turned into
as hymns and churches were dedicated prayers to Mary was more comforting than fighting quarters, and the streets were
to Mary. Mary was shown as a gentle addressing them to Christ the lawgiver, as filled with sawdust or sand so that the
mother with the infant Jesus on her
lap. People found it easier to direct
he was depicted in the apses of cathedrals. horses would not slip on the cobblestones.
prayers to this motherly figure than to Mary became the subject of popular ven- The mock battles were fought from street
the more distant God or Jesus. eration and was often addressed in the same to street.
86 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D HISTORY
Ever)' noble had his own distinctive
coat of arms and registered it in a
book of heralds. Heraldry terminology
was an elaborate language of symbol-
ism that included such terms as
chevrons (peaked stripes), rampant
lions (on their hind legs), fleur-de-lis
(lily flowers), and various bars drawn
left to right or right to left.
THE F L O W E R I N G OF M E D I E V A L E U R O P E • 87
throughout France to listen to various teach- Clairvaux, believed that his thinking was
ers. Paris was the center for these debates, and close to heretical. While living in the mon-
Abelard soon developed a reputation as the astery, Abelard wrote his autobiography. It
most subtle of thinkers. He had a number of was circulated widely, and Heloise read a
students who paid fees to hear him lecture. copy. She, like Abelard, had by now be-
He became famous throughout Europe, but come the head of a religious community.
especially in Paris. His book Sic et Non (Yes Reading the account of their love reopened
and No) presented arguments for and against the old wounds. She wrote a letter to
a whole range of difficult questions, such as Abelard in which she sympathized with his
whether faith can be supported by reason, misfortunes but reminded him that she too
whether good angels and saints who enjoy had suffered. She did not think of their love
the sight of God know all things, and whether affair as a sin and recalled that he was a singer
God is a substance. of love songs in those days. Heloise wrote:
In relating the history of his misfortunes "But in the whole period of my life I have
in his autobiography, Abelard told of his ever feared to offend thee rather than God;
romance with Heloise. The uncle of this I seek to please thee rather than Him. Thy
very bright and beautiful young woman command brought me, not the love of
was a high official at Notre Dame cathe- God, to the habit of religion." She felt like
dral. Wanting to provide the best a hypocrite for loving Abelard and becom-
instruction for his niece, he engaged ing a nun only to please him. Abelard wrote
Abelard as her tutor. Abelard's description back as a father confessor rather than as a
of their lessons recounted how they moved former lover.
from reading books to kissing each other. The remarkable flowering of the arts in
The affair became more serious, and she Europe had lasting effects, even into our
became pregnant. The couple was faced own time. Courtly love and chivalry be-
with a dilemma. If they married, he would came the basis for polite relations between
not be able to pursue a career in the men and women and in society in general.
Church, because the clergy had to remain The crusades marked the first major expan-
unmarried. Heloise, not wanting to ruin sion of Europe into Asia since the Roman
his career, refused to marry him. But when period and brought Europeans into contact
their son was born, they were secretly with new products and ideas. The spirit of
wed. Not knowing that they had married, expansion and conquest never left people's
her uncle was outraged when he learned of imagination and led to the age of discovery
the birth, and arranged for a group of thugs in the 16th century. The revitalized Church
to assault and castrate Abelard. Abelard and the intellectual developments of the
retired to a monastery and urged Heloise 12th century came to further fruition in the
to do the same. 13th century as lay governments—of both
Although Abelard continued to write towns and monarchies—also began to pros-
and lecture, some people, such as Bernard of per as peace prevailed.
88 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D HISTORY
William Marshall, the Ideal Knight
Many younger sons of nobles, such as William Marshall, earned their livings as knights-errant. For these men the best hope was to find a patron to
support them or an heiress to marry them.
THE F L O W E R I N G OF M E D I E V A L E U R O P E • 89
Chapter 6
W
hile Eleanor of Aquitaine rep- priests, stories of the lives of saints, and art in
resents the innovations and new the churches. The contact between mer-
spirit of the revival of Europe chants, pilgrims, crusaders, and scholars and
in the 12th century, no single Byzantines, Turks, and Arabs also intro-
figure can personify the late 12th and early duced new ideas about religion. The laity's
13th centuries. Henry II, Eleanor's young religious views often were counter to those
second husband, was an energetic man who of the Church, and the Franciscan and
established many of the laws and govern- Dominican orders offered to teach by ex-
ment systems in England that are still used ample and by preaching where the true path
today. Among Eleanor and Henry's chil- to salvation lay. But those who strayed far
dren were two sons who also made a major from the Church's view were few in num-
impact on historical events—Richard I ("the ber and most lay people continued to support
Lion-Hearted"), who led the Third Cru- the building of parish churches, cathedrals,
sade, and John I ("Lackland"), who signed and monasteries.
In Pope Innocent Ill's dream, St. the Magna Carta. An exciting new architectural style,
Peter's church and papal palace are But perhaps the man who presided over called "gothic" by modern art historians,
about to collapse and fall on his bed
the most far-reaching changes in Europe at also revolutionized church building. Gothic
chamber, but the young St. Francis
holds up the building and saves the the time was Innocent III, who was only 37 architecture takes us back to the days of
pope, the church of St. Peter, and the when he was made pope. He had the vision Eleanor of Aquitaine, Louis VII, Henry II,
Church in a more general sense. In to see that the new ideas of Francis of Assisi, and that shaper of European politics—Suger,
many ways the picture is not an exag-
founder of the Franciscans, and Dominic, Abbot of St. Denis (d. 1151). He had been a
geration. In 1200 the Church was in
trouble. Heretics offered attractive, al- founder of the Dominicans, about mingling mentor to Louis, had helped to arrange his
ternative teachings about Christianity. among the laity might prove better than the marriage to Eleanor, and had governed
The laity was critical of the worldli- seclusion of the older monastic orders. France in their stead during the Second Cru-
ness of the Church and its Enthusiasm for religious revival remained sade. He was an energetic man, who found
involvement in politics. While Inno-
cent worked to reform the Church, it
strong among lay Christians, but they began time to patronize the development of a new
was St. Francis and his followers who to voice their own concepts about religion, architectural style in order to glorify his
reached out to the laity. which they gleaned from the teachings of abbey church. His portrait, in which he is
T
church.
he term "Gothic" is a
misnomer because the Romanesque churches were limited in
style had nothing to height and number of windows because
do with the Gothic tribes. they required heavy masonry to support
It was first applied to late their barrel and cross vaults. As a result, the
medieval architecture
buildings were dark inside. Because candles
during the Renaissance,
when all medieval artistic were too expensive to illuminate an entire
production was looked church, churches usually were quite dark
down on as barbaric. The even during services. Gothic architecture
identifying characteristics
approached the building of large structures,
of Gothic style were "fly-
ing" buttresses, pointed such as cathedrals, very differently. Rather
arches, ribbed vaults, ex- than placing all the weight of the structure
panses of stained glass on the walls, an external skeleton com-
windows, and a soaring posed of buttresses supported the internal
height. The Gothic build-
ings were towering
building skeleton of columns and vaults.
frameworks of masonry The buttresses are described as "flying"
piers or columns and because an external column of masonry
arches that were sup- supported arches that met the stress points
ported on the outside by
of the building itself. Because the skeletal
flying buttresses. Only if
all these elements were structure supported the building, the walls
perfectly balanced would could be pierced, allowing for portions of
the structure be stable. the wall to be used for windows. The
Unlike Romanesque The front of Reims Cathedral in France, with Us two rose change was revolutionary. Within 50 years
churches, in which the windows, shows the extensive use of glass in Gothic ar-
walls supported the roof, of the development of Abbot Suger's new
chitecture. The exteriors of Gothic churches were ornately
Gothic churches were style of architecture, cathedrals and large
carved with biblical figures to instruct the laity.
held up by the skeletal churches all over Europe had abandoned
structure. Their stone- Romanesque architecture and adopted the
work, therefore, could be structures. All the win- were painted on window
dows had stone tracery glass. Taken together, the
new, Gothic innovations.
thinner and used as a
decorative element. that supported the glass; images on a church's Of course, some calamities resulted.
Gothic churches were that of the rose window windows often told a Sometimes the engineering was faulty and
higher and lighter, and, gave the appearance of a story. The sculpture that the whole roof of a church caved in, as
because of their taller rose in its tracery. Filling appeared, on both the
happened to the church at Beauvais. Many
piers, had more space for in the stone were pieces external and internal
windows in the clerestory of glass in bright colors set portions of churches also European cathedrals successfully melded
as well as in other walls. in a framework of lead. frequently represented elements of the Romanesque and Gothic
A great rose window of Figures of the saints, biblical stories, the four styles, however.
stained glass dominated apostles, biblical charac- Gospels, or the Last Building a cathedral was a complex un-
the front wall of the ters, animals, and flowers Judgment.
dertaking that often took centuries. Some
say that cathedrals are never really com-
92 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Castles served both as defensive struc-
tures and as residences for the nobles,
their knights and men-at-arms, ser-
vants, and guests. The castle had a
large keep in the center that could
withstand siege. Around it was the
bailey, which had stables and bams, a
kitchen, and workshops for craftsmen.
A portion of the bailey was a garden
containing medicinal herbs.
T
mor and shoeing horses. The kitchen was
he following recipe, wort, centaury, ribwort and put your often located in the bailey as well, to keep
from a 15th-century and camomile, heyhove, lord over it and let him
the heat generated during food prepara-
English manuscript, heyriff, herb-bennet, endure for a while as hot
gives instructions for ser- bresewort, smallage, wa- as he can, being covered tion outside the main hall, particularly
vants to follow to cure ter speedwell, scabious, over and closed on every during the summer. In addition, there was
their lord of illness. bugloss, and wild flax side; and whatever dis- room for storage barns for hay and straw.
A medicinal bath: which is good for ease, grievance or pain
The gardens were the preserve of the lady
"Boil together holly- aches—boil withy leaves ye be vexed with, this
hock, mallow, wall- and green oats together medicine shall surely of the castle, who grew herbs used to treat
pellitory and brown fen- with them and throw make you whole, as the various ailments and wounds that the
nel, danewort, St. John's them hot into a vessel men say." garrison might suffer. Women generally
were responsible for preparing herbal medi-
cines and healing foods for the ill in their
Life was fairly comfortable in castles. households.
Drinking water came from wells. Water for Castles were, of course, primarily meant
washing came from a cistern, or retaining to be defensive structures rather than pleas-
tank, on the roof that collected rain, and ant residences, so they were constructed to
pipes provided a flow of water through withstand a siege. Walls were thick, and the
spigots to washbasins, called lavatories, in external windows were narrow, permitting
the living quarters and the great hall. La- arrows to be shot out but not in. A castle had
trines in the castles might feed into chutes to be well stocked with food, wine and
within the walls, or they might be outside beer, weapons and armor, firewood, tim-
the keep (central tower and living quarters) ber, and other necessities. One of the most
and drop directly to the ground or into the essential elements, however, was a source
moat. The problems with latrines were re- of water. Although water could be piped
94 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
into a castle from outside its walls, relying ram could be used to break it down. To
on such a system was too dangerous. Be- scale walls, ladders and even wooden tow-
siegers could block the supply, and the ers that could be rolled up the castle walls
castle's defendants would be "parched were popular. Finally, more accurate weap-
out"—that is, they would be threatened ons, such as the trebuchet, were developed.
with dying of thirst. A castle, therefore, was A trebuchet was a type of catapult that
best situated if it had a well within its walls. could hurl stones repeatedly at one place in
If a castle was built on a hill of rock, as many a castle wall and thus weaken it.
were in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, Perhaps one of the most effective siege
the wells would be very deep. tactics was to undermine or sap the castle
Although castles were built as defensive walls. This process was similar to putting a
structures, few experienced sieges. The mineshaft under the walls. A description of
most effective way to lay siege was to the attack of King John I of England on his
surround a castle and cut off its water and barons, who had seized Rochester castle,
food supplies. This maneuver would even- gives a vivid account of the sapping pro-
tually starve or parch out the defenders. cess. King John hired miners to sink a shaft
With exposure to the more sophisticated under the wall and build supports of dry
siege strategies used during the Crusades, wood. He then called for a dozen hogs that
however, the use of various siege machines were too fat to be eaten. These he had
became more common. The weak point of killed and their lard rendered. The lard was
a castle was the bailey gate, and a battering spread over the wooden supports in the
EW A R C H I T E C T U R E , IDEAS, AND M O N A S T I C O R D E R S • 95
no forks), and to share their trencher (a piece
of rough bread that served as a plate) with
their dinner partner. Glasses were also shared,
and the proper young courtier learned to
wipe the glass after drinking so that the rim
would be clean for his or her dinner partner.
Dogs were not fed at the table for fear that
they would fight over the bones. Young
boys might also become pages (perhaps late
Latin or German for "child") and serve their
lord and lady and their guests at the table.
As children grew up, boys and girls were
trained to take on different roles. Young
women learned to sew and embroider.
They spent most of their time with the
The Krak des Chevaliers in Syria shaft and set ablaze. The wall tumbled down other women of the household in the
was built for defense against Turkish as the supports burned. women's quarters. Here they might also
attack on the Latin kingdom of
Most castles were living quarters for noble learn to read romances and lyric poetry,
Jerusalem. The walls were extremely
thick and a well was dug down families and their households. Children who play musical instruments and cards, and
through the rock so that the castle grew up in castles were not necessarily raised dance. Young men, on the other hand,
would have an internal water sup- by their parents in their early years, because became squires and learned to fight. They
ply. The castle held out against
their parents might be away at other castles, had to practice using a sword and lance
attack until 1268.
on crusade, or at the king's court. These while riding on a horse. Some young squires
children had nurses who fed and entertained even accompanied their lords to battles or
them. But their lives were not lonely, be- on crusades. The knighting ceremony, usu-
cause there were many adults in the castle as ally held when a man reached 21, ended his
well as other children to play with. They tenure as a squire.
rode horses, climbed around the battle- Marriage was important for those noble
ments, went out into the countryside, and children who would inherit their father's or
received some early instruction from a cler- mother's property. Usually, the older chil-
gyman hired to teach them their letters. dren in the family would marry, and the
Parents customarily sent both boys and girls younger children might find careers in the
to another noble family of higher status administration of the Church or in monas-
when they reached the age of seven or eight. teries. Parents or often a lord arranged the
This practice was called fostering. There marriages. The Church taught that girls of
they learned the correct court manners from 12 and boys of 14 were old enough to be
the lord and lady of the household. Both married, but the age of marriage varied
boys and girls learned to ride and hunt, to greatly depending on the couple's social
wash their hands before coming to the table, class and the circumstances at the time.
to eat properly with their fingers (they had Among the nobility, girls were often mar-
96 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
ried at a young age because the marriages flirtations helped to pass the time and ease Siege weapons included the catapult,
could create alliances of political or eco- the loneliness of a loveless marriage. Castles which was used to throw large stones,
boiling oil, and other objects in besieg-
nomic importance. They might have been always had a number of young fighting men ing a castle. The catapult was cranked
heiresses with valuable land, or given in around to sing, compose songs, and partici- down with a winch which, when re-
marriage to a former enemy of their father pate in tournaments for the entertainment leased, caused the arm to rise swiftly
as a symbol of peace between two families. of the women and girls who lived there. and throw the object at or over a wall.
Their marriage partners could be as young The elaborate castles of the Middle Ages
as they were or as old as their fathers. A large were also centers of government. From
age disparity between husband and wife them, lords administered their estates, and
was not uncommon. kings administered their kingdoms.
Major negotiations took place between In the 12th and 13th centuries through-
the families of the bride and groom. The out Europe, monarchs consolidated their
bride's family provided a dowry that might power. To trace the development of the
include land, but could also be wealth in the monarchies, it is necessary to go back a
form of jewels, serving vessels of gold and century to the time of Henry II's grand-
silver, war horses, armor, or fine clothing. father, Henry I (reigned 1100-1135). When
Princess Philippa, the fiancee of the young William the Conqueror died in 1087, he
man who became Edward III of England, had three sons—Robert, William, and
was given a dowry of a fleet of boats and Henry. Robert received Normandy, Will-
fighting men so that the groom's mother iam got England, and young Henry was
could invade England in his name. given a cash settlement. Henry was ambi-
The husband's family promised a dower tious, and when William died from an
(a benefit that a wife could collect on her arrow wound during a hunt, rumors spread
husband's death) composed of a third of his that Henry was responsible. But Henry
lands and estates. She would have the use of became king of England and, after Robert
this land for as long as she lived, then it died, Duke of Normandy as well. In France
would be inherited by the children of the the Capetians continued to rule from Paris.
marriage. Widows living on their dower They tried to gain recognition from their
lands were called dowagers. Practices var- wayward counts and dukes, among whom
ied from region to region. In Italy the Henry I of England was the most trouble-
dower disappeared, but in other areas both some. Henry controlled not only Normandy,
the dower and the dowry remained impor- but also Brittany and some of the territory
tant parts of contracts for arranged marriages. along the Seine River. He consolidated his
The marriages might be happy or at least power in England, then began to extend his
acceptable to the married couples, or they authority throughout the realm.
could be miserable. Women were expected Henry I had misfortunes as well as suc-
to produce children to carry on the family cesses. His two sons died crossing the English
name, but their husbands might be away Channel, so as he approached death as an
much of the time. One of the reasons that old man who had ruled for 35 years, his only
courtly love flourished was that ritualized heir was a daughter, Matilda. He took the
98 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
disputes, with the authority of the king
backing up their decision. The system was
very popular and in time England used
juries to decide criminal matters as well.
For Henry the benefits were peace and
increased profits. To keep track of the
revenues that he received from England, he
reinvigorated the Exchequer established by
Henry I, which is still the chief cabinet
office in charge of finances today. The
Exchequer takes its name from a large
tablecloth on which the accounts of the
realm were calculated. On it was a series of
columns, which were crossed by horizontal
lines. The tablecloth was simply a large
abacus that permitted calculation of sums
owed without using cumbersome Roman
numerals. The word "exchequer" derived
from the Arabic word for the game of chess
or checkers. The Exchequer usually met in
Westminster (the royal palace located just cellor of the Exchequer. When the Arch- The Exchequer, or treasury, took its
west of London), and all county officials bishop of Canterbury died, Henry thought name from the checkered table cloth, a
type of abacus on which they tallied
and royal justices rendered their accounts at he could reward a loyal servant and have a the fines they had collected for the
this central location. All debtors, even if subservient archbishop by appointing king. Officials presented their accounts
they were officials, were imprisoned until Becket. and the money that was due. The
they paid the amount due to the king. But Becket seemed to have undergone a Chancellor of the Exchequer and his
clerks kept a record of the accounts
Henry was an energetic man. In fact, his conversion when he was elevated to the
and imprisoned those who did not
courtiers complained that he exhausted archbishopric. He took the side of the pay the full amount.
them because he constantly administered, Church against his old friend, Henry. The
fought in tournaments and battles, hunted, focus of their fight was the relations be-
and pursued his enemies with ruthlessness. tween the church courts and the royal
Even during church services he had to have courts. Henry wanted clergy who had com-
writing materials with him, or he would mitted crimes tried in the powerful royal
fidget. He was a redhead with a freckled courts, and Becket wanted them tried by
face and a muscular physique. A fiery tem- their bishop. If the clerks were tried in royal
perament accompanied his generally ruddy courts, they would be hanged if convicted,
appearance. None felt the quick anger more but if they were found guilty in the bishop's
than Thomas Becket, who became Arch- court, they would only have to say prayers
bishop of Canterbury. Becket, a London or go on a pilgrimage to atone for their
merchant's son, had served Henry as Chan- wrongdoing. Henry exiled Becket, but the
Holy Land because he died while taking a with little resistance. John earned the name
swim. Philip II, on the other hand, hated "Lackland" because of his loss of territory.
fighting, disliked cooperating with the The capture of Richard I in Germany
chivalric Richard, and decided to return to was related to German political ambitions.
France to take advantage of Richard's ab- Frederick Barbarossa (1152—1190) came to
sence by attacking his fiefs. On the way the throne with grand plans to restore the
home from the Holy Land, Frederick's influence of the Holy Roman Empire by
heir, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, gaining power either in Germany itself or in
took Richard prisoner and held him for Italy and Burgundy. But to consolidate
ransom. While England and the Angevin power in Germany would involve pro-
territories in France scrambled to pay the tracted fights with relatives and other
ransom, Philip waged war against Richard's German nobles. Frederick acquired the
French fiefs. When Richard was released, duchy of Burgundy by marrying its heiress,
he conducted campaigns against Philip, but but Italy was a more difficult problem.
102 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
that specialized in appeals to the pope for Frederick, Henry VI's young son, would
divorces, annulments of marriages, and other bend to his guidance. By 1209, Frederick II
matters of spiritual guidance; and a chan- was old enough to be made emperor, and
cery that handled diplomatic issues. The Innocent extracted three promises from
bureaucrats of the papal government also him: He would follow the spiritual direc-
developed special ways of writing and spe- tion of the pope; he would lead a crusade;
cial seals so that the directives and letters that and he would abdicate as king of Naples and
came out of their offices could not be easily Sicily and sever that territory from the Holy
counterfeited. Papal bulls, as the official Roman Empire once he had gained control
directives were called, had nothing to do over his German possessions.
with the male bovine, but rather took their In England, Innocent played a more
name from the lead seal or bulla (a knob) proactive role. John I had his own candidate
that was attached to the documents to for the position of Archbishop of Canter-
authenticate them. bury, but Innocent insisted on the
The most notable pope of the late 12th appointment of Stephen Langton. Inno-
and early 13th centuries was Innocent III. cent excommunicated John and even
He represented a new type of clergyman. threatened to encourage Philip II Augustus
Innocent had studied theology at the Uni- to invade England. John engaged in a series
versity of Paris and church law at the of unsuccessful campaigns to regain
University of Bologna. His legal training Normandy that proved very costly. In or-
was very helpful to the Church, which was der to raise money for his battles, he forced
expanding its bureaucracy throughout Eu-
rope and entering into political fights with
the European monarchs. After becoming The Holy Roman Empire
pope at the comparatively young age of 37,
he had the energy and intelligence to ac-
complish much during his papacy
(1198-1216).
Among Innocent Ill's political goals was
T he imperial title of
the Carolingians was
abandoned in 924,
but was revived in 962 by
the emperor of Germany,
As a political unit, the
Holy Roman Empire sur-
vived until 1806. Its unity
relied on the wealth and
personality of the emperor
aggressive, the empire
played a prominent role in
European politics, but if
the emperor was involved
in internal civil wars, it
to ensure that the German emperor re- Otto the Great. His realm rather than on common was not a great power.
spected the pope's authority and left Rome is known to historians as institutions or even com- The German nobility con-
in peace. He feared that an aggressive Holy the Holy Roman Empire. mon languages, since Slavs, tinued to claim the right
Despite its name, the Hungarians, Bohemians, to elect the emperor, and
Roman emperor could take control of the Holy Roman Empire and Italians were all part of they were often inclined
papacy because Henry VI's marriage gave had little in common the empire. Its governance to elect the weakest candi-
the family domination over Germany to with the Roman Empire. was weak compared with date that they could find
the north and Naples to the south. Citing In fact, it was geographi- that of England and from the royal family.
cally located, for the most France, and its inhabitants Nonetheless, some notable
the coronation of Charlemagne as em-
part, in an area that had developed no sense of a figures held the title, in-
peror, Innocent claimed that as pope he had included no Roman collective identity. If the cluding Frederick I and his
the authority to intervene in the election of settlement. emperor was strong and grandson, Frederick II.
the German emperor. He thought that
T
then, separately, questioned the accused.
raditionally bishops sweeping powers to ques- by heresy. Therefore
had been charged tion suspected heretics they sought confessions, The two sides did not confront each other,
with the spiritual cor- and witnesses. The Inqui- so that they could bring which prevented the possibility of intimida-
rection of the laity, sition, which did not heretics back into the tion on either side. The justices then rendered
including dealing with allow suspects to confront fold of the Church
a decision. Guilt in either system resulted in
heresy. In the 1230s, the witnesses or obtain legal where the salvation of
papacy replaced the bish- counsel, accepted the tes- their souls could be as- punishment by hanging. Fortunately, both
ops with tribunals of timony of two witnesses sured. Those who systems were lenient, and only about a
judges. These tribunals, as sufficient evidence for confessed were given quarter of the accused were hanged.
known as the Inquisition, conviction. The inquisi- penances or prison terms. The Church itself was having problems
were made up of well- tors often used torture as Only when heretics re-
educated churchmen who a way of extracting a con- with a large minority of laity who held
fused to recant their
had taken religious vows fession. Their goal was to beliefs were they burned beliefs contrary to those of the official
(often in the Dominican save the souls of those at the stake or otherwise doctrine. In the urban centers of southern
order). They were given who had been led astray executed. Europe, the population began to question
the growing power of the clergy and the
southern France. Although Dominic their preaching. With their learning and on pilgrimage to Rome, where he led a life
brought to this calling a considerable repu- their example of living in the poverty of poverty. He exchanged clothing with a
tation as a preacher and as a priest who led associated with Jesus' apostles, the Domini- beggar and spent his days asking for alms.
a humble, devout life, initially he won few cans made converts among the Albigensians. After returning to Assisi he continued to
converts. Realizing that he could make Later they became missionaries in central dress as a beggar and began giving away the
little impact alone, he organized volunteers Asia and even China. family money. His father disinherited him
to help him create an order whose mission A contemporary of Dominic, Francis of to stop this erratic behavior. The action
would be to preach to heretics and unbe- Assisi (1182—1226), earned the love and may have saved the family fortune, but
lievers throughout the known world. Pope captured the imagination of the people of Francis withdrew to the outskirts of Assisi,
Innocent recognized the order in 1216. It his time. As a young man he led the carefree where he lived with the poor and minis-
was called the Order of the Friar Preachers, life of a wealthy young Italian. His father tered to the sick. He adopted a mission he
but it is still known also as the Dominicans. was a cloth merchant in Assisi, in central had heard described in a sermon: "Cure the
Rather than retreating to monasteries as Italy. Young Francis was not interested in sick, raise the dead, cleanse the lepers, drive
previous monastic orders had done, the business, being more inclined to imitate out devils. Carry neither gold not silver nor
Dominicans moved about in the world. courtly manners and spend his time in money in your belts or bag, nor two coats,
They were an educated order who could revelry. In his early 20s he underwent a nor sandals, nor staff, for the workman is
preach to inquiring new urban dwellers, series of experiences that led to a profound worthy of his hire." So Francis took on
argue with heretics, and provide teachers religious conversion. The first incident oc- these symbols of poverty and began preach-
for the new universities. They could also curred after a banquet that he had given for ing, even though he was a layman.
staff the Inquisition. Rather than living off friends. The revelers moved into the street— When Francis had about a dozen fol-
the proceeds of manors that were given to singing and waving torches and flowers. lowers, he urged them to go to Rome and
monasteries, as other orders did, the Do- Francis, however, separated from them and ask permission to preach with the pope's
minicans made their living by soliciting was later found in a religious trance. Con- blessing. It was farsighted of Innocent to
donations from the pious laity to support tinuing his religious commitment, he went grant this request. He must have seen this
108 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
completely pious young man as a valuable campaigns, battles, revolts, high-stake poli-
counter to the perfecti of the Albigensians. tics between kings and popes, heresies, and
Even before Dominic had established his new religious orders. Universities were
mendicant or begging order, Francis had being established at the same time that
organized his followers according to this Francis and Dominic were preaching, and
model. As much as possible, they strove to radical new intellectual debates caused as
imitate the life of Christ: They dressed as much chaos in the universities as the
peasants, tended to the wants and ills of the Albigensians did among the nobles and
urban poor, and preached to the unedu- peasants of southern France. The English
cated with stories derived from folktales nobles continued their attempts to control
already familiar to their audiences. their kings, resulting in the development of
Their very name, "Friars Minor," or Parliament. Even the crusading ideal did
"little brothers," indicated the cheerful not die. The great crusader and king of
humility that they preached as an ideal all France, St. Louis, graced the 13th century Innocent III, flanked by two cardinals
over Europe. Some of Francis' old life as a with his presence. The next chapter will with their characteristic flat hats, rec-
troubadour reappeared in his hymns, which look at this exciting era from another per- ognizes the order of Francis of Assisi.
His followers are shown with the tra-
praised God through his creatures and his spective—that of the peasants. Faced with
ditional tonsure of monks and the
creation. Francis is associated with preach- war, political troubles, and taxes, were they simple garments of the order, includ-
ing the word of God even to animals. His as thrilled as the nobles during this exuber- ing a rope belt holding together the
order drew a vast following, including many ant period? brown robes.
women. Although it was acceptable for
men to go begging, the Church certainly
did not want women from respectable
families to beg. Therefore, an enclosed
female order was established by Francis's
friend and follower, Clare. The Poor Clares
worked among the poor.
But even the horde of men who fol-
lowed the rule of Francis was too large to be
supported by begging alone. They had to
be organized into monastic institutions, and
eventually they and the Dominicans came
to resemble the older orders. Nonetheless,
their monastic houses tended to be located
in urban areas rather than in isolated regions
like those of the Benedictines and the
Cistercians.
The 12th and early 13th century was a
period of enormous excitement. There was
something to engage everyone's interest:
Communities and
Their Members
D
uring the Middle Ages, local com- and production of goods, education of
munities were important to people's scholars, government by councils and as-
sense of belonging. If peasants were semblies (either with or without the king's
asked to identify themselves, they approval), and establishment of everyday
would not say that they were English, French, order in peasant communities. These groups
German, or Italian. They would say that went by different names, but they had
they were the son or daughter of a certain much in common. Universitas was a Latin
man or woman. If pressed, they would name that translated into "guild" in En-
explain that they were from a particular glish. (It is also the root of the modern word
village. In international markets, a merchant "university.") In the Middle Ages, it ap-
from London, Florence, Milan, or Leipzig plied to students and masters who organized
would identify himself by his town. People into groups that regulated classes and ex-
cared a great deal about the community aminations as well as to guilds that organized
from which they came. If pressed further craftsmen and merchants, setting the stan-
they would identify themselves as Chris- dards for the quality of products that
tians, but the idea of having a national members produced and rules for permit-
identity such as English, French, German, or ting others to join the group as apprentices.
Italian would leave them perplexed. They Peasant communities developed mecha-
might identify their king or emperor and nisms that regulated peacekeeping within
agree they owed allegiance to that person, villages. The representative units that ad-
but being part of a nation had little meaning vised the monarchs of Europe went by the
Louis IX, or St. Louis (top right),
was known for his pious life and his for them. generic name of council, but they were
crusading. His mother, Blanche of In the 13th and early 14th centuries, called Estates in France, Parliament in En-
Castile (top left), became regent for people organized their communities with gland, Cortes in Spain, and diets in Germany.
her son when he was abroad on cru- rules and regulations that determined who They might consist of only nobles and
sades. The author dictating to the
belonged to the group and who was ex- higher clergy, but increasingly they in-
scribe (at bottom) indicates the intel-
lectual excitement that characterized cluded from it. Rules of behavior and cluded representatives from the urban
13th century Paris. membership requirements regulated trade populations and successful country gentle-
A goliard was a glutton, but the name was applied to medieval students and a
style of satiric poetry they wrote in both Latin and the vernacular. Some were
love lyrics, others were drinking songs, and still others concerned nature. The poem
below is a begging song, in which the student could insert the name of the patron to
whom he was making his appeal in the last verse.
Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury
who opposed Henry II, and the future
Pope Innocent III went there for their
legal training. Such students had clear
career goals and wanted to ensure that the
I, a wandering scholar lad, Oft I have to suffer cold,
university prepared them for their chosen
Born for toil and sadness, By the warmth forgotten.
Oftentimes am driven by poverty profession. They had already received in-
to madness. Scarce I can attend at church, struction in Latin, reasoning, and
Sing God's praises duly;
Literature and knowledge I Mass and vespers both I miss mathematics but needed specific training
Fain would still be earning, Though I love them truly. in either canon or civil law—that is, in
Were it not that want of pelf the law of the Church or in Roman law.
Makes me cease from learning. Oh, though pride of [Normandy],
By thy worth I pray thee, Students of canon law studied the works of
These torn cloths that cover me
Are too thin and rotten; Give the suppliant help in need; Gratian, a compilation of papal pronounce-
Heaven will sure repay thee. ments . This law was very important because
tradition made St. Peter and his successors
(the popes) the keepers of the keys to
men who had made their name as admin- schools at their cathedrals. Scholarship re- heaven. Whatever laws they issued on
istrators of the king's justice. mained centered at cathedrals, but by the earth, according to the Doctrine of Petrine
The development of collective units was early 12th century, scholars and professors Succession, would also be binding in
not sudden: All of them had their roots in had begun to move from place to place, heaven. Students of Roman law studied
a variety of institutions of earlier centuries. giving lectures and charging students per the Codex Justinianus and the Digest, which
Universities, for instance, can be traced lecture. Lectures were delivered in Latin, had been prepared by Justinian's jurists
back to the days of Charlemagne, who felt the universal language of the educated. centuries earlier. Because much had
so strongly about the need to educate clergy (The name of the area in which students changed in both canon and civil law since
that he ordered his bishops to establish congregated on the left bank of the Seine in these works had been written, the lectures
There Hebrew scholars translated it, and lieve one thing on faith and another thing
finally it was translated into Latin. The on reason.
reaction of European scholars to Aristotle To this end he applied the tools of logic,
was extreme excitement, but the Church including logical proof for the existence of
was skeptical because his logic suggested God. But he held that some concepts, such
that knowledge of God could be derived by as the Trinity (God, Christ, and the Holy
reason rather than by faith or revelation. Ghost), could not be understood by human
Part of the argument between the Church reason because they were infinite. Only
and the masters in Paris centered on the God's reason, which was infinite, could
study and teaching of Aristotle. The Church understand such concepts, and faith would
could not ban his work, so instead it sought have to be humans' directive here. The
to integrate it into Christian teachings. Dominican order so revered Thomas that, move to the university in Oxford, which
The man who accomplished this task when he died in 1274, they boiled his body was established in the late 11th century, and
was Thomas Aquinas. He was born near so that they could extract his bones and to Cambridge, which traces its origins to
Naples in 1225 into a family related to keep them as relics. He was canonized as a the dispersion of faculty from both Oxford
Frederick II. His father, a count, was ap- saint shortly after his death. and Paris. Germany opened its first univer-
palled when his brilliant younger son decided The best medical school in the 12th and sities in the 14th century, and gradually
to become a Dominican. After all, he rea- 13th centuries was in Salerno, Sicily. Sicily towns in southern France, Austria, Bohemia,
soned, no member of his family should encompassed a remarkable mixture of cul- and Poland built universities as well. With
belong to a begging, mendicant order. tures, unlike that in any other area of Latin as the universal language of literacy
Thomas's father offered to buy the boy a Christian Europe except for parts of Spain. and lecturing, all the universities were in-
bishopric if he was set on going into the In Sicily western Christians, Moslems, and ternational. Both students and faculty often
Church. His mother pleaded tearfully with Greeks had all lived together, bringing with traveled from one university to another.
him not to become a friar and tried to them their intellectual texts, including the A series of examinations established a
kidnap him from the order. His six brothers superior Greek and Arabic medical texts. At student's competency to teach. Students
thought that they could corrupt him and the University of Salerno students studied seeking the bachelor of arts degree were
break his resolve by putting a prostitute in these texts and learned anatomy by dissect- allowed to take the examinations after at-
his bed. Thomas, however, would not be ing human cadavers. In Paris the Church tending lectures for four years. The
tempted. After finishing his studies at the prohibited the dissection of human bodies, curriculum was divided into the trivium
University of Naples, he went to Paris, though it did allow pigs to be dissected. As (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, or logical
where he earned his doctorate in 1257. He a consequence, physicians with degrees argumentation) and quadrivium (arithmetic,
then taught at the university, where he from Salerno were the more learned and geometry, astronomy, and music). The
wrote the treatise Summa Theologica (the most valued. trivium, from which the word "trivial"
highest or most important theology), which Other universities were established derives, would have been easy for a young
applied Aristotle to all aspects of Christian throughout Europe, mostly modeled on man coming to school with a good back-
teaching, including social and doctrinal the University of Paris. Another riot from ground in reading and writing the Latin
matters. Thomas argued that revealed 1229 to 1231 was partly responsible for the language and in presenting arguments, or
knowledge of the Bible and the truth that dispersion of the Parisian faculty across logical proofs. The quadrivium was more
was arrived at by Aristotle's logic must agree Europe. The masters had threatened to difficult, involving as it did the study of
because truth is truth—one could not be- leave Paris entirely, and some indeed did mathematics and sciences; even the music
116 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
system still exists today and can best be Women could
observed at Oxford and Cambridge. not go to universi-
A number of options were open to boys ties, because they
preparing to enter university. Those from were clerical estab-
wealthy families had private tutors who lishments and women
taught them grammar and rhetoric (the were excluded from
trivium). Parish priests taught the children of any role in the
their parish, and many cathedrals had choir Church except that
schools in which boys were given lessons in of a nun. Some wo-
theology in exchange for singing at services men, however, did
and funerals. Monasteries and nunneries learn to read and possibly to write. They The medieval universities established
also played a role in educating young men sometimes gained a knowledge of Latin a college system to provide students
with rooms, meals, books, and super-
and women. By the late Middle Ages, the and classical works within nunneries.
vision by masters. Merton College at
endowment of grammar schools had be- Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) com- Oxford University still exists today.
come as popular among the wealthy as the posed a religious opera and hymns, wrote In the Middle Ages it was best
endowment of colleges. For instance, in the medical treatises, and made up a private known for its scientific and math-
ematical scholars. Now known as the
15th century John Carpenter, a wealthy alphabet of 23 letters and a language with
"Merton Calculators," they worked
London merchant, founded a grammar 900 words. Traveling extensively, she on the earliest form of mathematical
school that still exists today. His will pro- talked to people of all walks of life about physics.
vided for the teaching and housing of boys her religious visions. She was so famous in
called "Carpenter's Children," and gave her day that even St. Bernard of Clairvaux
them a master who in addition to giving consulted her.
lessons saw that they learned to shave, A lay woman named Jacoba Felicie prac-
bathed frequently, and had clean clothes ticed medicine very successfully in Paris and
and adequate shoes. its environs, until she ran afoul of the
A cardinal rule for the education of the University of Paris because she did not have
young was that "to spare the rod was to a university degree. In her defense, a num-
spoil the child." If a boy did not know his ber of men and women came forward to
lessons, he was beaten so that the next time testify that she had succeeded in curing
he came to school he would be prepared. them after the "Doctors of the University"
(The youth of Oxford must have enjoyed had failed. Jacoba probably had more im-
hearing that one of their masters fell into a mediate knowledge of the body and its parts
river and drowned while gathering willow and functions than did those who received
twigs to make a switch.) Children learned medical degrees from Paris after studying
Latin from grammar books, used dictio- the anatomy of pigs. Furthermore, she, like
naries to help them translate their vernacular many women, knew much more about
language into Latin, practiced their sen- healing herbs than did the "doctors." Nev-
tences and Latin declensions on wax tablets, ertheless, she lost her right to practice in the
and recited famous passages in Latin to face of the university's monopoly on medi-
their teachers. cal education.
Women tended to be more literate in or because they were widows. In any case,
the vernacular languages than men. Some they needed to learn how to read house-
probably also could read official documents hold accounts, charters, and other official
in Latin on legal matters concerning land documents.
and divorce. Certainly, the 12th century The demand for education spread
produced authors such as Marie de France throughout Europe as the legal, clerical,
and literary patrons such as Eleanor of and judicial worlds became more compli-
Aquitaine. Wills show that women bought cated. Students needed to have the
and bequeathed to their daughters religious baccalaureate in order to receive more
books, romances, and books on courtly specialized training. With only two years of
behavior. In the art of the period, the Virgin law school in continental Europe, a man
Mary and other women were often de- could become a notary and make a very
picted holding books, as opposed to men, good living drawing up legal contracts. In
who were shown clutching either swords England the baccalaureate degree was help-
or symbols of ecclesiastical office. Such ful in entering the Inns of Court, where
images indicate how closely women were students learned common law. Common
The guilds and the cities of Europe
identified with reading. law was based on precedents established in
regulated the price and quality of basic
items such as bread and other foods, In all probability, women were the first earlier cases or practice. Lawyers could
wine, beer, shoes, and clothing. Bak- instructors of their male and female chil- work for the government as bureaucrats or
ers were to make bread of dren. Whereas the boys went on to schools, for private clients as attorneys. Merchants
good-quality grain rather than adding
the girls continued to learn in the home who traded both locally and internationally
sawdust, the weight was specified,
and the amount they could charge de- with tutors or were sent to nunneries for needed to be able to read a contract in Latin.
pended on the market price of grain. further training. But an education in read- Increasingly, they required their appren-
Those who sold inadequate bread ing and doing sums was a requirement tices to be literate before they could become
were put on a hurdle behind horses mostly of the landed classes and the bour- masters in their vocation.
with the bad bread tied around their
necks, and were pulled through the
geoisie . Women were often left in charge of Controlling admittance into a guild or
streets to advertise to the population estates and businesses either because their univeysitas was the practice not only of
who sold bad bread. husbands were away at war or on business universities in the 13th and 14th centuries.
In urban communities as well, craftsmen
and merchants came together to keep the
untrained out of their professions. The
masters began by regulating themselves.
They established the standards of quality
necessary for their basic products and re-
quired anyone who wanted to be a master
to demonstrate that he could produce a
product of this standard. For example, a
baker or a shoemaker had to prove to his
guild that he could produce a fine quality
basic loaf of daily wheat bread or a basic
118 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E DH I S T O R Y
shoe. Only after having done so could he artisans who persisted in their bad practices
become a master of his trade. Those who were expelled from the guild and the city,
were not guild members could not trade. so they could no longer trade. The guild
Those who allowed the quality of their system also allowed tradesmen a margin of
wares to drop were punished by the guild profit. Although the price of basic bread,
and the city for selling false goods. A loaf of shoes, or cloth was set, a guildsman could
bread or a shoe, for instance, had to be made sell higher quality goods—such as fine cakes
of high quality materials. Bread could not and pies, exquisite boots or court shoes, or
contain sawdust or rotted grain, and shoes beautifully woven velvets or brocades—for
had to be made of new, well-tanned leather. a great profit. Price controls affected only
Punishments for selling false goods included basic goods.
fining members for a first offense. If a Like those of the universities, the urban
guildsman proved recalcitrant, city officials guilds were controlled by masters, who
would have him paraded through the streets undertook the training of apprentices. Ap-
with musicians playing drums and beating prentices wanted to learn particular trades
on pans. The miscreant would be led to the so that they too could become masters. In
public pillory with the offending item—his the artisan guilds, most apprentices were
bad bread or his shoddy shoes—strung peasants. But in the higher guilds—such as
around his neck. His false goods would then those of goldsmiths, bankers, overseas mer-
be burned under his nose. Vintners who chants, vintners, and clothiers—the
sold sour wine had to drink a draught of it, apprentices came from urban families and
and the rest was poured over their heads. were often the younger sons of knights.
Guilds of merchants who dealt in banking The family or friends of an apprentice
and long-distance trade also regulated their agreed to pay a sum to his master to take in
members and fined them for false dealings. the young person for a set number of years,
Modern economists have criticized guilds usually from 7 to 10, or sometimes even
because they limited outside competition more. Apprenticeships began when a young
and kept prices high as a consequence. man was about 14, old enough to be able to
Consumers, however, benefited under the learn a trade. Parents or friends testified to
guild system. With both guilds and the city the honesty and good upbringing of the
governments regulating business, they could young person, and the master agreed to
be sure that the city's banking and trade provide clothing, a sleeping space, food,
practices conformed to international busi- training, and a small salary as the apprentice
ness standards, and that the products they became more skilled at the work. The
Guilds identified themselves by their
bought were of good quality. Weights and apprentice could not spend the master's
clothing and other symbols. Each
measures were carefully regulated by the money on gambling or theater and could guild wore specially colored robes in
city. Consumers had the satisfaction of not marry during the course of apprentice- civic parades and at guild feasts. They
seeing corrupt tradesmen paraded through ship. The apprentice moved into the home also had coats of arms that indicated
their trade.
the streets, a warning to all not to buy of the master and his family. He or she
products from them. Those merchants and might be the only apprentice in the house-
122 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Philip IV the Fair (seated, center) is
surrounded by his children. The crowned
queen is Isabelle, wife of Edward II and
mother of Edward III. When Louis died
his four sons inherited the throne in suc-
cession. Since none of them produced a
male heir, Edward III, as the son of
Isabelle, claimed the throne. This act of
defiance was among the causes of the
Hundred Years' War.
124 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E DH I S T O R Y
beginning the crusade. But the pope was Louis IX's younger brother, Charles of
very distrustful of any Christian, particu- Anjou, was looking for projects and de-
larly Frederick II, who made deals with cided to take over Sicily and southern Italy.
those who could not swear an oath that was By good fortune and some maneuvering on
binding with the Christian God. Several the part of the Capetians, there was a
more years passed before he removed the French pope who welcomed a French
ban of excommunication. initiative. Charles, however, did not take
The pope was right to be suspicious of into consideration the local opposition in
Frederick. He simply did not play by the Sicily nor the power of King Peter of
rules of medieval feudal and Christian eth- Aragon. Aragon had emerged as a powerful
ics . His kingdom and rule were more similar kingdom in Spain when its king married
to those of an eastern despot or a Byzantine the heiress of the valuable province of
emperor than a king of England or France. Catalonia and gained a navy. With a power
After returning from his crusade, Frederick vacuum in Sicily, Peter of Aragon sent his
began to build an efficient state in Sicily. fleet. His aggression coincided with the
Sicily became a safe haven for shipping Sicilian Vespers of 1282. On Easter Mon-
because his trade agreements with the day, when the church bells rang to call the
Moslem states had removed much of the congregations to evening service, this pre-
threat of piracy. Within Sicily Frederick arranged insurrection led to the massacre of
encouraged the growth of new crops such all Charles of Anjou's supporters. Peter of
as dates, sugar, and cotton. Under his guid- Aragon stepped into this civil revolt and
ance laws were codified; the economy claimed Sicily for himself. Some historians
prospered; and Moslems, Greeks, Jews, and argue that the Mafia originated in the Sicil-
Christians lived in harmony. He had vowed ian Vespers.
to the pope, however, that he would aban- Following the Sicilian Vespers, the Col-
don Sicily in favor of Germany. Instead, he lege of Cardinals realized that it must elect
allowed the princes, prelates, and cities of an Italian pope rather than a French one and
the Holy Roman Empire to go their own that he must be a person of outstanding Pope Boniface VIII argued
strongly for papal supremacy.
way. Like his grandfather he tried to take character who could regain respect for the
He quarreled with both Edward
control of the wealthy cities of northern spiritual mission of the Church. The cardi- I of England and Philip IV of
Italy. A series of battles, in which the pope nals selected a pious monk from southern France to keep them from taxing
sided with the cities, remained inconclusive Italy, who became Celestine V. The cardi- the clergy in their countries. He
because Frederick died in 1250. nals hoped that Celestine would be a died after being captured by
agents of Philip IV.
The 13th century saw a great number of figurehead for spiritual matters and leave
changes in the politics of Europe that would the papal bureaucracy to continue running
have consequences for centuries to come. financial and political affairs. But the more
Henry Ill's weak rule in England and the Celestine learned of the papal bureaucrats
death of Frederick II's sons meant that the and their program the more worried he
Capetian dynasty in France became the became. He felt that if he allowed the
most powerful monarchy in Europe. King corruption he discovered to continue, his
The caravan route across the vast internal land of Asia was known as the Great Silk Road. Marco Polo and his family took it to China. Silks,
rugs, spices, precious gems, and other luxury goods were carried by camel. The merchants rode horses.
M arco Polo's father China under the patron- account indicates that both thorough purge; but after The three Venetians
was a Venetian age of the Chinese men wrote the memoirs. that it does them good and spent 17 years in the ser-
merchant named emperor, Kublai Khan. The book recounts the makes them put on flesh." vice of the Khan and
Niccolo. He and Marco's Other Christians— perils of the route and the Not having seen coal be- became immensely rich.
uncle had made a trip to including merchants, mis- customs Polo learnt along fore, he wrote: "Let me They then wanted to re-
China in 1260 when sionaries, and Byzantine the way. For example, he tell you next of stones that turn home, but the Khan
Marco was only six years immigrants—were also described a drink he dis- burn like logs. It is a fact was reluctant to let them
old and returned with present in the Orient at covered in southern Asia: that throughout the prov- go. Finally, however, he
stories of the great wealth the time. "In this country they make ince in Cathay [China] needed to transport a Chi-
they had found there. On Marco Polo wrote his date wine with the addi- there is a sort of black nese bride to the king of
a second voyage in 1271 memoirs after his return in tion of various spices, and stone, \vhich is dug out of Persia by sea. Marco, his
Marco went along, and 1292. He was then a pris- very good it is. When it is veins in the hillsides and father, and his uncle un-
he and his family spent 20 oner in Genoa, where he drunk by men who are burns like logs. These dertook the task and from
years traveling through met the romance writer not used to it, it loosens stones keep a fire going Persia made their way
India, southeast Asia, and Rustichello of Pisa. Polo's the bowels and makes a better than wood." back to Venice.
immortal soul would be endangered. How IV of France simply forbade any gold or make them seem even more insulting and
could the successor of St. Peter rule over silver to leave his domain, thereby effec- persuaded the Estates General to back Philip.
such covetousness? Celestine began to have tively stopping the flow of money to the Undaunted, Boniface issued yet another
dreams in which he heard a voice saying papacy. Not one to take defeat lightly, bull, this time claiming that all Christians
that it was the will of God that he resign. Boniface issued more bulls, which Philip were his subjects. Philip IV's response was
Later, detractors of his successor, Boniface took as insults to the French monarchy. In to send Nogaret to Italy to confront
VIII (1294-1303), suggested that he had 1302 Philip called the first general meeting Boniface. Finding the pope at his vacation
actually rigged up a speaking tube into of the three estates: the nobility, the clergy, home in Anagni, he and some of the pope's
Celestine's chamber and intoned the words and the commons or third estate. The enemies from Rome captured Boniface.
himself. French king usually met these groups sepa- Realizing that a captive pope was just an
Boniface undertook to stop secular rul- rately on a regional basis, but Philip brought embarrassment to them, however, they let
ers from taxing the clergy by issuing a papal together all representatives for what be- him go. Boniface died a month later.
bull against the practice. Edward I of En- came known as the Estates General. At that It is a measure of the low prestige of the
gland responded by threatening to outlaw first meeting, the king's adviser, William de papacy that Philip suffered no reprisals for
any subject who disobeyed him, and Philip Nogaret, twisted the content of the bulls to his attack on Boniface. When the cardinals
F
rancesco de Marco Datini, an Italian on June 17,1400. One of his correspondents
merchant from Prato, lived through wrote from Florence, "I have seen two of
the best and the worst of the late my children die in my arms in a few hours."
Middle Ages. He was only a child Datini himself lived another 10 years, dying
when the Black Death raged through Italy in peacefully in Prato in 1411.
1348 and killed his parents. He had a small People living during the 14th and 15th
inheritance and was raised by a woman to centuries often alluded to the Four Horse-
whom he referred affectionately as a substi- men of the Apocalypse: famine, disease,
tute mother; she signed her letters to him as war, and death or salvation. In northern
"your mother in love." Francesco appren- Europe a prolonged shift in the weather
ticed himself to a merchant in Florence and patterns brought colder and wetter weather,
learned to trade. Soon after his 15th birth- which resulted in poor harvests and severe
day, he joined other merchants who were famines in the early 14th century. Disease,
going to the rich papal city of Avignon. He the second horseman, brought the Black
prospered by importing Italian art and luxury Death in 1348, killing off a third to half of the
items for the cardinals and other wealthy population. War, never a stranger to Eu-
people who lived there. When Datini was rope, took on a new and more deadly form
more than 40, he returned to Prato and in the late 14th and 15th centuries. Europe
The mortality from the plague was so married Margherita, who was 25 years his had settled down to organized warfare un-
great in the late 14th and 15th centu- junior. He was often away, and they ex- der monarchies. Battles were contained on
ries that death became a predominant
changed letters weekly. All of these letters battlefields and did not do much harm to the
theme in medieval art. Representa-
tions of death, such as the sarcophagus and many others are preserved in his house local populations. During the Hundred Years'
below the horseman, showed the rav- in Prato. Although he was successful in War (1337-1453) between England and
ages of decayed bodies. The armies of business, he shared the anxieties of many France, however, battles were infrequent.
the dead, clothed in their shrouds, are people in the late Middle Ages about visita- The real fighting was a war of attrition, in
led by Death, one of the four horse-
men of the apocalypse. They easily
tions of the plague. When plague was raging which France preyed on English shipping
defeat the living army and march to- in Prato, Datini, Margherita, and his illegiti- and invaded England's southern coast and
ward a prosperous city. mate daughter set out by mule for Bologna English troops marauded the French country-
130 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
popes had defended against such powerful
monarchs as Frederick I and II were now in
the hands of various factions, none of which
wanted to contribute the usual amount to
support the papacy. The papacy therefore
had to look elsewhere for money. The
pope had lost much of his power to tax the
clergy because of fights with Edward I and
Philip IV, so the papal courts became even
more rapacious in collecting fines for di-
vorces and annulments of marriages, and
the popes sold bishoprics to the highest
bidder. They also began an aggressive policy
of selling indulgences, or the forgiveness of the opportunities it presented to shrewd The Burgundian court played a lead-
particular sins. Finally, they began to sell a businessmen. His orders to his partners in ing role in politics and in setting
aristocratic style in the 15th century.
plenary indulgence, which would forgive Italy included "a panel of Our Lady on a
The marriage of Duke Philip the
sins not yet committed. The theological background of fine gold with two doors, Good of Burgundy to Isabel of Portu-
presumption was that the sacrifice of Jesus at and a pedestal with ornaments and leaves, gal in 1430 was an occasion to
his crucifixion and the suffering of martyred handsome and the wood well carved, mak- display beautiful dress and fine foods.
The wedding party was held outdoors
saints had created a reservoir of goodness, ing a fine show, with good and handsome
and men and women even brought
similar to a bank deposit, that the faithful figures by the best painter, with many their falcons with them.
could draw upon for a price and avoid the figures." He was more of a merchant than
torments of hell. The Franciscans and Do- an art critic, for he added, "Let there be in
minicans participated in selling indulgences, the center Our Lord on the Cross, or Our
thus alienating themselves from the inspira- Lady, whomsoever you find—I care not, so
tion of their founders. The orders had that the figures be handsome and large, and
become so corrupt that they were little best and finest you can purvey."
more than fund-raisers for themselves and Others, such as Francesco Petrarch
the papacy. Other clergy were also willing (1304-1374), came to sell their poetry and
to enter into money-making schemes for writing rather than goods. The son of a
personal enrichment. Florentine notary, Petrarch studied law at
The lay response to churchmen using Montpellier and Bologna and then took
the money they raised to fund their own holy orders, moving to Avignon. Putting
opulent lifestyles was twofold. Criticism of aside his vocation as a priest, he wrote a
the lavish living mounted among the faith- series of love sonnets in Italian to a woman
ful, but some flocked to the papal court as named Laura, who died in 1348, the plague
purveyors of fine merchandise or as suitors year. Denied the patronage that he sought
for papal patronage. The correspondence from Avignon, he became a severe critic of
of Francesco de Marco Datini provides an the town. He wrote that Avignon was a
accurate picture of the luxury market and "fountain of anguish, the dwelling-place of
Valois. Nonetheless, Edward made him- wage laborers who worked on heavy looms.
self a new coat of arms by combining his The wool for the cloth came mainly from
arms (the rampant lions) with the lilies of England, so the Flemish economy was
France (fleurs de lys) and declared himself dependent on English wool. Edward saw a
king of France as well as England. way to get at the French by stirring up
Another dispute that led to the war trouble in Flanders. He encouraged the
involved the county of Flanders (part of Flemish weavers to revolt by withholding
modern Belgium), which the French kings the English wool from their markets. The
claimed belonged to France. Flanders was embargo worked, and the Flemish weavers
one of the wealthiest cloth-manufacturing sided with the English against the French.
centers of Europe. Fine woolen cloth and With trouble brewing in Flanders, Edward
tapestries were woven and dyed there by launched his first campaigns.
T he dukes of Burgundy
in the 15th century
were renowned for
their feasts in honor of the
Order of the Golden
ing to his or her rank.
The highest-ranking sat at
the head of the table.
Sometimes the dukes of
Burgundy ate from
entering by rank to take
part in the handwashing
ceremony. They held
their hands over a basin
while a page poured
Fleece. The hall in which silver-gilt plates, but gen- herb-scented water over
the feasts were held mea- erally trenchers of their hands and then of-
sured 140 feet by 70 feet. whole-wheat bread that fered them a linen napkin.
The head table stood on a was several days old The meals had a number
dais at one end of the hall, served as plates. Trenchers of courses, called mets, and
and two other tables ran absorbed the sauces and the activities between the
lengthwise down the out- juices from the meal and courses were the entremets,
side of the room, leaving were distributed to the or "sotelties" to the En-
the center free for per- poor after the feast. The glish. At one Burgundian
formers who provided most prominent object on feast, the entremet began
entertainment. A buffet the table was the salt cel- with the presentation of
displayed gold and silver lar. In addition to the 30 pies, each enclosed in a
plates and was used for trencher, each place was silk pavilion. When the
serving food and dispens- set with a drinking vessel, pies were opened, birds
ing wine. bowl, knife, and spoon. popped out. They not
By preference, guests Until the 15th century only began to sing but
sat on only one side of the when forks were intro- also flew around the room
u-shaped table to facilitate duced for upper-class use, to the delight of the
service and to allow each guests ate delicately with guests. It is easy to see that
person to see and be seen their fingers. the nursery song about
Servants served food to the nobles, who sit with their tren- by all. The order of seat- A trumpet fanfare an- four and twenty black-
ters before them and with spoons to eat with. Musicians ing was important, with nounced the beginning birds baked in a pie refers
created a lively party. each guest seated accord- of the feast, with guests to a medieval banquet.
134 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
on the battlefield. Crossbows had the disad- ones raided the English-held territory in With no idea of what caused the
vantage that their strings had to be cranked France. When these resources were spent, Black Death or how to cure it, reli-
gious processions praying to God for
before an arrow could be released. At close the mercenaries hired themselves out for
relief became common. But even the
quarters, foot soldiers with pikes were use- war in Spain or Italy. pope, lifting his hands in supplica-
ful even against knights on horseback. A The return of bubonic plague, absent tion, followed by his cardinals, could
pike had a long shaft, a cutting blade like an from Europe since the reign of Justinian in not prevent several members of the
procession from falling to the ground
ax, and a sharp knife like a spear on the end. the sixth century, devastated the popula-
from the illness.
In modern terms, they are sometimes re- tion so thoroughly that warfare ceased. The
ferred to as "multipurpose can openers"—that path of the plague to Europe can be traced
is, they could be used to pull a knight off his along the trade routes. In caravans carrying
horse, spear the knight or his horse from silk and spices out of the East, the
underneath, chop at a foe on the ground, or plague-carrying fleas and their host rats
form a barricade of pointed and sharp sur- (ratus ratus or the common house rat) came
faces to halt a cavalry charge. to the ports of the Black Sea. The cargoes
The fact that foot soldiers rather than were loaded onto an Italian boat bound for
knights won battles had major consequences Venice in 1347. A terrible disease immedi-
for social structure as well as for warfare. ately began killing the sailors and merchants
Foot soldiers were recruited from the peas- on board. Venice did not want the ship to
antry and urban dwellers of Europe. They land there, so it touched at various other
were often violent men who had commit- ports in Italy, where the rats and fleas were
ted crimes or impatient youths who wanted unloaded along with the cargo. The disease
to make a quick fortune or who preferred spread rapidly to all of Italy and then pro-
excitement over the tedium of working as ceeded along trade routes until it had infected
apprentices or plowmen. They were mer- most of Europe, both the urban and rural
cenaries—that is, soldiers of fortune who areas. The disease had a curious pattern.
were paid to fight. When the pay ran out Some villages were decimated, whereas
between campaigns, their commanders kept others had no sickness whatever. The entire
them together by having them pillage the region of Poland was skipped over in this
countryside. France was devastated by these visitation of plague.
marauding mercenary armies. The English Unlike famine, plague claimed victims of
ones raided French territory, and the French every social class. Peasants' thatched roofs,
138 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
When the king's tax collectors did not closely to the manors and limit their free-
bring in enough money in 1380, they dom of movement. Peasants were, therefore,
correctly suspected widespread evasion and forced into more restrictive serfdom than
started collecting taxes again in 1381. A they had known previously.
group of peasants in Essex, a county just The disruption of plague and changes in
north of London, killed several of the the population also led urban workers to
collectors, and the revolt spread rapidly revolt. In Florence, which was a very im-
throughout England. Some of the peasants portant center for the production of luxury
marched on London under the leadership woolen cloth, the workers rose up in the
of Wat Tyler, John Ball, and Jack Straw. Ciompi revolt of 1378 when manufacturers
There they killed the king's advisors and tried to lower their wages. Cloth workers
destroyed the palace of the king's uncle. also revolted in Flanders in the 14th cen-
Richard II, the grandson of Edward III and tury. But like the Revolt of 1381 and the
a boy of only 15 years, responded by agree- Jacquerie, these revolts failed.
ing to meet with the peasant leaders. Leading The 14th century was not, however, all Dante, shown here with a laurel leaf
them outside the walls of London, he lis- famine, war, and disease. Some of the crown in imitation of the Roman cus-
tened to their demands for an end to serfdom. greatest authors of all time lived during this tom for heroes, was the fust great
writer in the Italian language. His
When one of his followers drew a sword century. Vernacular literature—poetry and
most famous book is the Divine
and killed Wat Tyler, Richard had the prose written in the common tongue rather Comedy, but he wrote essays on
presence of mind to ride boldly forward and than in Latin—became fashionable. More politics and language and other po-
tell the rebels that he was their leader. He people, both men and women, learned to ems. He was politically active in
promised them charters of freedom if they read in their own languages. Florence, taking the side of the em-
peror over that of the pope.
would go back to their homes. Richard Dante Alighien (1265-1321) was the
broke his promise of freedom and sent out great predecessor of Petrarch and Boccaccio
his royal justices to round up the ringleaders in writing in Italian. He grew up in Flo-
of the revolt and hanged them. rence, but was exiled when Boniface VIII
The Revolt of 1381 had little impact on stirred up a revolt there. Retiring to the
the gradual disappearance of serfdom in countryside, he began to write poetry and
England. The peasants continued to pay essays. One of his essays dealt with the need
rent for the land they cultivated, but they no for a literary Italian that would be equiva-
longer paid for the marriage of their daugh- lent to French, which had already been
ters, for their sons to leave the manor, or for accepted as a language for literature. Dante
doing work on the lord's property. These proceeded to write poetry in the Italian that
and all other fines and burdens that had was close to his own Florentine dialect. His
been the mark of serf status were abolished. greatest work in Italian was the Commedia,
But in Poland, Spain, and some other or the Divine Comedy. It is an epic of a
parts of Europe, the 15th century brought personal travel through the circles of hell
more repression rather than less. In these that concludes with a beatific vision of God.
areas the response of lords to the decreased Not surprisingly, devils eagerly awaited
labor supply was to bind the peasants more Boniface VIII in the lowest pit of hell, and
M uch of what is
known about Joan
of Arc comes from
her testimony at her trial
for heresy in 1431. She
was born in the village of
Domremy in eastern
France. Her father was a
well-to-do peasant, but
was encumbered by two young nephews
she was not literate. Her who were in direct succession before
early life included games, him. When they disappeared into, the
sewing, spinning, and Tower of London, he was accused of
prayers.
having them murdered. Finally, in 1485
But this tranquil life
was periodically inter- Henry Tudor defeated Richard at the
rupted by incursions of battle of Bosworth Field. He became
Burgundians who looted Joan of Arc favored armor and male attire, but medieval Henry VII, the founder of the Tudor
the countryside. During artists found this so repulsive that they represented her in
dynasty. Richard fought gallantly to the
these attacks, the local female dress.
people went to fortified end and died on the battlefield. In his play
cities for safety. Accord- armor and an escort to glish and Burgundians. Richard III, Shakespeare was certainly
ing to her trial transcript, Charles. She convinced Joan was captured by the wrong in portraying him as a coward who
Joan began having vi- him to give her troops to Burgundians and the En- in his final moments called out, "A horse,
sions that urged her to attack the city's besiegers. glish had her put on trial
She herself did not fight, for witchcraft and heresy
a horse. My kingdom for a horse."
make an appeal to King
Charles and rescue but she provided encour- in a Burgundian church Throughout this period the Church pro-
France from the agement and the siege court. After a vigorous vided little political or spiritual leadership.
Burgundians and the En- was relieved. self-defense she finally The popes continued to live in Avignon,
glish: "Two or three After this success in confessed but took back
but the critics of the papacy were becoming
times a week the voice warfare, she encouraged her confession. She was
said she must leave and Charles to go to Rheims burned in the public more and more insistent. Two women
go into France . . . she and have himself properly square in 1431. Charles who eventually became saints, Brigitte of
must raise the siege then crowned king as the did nothing to defend or Sweden and Catherine of Siena, urged the
being made of the city of French kings before him rescue her. Although she popes to reform and return to Rome.
Orleans." She persuaded had done. The French immediately became the
one of the king's captains gained new resolve from symbol of resistance for
Political theorists at universities were argu-
that she was serious, and this move and continued France, she was not made ing that the Church should be governed by
he gave her a suit of to fight against the En- a saint until 1923. a council composed of laymen as well as
clergy. They also maintained that the pa-
pacy should not be the dominant power in
claimed the throne by virtue of the third son the religion or politics of Europe.
of Edward III. The Lancastrians also main- Even more serious were the attacks of
tained they had a right to the crown because John Wycliffe (c. 1330-1384), an ordained
they descended from the fourth son of priest and professor at Oxford University.
Edward III and their line included Henry V Increasingly, he argued that the papacy was
and his son Henry VI. (Popular custom corrupt and deviated from the early Church.
assigned the red rose to this party.) The wars He placed his belief in the authority of the
were fought largely between contenders Bible rather than the later pronounce-
for the throne and their noble adherents. ments of popes, and he favored direct
During their course, such notable charac- prayer rather than reliance on priests to
ters as the Yorkist Richard III emerged as intervene between Christ and Christians.
historical figures. His claim to the throne His theology was so radical that he quickly
142 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
came to be regarded as a heretic. Because heaven and baptisms were no longer re-
he felt that the clergy should experience moving original sin. With resources spread
the poverty of the early apostles, he recom- between the two popes, papal fundraising
mended the confiscation of church property. became even more voracious.
This position won favor at the English Finally, in 1409 a council was held in
royal court, and he was protected from Pisa to resolve the schism. The council was
prosecution. intended to depose the two popes and elect
Wycliffe soon won followers in England, a new one, but neither pope would abdi-
but more important were the students who cate. The third pope claimed that he was
brought his ideas from Oxford University to the only legitimate one because the Coun-
Prague University. In Prague Jan Hus, a cil of Pisa had elected him. With three
young theologian, became attracted to popes and three colleges of cardinals, it was
Wycliffe's ideas and began to make them apparent that the Church could not reform Medieval urban residents often did
not have a kitchen in their quarters
popular with the laity as well as the university itself. Emperor Sigismund of Germany called
and relied on the equivalent of "fast
community. His movement became tied up a council at Constance representing laity food." Two men moved an oven on a
in politics and the revolt of the Bohemians and clergy from all over Europe to resolve cart around the city and a woman
(Czechs) against their German rulers. the schism, reform the Church, and get rid made fresh bread and meat pies for
While the theological attacks and popu- of heresy. customers. Other women sold pre-
pared goods outside of shops. The
lar lampoons against the papacy continued, The Council of Constance managed to
shop sign shows that pretzels were
the papacy became more and more mired depose all three popes and elect an Italian available and the table indicates the
in corruption. In 1378 Pope Gregory XI pope who was acceptable to Rome and a availability of beer or wine (in the
returned to Rome at the urging of Catherine newly formed College of Cardinals. The flask) and loaves of bread.
of Siena, but he died that same year. Pres- Council next turned to the question of Jan
sured by a Roman mob that broke into the Hus. He was given safe conduct to
voting chamber, the College of Cardinals Constance in order to defend his views.
selected an Italian pope. With the encour- Thinking that he would receive a fair hear-
agement of the French king, the cardinals ing because the Council was dedicated to
returned to Avignon and elected a French reform, he came of his free will. Emperor
pope. Neither pope would abdicate, and Sigismund, however, had little sympathy
the Great Schism began with a pope in for him because he had been at the heart of
Rome and a pope in Avignon. When these the Bohemian revolt. Hus was tried as a
popes died, their respective Colleges of heretic and burned. Even Wycliffe was
Cardinals selected another pope in each of condemned, and his bones were dug up and
their places. burned. Having solved the two easier prob-
Needless to say, the scandal of the Great lems, the Council disbanded without taking
Schism was immense. St. Peter could hardly up the larger problem of church reform.
have two voices on earth offering compet- One of the distinctive features of the
ingjurisdictions. The laity were concerned earlier Church had been that new monastic
that since the schism no one had gone to movements took the lead in reforming the
B orn in 1347,
Catherine of Siena
was the 24th child of
a wool-dyer and his wife.
Living just down the hill
again, that her emaciated
body would be reduced
to the last extremity, un-
able to take anything to
restore its forces but a
with the poor and sick.
On one occasion she an-
gered her father by giving
away his best wine, but
the cask was miraculously
tions than offered to the papacy. WyclifFe
and Hus had spoken for the larger laity
when they suggested that the Bible rather
the pope be a guide rather the pope.
from a Dominican drink of cold water . . . refilled. Catherine 'was By the 15th century the Bible had been
church, Catherine resisted and then suddenly she educated and wrote ex-
all her parents' efforts to would seize ... an oppor- tensively in Italian. Her
translated into the vernacular languages.
persuade her to lead a tunity of taking on some works include 400 letters The invention of the printing press made
normal life and marry. work for the honor of and a dialogue about her the Bible even more available to an increas-
Early on she instead em- God's name or the good mystical experiences. In ingly literate laity. The use of paper was
braced self-sacrifice in of souls, and like a flash, the dialogue God pro-
perhaps as important as the invention of
order to show her devo- without the help of any vided answers to a
tion to God. She scalded other restorative [food] . . . Christian soul about ques- moveable, metal type. Parchment, a prod-
herself in hot baths, de- all her forces would re- tions regarding reform of uct made from sheepskin, was laborious to
veloped skin problems, vive." She said in her the Church and salvation prepare and, therefore, very expensive.
and withdrew from her letters that she was afflicted of souls. In 1376 she went Paper, which was invented in China, de-
family. She fasted and re- by God so that she would to Avignon and helped
jected meat entirely. She understand suffering and persuade the pope to re- creased the costs of book production because
was, perhaps, anorexic, be purged of her gluttony. turn to Rome. even rags could be used to make it. The use
because her biographer Catherine kept a close Unfortunately, his return of the printing press (whose design was
reported seeing her stuff association with the Do- led to the Great Schism, derived from the wine press) and type also
twigs down her throat to minicans all her life but which was in progress
did not become a nun.
made books cheaper to produce. Johann
bring up food. He wrote: when in 1380 Catherine
"I myself saw it happen, She preferred to go out died from a stroke at the Gutenberg published the Bible in about
not once, but again and into the world and work age of 33. 1455 as one of the first printed books. As
printing shops became common, transla-
tions of the Bible, grammar books, and
Church, but the 14th and 15th centuries works of literature soon became available
saw no such internal reforms. The laity throughout Europe.
were no less religious than they had been in Another invention, the cannon, played a
earlier centuries, but now they sought their decisive role in the fall of the last vestige of
salvation through personal spiritual exer- the old Roman Empire. In 1453
cises. They joined guilds in their parish that Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks.
supported charity and funeral services for The Turks had surrounded the city after
their members and said prayers for the souls taking the territory of Asia Minor (modern
of dead brothers and sisters. They also went Turkey) before moving into the Balkans and
on pilgrimages and followed personal de- Greece. Finally, only the great walled city
votions that imitated the life of Christ. stood as a symbol of the power of the Roman
While much of the wealth that people Empire. Using cannons, which had first been
accumulated in the 15th century did go experimented with during sieges in the
toward supporting religious projects, their Hundred Years' War, and other siege en-
funds were more likely to be given to a gines, the Turks forced the city to surrender,
parish church and spent on personal devo- and Constantinople became the Moslem
144 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
The Biblia Latina was published
about 1455 by Johann Gutenberg
andjohan Fust in Mainz, Germany.
Gutenberg was a goldsmith who ex-
perimented with moveable metal type
and a printing press. This Latin Bible
was printed on vellum (treated
calfskin) rather than paper and was il-
luminated by hand in the manner of
medieval manuscripts.
303 410
Emperor Diocletian issues edict persecuting Visigoths sack Rome
Christians Roman legions withdraw from England
313 416
Emperor Constantine converts to Christian- Visigoths invade Spain
ity at the Battle of Milvian Bridge and grants
toleration to Christians C. 420
St. Augustine writes The City of God
325
Council of Nicaea rejects Arianism and issues 433-453
Nicene Creed Attila leads the Huns in their attacks on
Europe
330
Emperor Constantine moves capital of Ro- 440-461
man Empire to Constantinople (former site Pope Leo I persuades Attila not to attack
of Greek town of Byzantium) Rome
342-348 C.450
Ulfilas translates the New Testament into Saxons, Angles, and Jutes invade Britain
Gothic and becomes a missionary; converts
the Goths to the Arian heresy. 455
Vandals sack Rome
360
Huns invade Europe C. 471-526
Theodoric reigns as king of the Ostrogoths
364 and invades Italy in 488
The Roman Empire is divided along the
Danube into western and eastern halves 476
The Western Roman Empire comes to an
376 end
Visigoths, settled within borders of Eastern
Empire, defeat the Byzantine army 460-524
Boethius, a Roman in the service of
306-420 Theodoric, writes The Consolation of Philoso-
St. Jerome translates the Bible into Latin phy in prison before his execution
C H R O N O L O G Y • 147
863 C.I000 1095
The missionary Cyril develops Cyrilic alphabet Norwegian Vikings reach North American Pope Urban II preaches the First Crusade
coast
874 1096
Alfred becomes king of Wessex 1016 First Crusade begins
Danish conqueror Canute becomes king of
874 England and Norway 1099
Vikings occupy Iceland Crusaders take Jerusalem and establish the
1020 Latin Kingdom of Jersualem
886 Venice, Genoa, and Pisa emerge as powerful
Alfred defeats Danes and recognizes bound- cities in Italy 1100
ary of Danelaw William Rufus dies and Henry I becomes
C. 1025 king of England
Vikings attack Paris
Romanesque architecture reaches its height
1115
C. 890
1035 St. Bernard founds Clairvaux monastery
Magyars attack Central Europe
William the Bastard becomes duke of
Normandy 1119
900
Bologna University is established
Feudal system begins to develop
1054
Great Schism occurs between Rome and 1120
910
Constantinople. Scholastic philosophy becomes fully devel-
Duke of Aquitaine establishes monastery of
oped
Cluny
1059 Troubadour poetry and music develop
911 A papal decree announces that all future
popes will be elected by the College of 1122
Carolingianline ends in Germany; Carolingian
Cardinals Concordat of Worms settles the Investiture
king in France gives Danes the province of
Controversy
Normandy
1065
Henry IV of Germany becomes king 1137
C. 937
Louis VII of France ascends the throne
Roswitha of Gandersheim (Germany) is born;
1066
becomes nun and playwright 1142
Edward, king of England, dies; William of
Normandy launches successful invasion of Peter Abelard, scholastic philosopher, who
962
England, becoming king wrote letters to Heloi'se, Sic et Non, and The
Otto I, the Great, revives the empire in
History of My Misfortunes, dies
Germany, crowned emperor by pope
1073
Gregory VII (the monk Hildebrand) be- 1147-1149
987
comes pope Second Crusade fails
Last Carolingian on French throne is suc-
ceeded by Hugh Capet, first of the Capetian 1150
1076
dynasty University of Paris is established
Gregory VII excommunicates Henry IV
988 1152
1077
Vladimir of Kiev marries a Byzantine princess Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine divorce
Henry IV travels to Canossa as a penitent
and converts to Christianity and she marries Henry (II) of England
1091
999 1154
Normans conquer Sicily
Gerbert of Aurillac becomes Pope Sylvester II Henry II ascends throne of England
148 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
1160 1217-54 1337
Vernacular literature develops St. Louis leads unsuccessful crusades Outbreak of the Hundred Years' War be-
tween England and France
1162 1220
Frederick I Barbarossa destroys Milan Frederick II is crowned Emperor of Ger- 1348-53
many; he is also king of Sicily Boccaccio writes The Decameron
1167
Frederick I Barbarossa is crowned emperor 1228 1348-50
Frederick II makes treaty with Moslems on a Black Death or bubonic plague peaks
1170 crusade in Holy Land
Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, is 1358
murdered by knights of Henry II 1233 Revolt of French peasants, the Jacquerie
Pope Gregory IX begins Inquisition for trial
1173 of Albigensian heretics 1378
Waldensian movement begins in Lyons Great Schism in papacy begins with two
1265 popes
1179 Simon de Montfort calls Parliament in En-
Hildegard of Bingen, writer of music, medi- gland: first time representatives oflords, knights 1381
cal tracts, and mystical works, dies and burgesses meet in two houses Peasants' Revolt in England
C H R O N O L O G Y • 149
archbishop—a bishop in charge of a the Eastern Orthodox Church used or-
province that includes a number of bish- thodox to refer to the universality of their
ops and their dioceses. He also exercises religious doctrines and to their religious
ecclesiastical law and authority in his correctness.
own diocese.
cathedral—the main church of a diocese;
Arianism—the belief that Christ was of a the church of a bishop or archbishop.
Glossary
different substance from God and that Cathedrals tended to be larger than other
they should not be worshiped as equal. churches and are some of the most fa-
Based on the teachings of Arius, a priest mous architectural remains of the
in Alexandria, the Arianist movement of Middle Ages. The cathedra was the
the late 3rd and 4th centuries gained a bishop's chair.
considerable following. Arianism was de-
Codex Justianus—a collection of Roman
clared a heresy at the Council of Nicaea
laws and decrees that governed commer-
in 325.
cial transactions, criminal law, and the
Black Death—the bubonic plague that relationship of the emperor to the
appeared in the 6th and the 14th centu- people. The Codex Justianus, properly
ries in Europe. This bacterial disease called the Corpus Juris Civilis, was com-
was spread by the bite of a flea that missioned by the Byzantine emperor Jus-
lived on the common house rat. The tinian in the 6th century. It formed the
signs of the disease were swellings basis of western European commercial
(bubos) and the clotting of blood under law when it was brought west and
the skin, giving the appearance of black widely studied in the 12th century. In
blotches and hence the name, Black addition to the Codex, Justinian's jurists
Death. (There was also a pneumonic also compiled a book of jurisprudence
variety of the disease.) called the Digest.
baptism—a cleansing ritual that among commitatus—the fighting unit of the Ger-
Christians symbolizes the washing away manic tribes described by Roman histo-
of the original sin of Adam and Eve in rian Tacitus in the first century A.D. Each
their defiance of God's commands. John commitatus had a leader who, because of
the Baptist is traditionally credited with his success in battle, was able to surround
having baptized Jesus. In the Middle himself with armed fighters. They were
Ages, infant baptism was most com- loyal to him and did not leave the field as
mon, but during the period of conver- long as he was alive. In return, the leader
sions, Clovis, King of the Franks, and provided them with spoils of war, in-
many other converts received baptism cluding weapons and horses.
as adults.
crucifixion—a common mode of execu-
canon law—laws or rules regarding tion in the Roman Empire. In a crucifix-
ecclesiastical doctrine and practice. In ion, the hands and feet of a criminal
the Middle Ages, it was based on were nailed or tied to a cross, and the
scripture, church councils, rules of offender was left to die in public view.
religious orders, and, in the Roman According to the Gospels, Jesus was
Catholic Church, papal decrees. The executed in this manner.
body of canon law was organized and
diocese—an administrative unit or a prov-
collected by Gratian (who died in 140),
ince in the Roman Empire. The Church
an Italian legal scholar whose work is
adopted the term, and it became associ-
known as the Decretum.
ated with a bishop. The diocese was a
Catholic, catholic—with a capital C, the geographical area over which a bishop
word refers to the Roman Catholic had jurisdiction. His responsibilities
Church; with a lowercase c, it refers to there included the ordaining of priests,
something universal or general. The Ro- administration of canon law, and over-
man Catholic Church used catholic and sight of monasteries. The symbols of the
G L O S S A R Y • 151
General History and References Szarmach, Paul E., M. Teresa Tavormina,
and Joel T. Rosenthal. Medieval England:
Barraclough, G. The Origins of Modem Ger-
An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland,
many. New York: Norton, 1984.
1998.
Bunson, Matthew. Encyclopedia of the Middle
Ages. New York: Facts on File, 1995. Primary Sources
Collins, Roger. Early Medieval Europe, Alfred the Great. Translated and introduced
300-1000. New York: St. Martin's, by Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge.
1991.
Further
New York: Penguin, 1983.
Duby, Georges. France in the Middle Ages, Augustine, bishop of Hippo. City of God.
987-1460. Translated by Juliet Vale. Translated by Marcus Dods. New York:
Reading
Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1991. The Modern Library, 1950.
Hollister, C. Warren. The Making of En- . Confessions. Translated by Henry
gland, 55 B.C. to 1399. 6th ed. Lexing- Chadwick. New York: Oxford University
ton, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1992. Press, 1991.
Hyde, J. K. Society and Politics in Medieval Bede, the Venerable. A History of the English
Italy. New York: St. Martin's, 1973. Church and People. Translated by Leo
Jordan, William Chester, ed. The Middle Sherley-Price. Harmondsworth: Penguin,
Ages: An Encyclopedia for Children. New 1968.
York: Scribner, 1996. Comnena, Anna. The Alexiad of Anna Comnena.
Kibler, William W., et al, eds. Medieval Translated and Introduced by E. R. A.
France: An Encyclopedia. New York: Gar- Sewter. New York: Penguin, 1969.
land, 1995. Einhard and Notker the Stammerer. Two
Le Goff, Jacques. Medieval Civilization, Lives of Charlemagne. Translated by Lewis
400-1500. Translated by Julia Barrow. Thorpe. London: Penguin, 1969.
New York: Blackwell, 1988. Eusebius. The History of the Church from
Nicholas, David. The Evolution of the Medi- Christ to Constantine. Translated by G. A.
eval World: Society, Government, and Williamson. New York: Penguin, 1989.
Thought in Europe, 312-1500. New Francis of Assisi. Francis and Clare: The Com-
York: Longman, 1992. plete Works. Translated and introduced by
. Medieval Flanders. New York: Regis J. Armstrong and Ignatius C. Brady.
Longman, 1992. New York: Paulist Press, 1982.
FURTHER R E A D I N G • 153
Gimpel, Jean. The Cathedral Builders. Trans- Langland, William. Piers the Ploughman. Gregor, Hugh. Castles: A Guide for Young
lated by C. F. Barnes, Jr. New York: Translated by J. F. Goodridge. New People. London: Her Majesty's Stationery
Grove Press, 1961. York: Penguin, 1968. Office, 1977.
Hamel, Christopher de. Scribes and Illumina- The Song of Roland. Translated by Glyn Oakeshott, R. Ewart. A Knight and His
tors. Medieval Craftsmen series. Toronto: Burgess. New York: Penguin, 1983. Castle. Illustrated by R. Ewart
University of Toronto Press, 1991. Oakeshott. London: Lutterworth,
Von Strassburg, Gottfried. Tristan. New
1965.
Staniland, Kay. Embroiderers. Medieval York: Penguin, 1967.
Craftsmen series. Toronto: University of Unstead, R. J. Living in a Castle. Illustrated
Toronto Press, 1991. Feudalism by Victor Ambrus. Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley, 1971.
Swaan, Wim. The Late Middles Ages: Art Bloch, Marc. Feudal Society. 2 vols. Chi-
and Architecture from 1350 to the Advent of cago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Warner, Philip. The Medieval Castle: Life in
the Renaissance. Ithaca: Cornell Univer- a Fortress in Peace and War. New York:
sity Press, 1977. Herlihy, David. The History of Feudalism. Taplinger, 1971.
Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities
Press, 1971.
Literature Armor and Weapons
Poly, J. P., and Eric Bournazel. The Feudal
Alighieri, Dante. The Divine Comedy. Ashdown, Charles Henry. European Arms
Transformation, 900-1200. New York:
Translated by C.H. Sisson. New York: and Armour. New York: Barnes &
Holmes & Meier, 1991.
Oxford University Press, 1995. Noble, 1995.
Andre le Chapelain. The Art of Courtly Chivalry and Courtly Love Borg, Alan. Arms and Armour in Britain.
Love. New York: F. Ungar, 1959. London: Her Majesty's Stationery
Barber, Richard. The Knight and Chivalry. Office, 1979.
Beowulf. Translated by Michael Alexander. New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973. DeVries, Kelly. Medieval Military Technol-
Bumke, Joachim. Courtly Culture: Literature ogy. Lewiston, N.Y.: Broadview Press,
Boccaccio, Giovanni. The Decameron. and Society in the High Middle Ages. 1992.
Translated by G. H. Mc William. New Translated by Thomas Dunlap. Berkeley:
York: Penguin, 1995. University of California Press, 1991. Glubock, Shirley. Knights in Armor. New
York: Harper & Row, 1969.
Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. Keen, Maurice. Chivalry. New Haven:
New York: Knopf, 1992. Yale University Press, 1984. Nicolle, David. Arms and Armour of the Cru-
sading Era, 1050-1350. White Plains,
Chretien de Troyes. Arthurian Romances. Painter, Sidney. French Chivalry. Ithaca: N.Y.: Kraus International Publications,
New York: Dutton, 1975. Cornell University Press, 1957. 1988.
Christine de Pisan. The Treasure of the City
Pfaffenbichler, Matthias. Amourers. Medieval
of Ladies, or, The Book of the Three Virtues. Castles Craftsmen series. Toronto: University of
Translated by Sarah Lawson. New York:
Biesty, Stephen, and Richard Platt. Castle. Toronto Press, 1991.
Penguin, 1985.
Illustrated by Stephen Biesty. Boston:
Geoffrey of Monmouth. The History of the Houghton Mifflin, 1994. Peasant Life and Manors
Kings of Britain. Translated by Lewis
Burke, John. Life in the Castle in Medieval Bennett, H. S. Life on the English Manor.
Thorpe. Baltimore: Penguin, 1966.
England. London: B. T. Batsford, 1978. Wolfeboro, N.H.: A. Sutton, 1989.
The Lais of Marie de France. Translated by
Gies, Joseph, and Frances Gies. Life in a
Glyn S. Burgess and Keith Busby. New
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York: Penguin, 1986.
Row, 1974.
F U R T H E R R E A D I N G • 155
References to illustrations are indicated Boniface VIII, Pope, 125, 126, 139
by page numbers in italics Book of Kelts, 31
Bosworth Field, Battle of, 142
Aachen, 40, 43, 47, 56 Bouvines, Battle of, 104
Abbasids, 51-53 Brendan, St., 30
Abelard, Peter, 87-88 Brigitte of Sweden, St., 142
Aethelbert (king of Kent), 32 Britain. See Anglo-Saxons; Danelaw;
Agincourt, Battle of, 141 Norman Conquest; Wales
Alaric (Visigoth king), 22 Bubonic plague. See Black Death
Albigensians, 107, 108 Bulgars, 49
Alcuin (scholar), 41, 42 Burgundian court, 131, 133, 141
Alexius Comnenus (Byzantine em- Burgundians (tribe), 23
peror), 79, 80 Byzantine Empire, 13, 28, 36, 37, 46-
Alfred of Wessex (king of England), 56, 50, 79-80, 81
Index
57-58
Ali (cousin and son-in-law of Calendars, Julian and Gregorian, 16
Muhammad), 50-51 Caliphs and caliphates, 50
Amalsuntha (Byzantine princess), 27 Cambridge University, 115, 117
Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, 9-10, 19 Canterbury Cathedral (England), 33
Angevin Empire, 98, 100, 141 Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 100, 140
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 67—68 Canute (king of Norway and England),
Anglo-Saxons, 21, 22, 33, 59, 67-68 58
Anna (queen of Kiev), 50 Capetian dynasty, 58, 97, 125, 132
Anna Comnena, 81, 83 Carolingian Empire, 39-49, 57, 58
Anthony, St., 18 Carolingian minuscule, 41, 42
Antioch, 81-82 Carpenter, John, 117
Aquinas, St. Thomas, 115 Cassiodorus (scholar), 27
Arabic numerals, 52 Cathedrals, 33, 72-73, 91-92
Arabs and Arab Empire, 36-37, 39, 42, Catherine of Siena, St., 142-144
50-53, 78, 82, 124 Catholic Church. See Roman Catholic
Arianism, 17-18, 25, 27 Church
Aristotle, 114-15 Celestine V, Pope, 125-26
Arnulf (Carolingian emperor), 57 Celts, 10, 31. See also Ireland; Scotland;
Asser (historian), 57 Wales
Astrolabe, 53 Charlemagne, 39, 40-47
Athaulf (Visigoth king), 22 Charles VII (king of France), 141
Attila the Hun, 22, 23 Charles of Anjou (Charles I of Sicily),
Augustine of Hippo, 7, 9, 19, 23, 41 125
Avicenna (physician), 52—53 Charles the Bald (king of Franks), 38,
Avignon papacy (France), 127, 129, 48-49
130-31, 132, 142, 143 Charles the Fat (Carolingian emperor),
57
Ball, John, 139 Charles Martel (Merovingian king), 39,
Basil I (Byzantine emperor), 49 43-44
Basil II (Byzantine emperor), 50 Charles the Simple (Carolingian em-
Bayeux tapestry, 67, 68 peror), 57
Becket, St. Thomas, 98-100 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 100, 140
Bede, the Venerable, 32-33 China, 126
Belgium. See Flanders Chivalry, code of, 83, 84, 88. See also
Benedict, St., 30 Courtly love
Benedictine Rule, 30—32 Christianity, early, 13-19, 25-27, 29-
Beowulf, 20-21, 57 33. See also Cathedrals; Great Schism;
Bernard of Clairvaux, St., 85-86, 88 Greek Orthodox Church; Monastic
Bernard de Ventadour (troubador), 85 orders; Papacy; Roman Catholic
Bertha (queen of Kent), 32 Church
Bertran de Born (troubador), 85 Christine de Pisan, 140
Bestiaries, 81 Ciompi revolt (Italy, 1378), 139
Bible, 13-14, 15, 19, 31, 46, 144, 145 Cistercian Order, 86
Black Death, 28, 128, 129, 135-38 City of God (Augustine), 9, 10, 41
Blanche of Castile, 110, 123 Clare, St., 108, 109
Boethius (Roman scholar), 27, 28, 57, Clotilda (queen of Franks), 27, 32, 39
87 Clovis (king of Franks), 25, 26, 39
Bohemund (French noble), 80, 81, 82 Cluny, Order of, 72, 73
156 • THE M I D D L E A G E S / AN I L L U S T R A T E D H I S T O R Y
Codex Justinianus. See Corpus Juris Civilis Florence, 76 Henry VI (king of England and France),
College of Cardinals, 74 Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 129, 141
Concordant of Worms, 76 130 Henry VI (emperor of Germany), 101,
Confessions (Augustine), 9 France. See specific people, places, and 102
Consolation of Philosophy (Boethius), 28, topics Henry VII (king of England), 142
113 Francesco de Marco Datini, 129, 131, Heraldry, 87
Constantine (Roman emperor), 13, 14, 137, 141 Hildebrand. See Gregory VII
16-17 Francis of Assisi, St., 91, 108-9 Hildegard of Bingen, 117
Constantinople (Byzantine Empire), 13, Franciscan Order, 91, 109, 131 History of the English Church and People
23, 34, 81, 107, 144-45 Franks, 21, 22, 23, 26, 33, 39, 41 (Bede), 32, 33
Corpus Juris Civilis (Justinian), 32, 34, Frederick I Barbarossa (emperor of Ger- Holy Roman Empire, 68-69, 101-2,
35, 112 many), 101, 102, 104 103, 124
Council of Constance, 143 Frederick II (king of Siciliy and em- Honorius (Roman emperor), 22
Council of Nicaea, 25 peror of Germany), 124—25, 127 Hugh Capet (France), 58
Council of Pisa, 143 Humphrey (Normandy), 77-78
Courtly love, 70, 82, 84, 85, 88 Galen (physician), 53 Hundred Years' War, 123, 129-30,
Crecy, Battle of, 134 Galla Placidia (Roman empress), 22 132, 134, 141
Crusades, 79-82, 86, 88, 100-1, 107, Gaul, 21, 22, 23, 25 Hungarians. See Magyars
121, 124-25 Geoffrey of Lorraine (king of Jerusa- Huns, 22, 23
Cuthbert, St., 30 lem), 82 Hus.Jan, 130, 143, 144
Geoffrey Plantagenet (Count of Anjou),
Danelaw, 56, 58 98 Iceland, 56, 63
Dante Alighieri, 139-40 Germanic tribes, 20—23, 25 India, 52
David Llwellyn (king of Wales), 122 Germany. See specific people, places, Innocent III, Pope, 90, 91, 103, 104-5,
Decameron (Boccaccio), 137 and topics 107, 109, 114, 124
Denmark, 55, 56, 58 Golgotha, shrine of, 18 Inquisition (Roman Catholic Church),
Diaz, Rodrigo (El Cid), 78 Gospels. See Bible 106, 107
Diocletian (Roman emperor), 13, 14, 16 Gothic architecture, 91—92 Ireland, 30, 31, 42, 55, 56
Dionysius Exiguus, 16 Gothic tribes, 20—23 Irene (Byzantine empress), 49
Divine Comedy (Dante), 139 Great Schism (Catholic Church), 79, Isabelle (queen of France), 123
Doctors of the Church, 8, 19 143, 144 Isabelle of Angouleme (queen of En-
Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem), 51 Great Silk Road, 126 gland), 101
Domesday Book (England), 67, 68 Greek Orthodox Church, 49, 79, 145 Islam, 36, 37, 50-51
Dominic, St., 91, 107-8 Greenland, 56 Italy. See specific people, places, and
Dominican Order, 91, 108, 115, 131 Gregory VII, Pope, 73-74, 75, 102 topics
Drogo (Normandy), 77-78 Gregory XI, Pope, 143
Durham Cathedral (England), 73 Gregory XIII, Pope, 16 Jacquerie (peasant revolt, France), 138
Gregory the Great, Pope, 73—74, 75, Jerome, St., 18, 19, 22
Edward I (king of England), 122, 126, 102 Jerusalem, 79, 80, 81, 82, 124
132 Gregory of Tours (bishop), 26, 28, 29 Joan of Arc, 141, 142
Edward II (king of England), 132 Guilds, 111, 118-20 John I "Lackland" (king of England),
Edward III (king of England), 97, 132- Guiscard, Robert de, 78 91, 101, 103
34 Guiscard, Roger de, 78 John II "the Good" (king of France),
Edward the Black Prince (England), 134 Gutenberg, Johann, 144, 145 134
Edward the Confessor (king of En- Joinville, Jean de, 121, 123
gland), 66, 67 Hadrian's Wall (England/Scotland), 11 Justinian (Roman emperor), 28, 32, 33—
Egeria (early Christian nun), 18-19 Hagia Sophia (Constantinople), 34, 35 35
Einhard (biographer), 40- 41, 43, 47 Hapsburg dynasty, 127 Kiev (Russia), 50, 55
El Cid (epic poem), 78 Harald Hardrada (Norway), 66, 67 Koran, 36, 37, 51
Eleanor of Aquitaine (queen of En- Harold Godwinson (England), 66, 67 Krak des Chevaliers (Syria), 96
gland), 62, 71, 83-84, 89, 91, 98, 100 Harun al-Rashid (caliph of Arabic Em-
Elizabeth I (queen of England), 61 pire), 51 Langton, Stephen (archbishop), 103, 104
England. See specific people, places, and Hastings, Battle of, 66-67 Languages: Arabic, 51; French, 48; Ger-
topics Helena (mother of Constantine), 16 man, 48; Greek, 26, 27, 35; Latin, 11,
Epistles of Saint Paul, 10, 14 Helo'ise (Prioress), 88 26, 35; Old English, 20; Romance
Estates General (France), 126 Henry I (king of England), 97-98 group, 29, 48; Slavonic, 49
Exchequer, 99 Henry II (king of England), 84, 91, 98- Lateran Council, 104—6
100 Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 82
Famine, Great of 1315-1317, 130 Henry III (king of England), 141 Legnano, Battle of, 102
Farming, 63—66, 130 Henry III (emperor of Germany), 72 Leo III, Pope, 42-43
Felicie, Jacoba, 117 Henry IV (emperor of Germany), 74—76 Lombard League, 102
Feudalism, 59-62, 67, 69 Henry V (king of England), 141 Lombards, 29, 33, 42
Flanders, 133-34, 141 Henry V (emperor of Germany), 76 Lothair (Holy Roman emperor), 48, 49
I N D E X • 157
Louis VII (king of France), 83-84, 98, Paganism, 47 Scholasticism, 114
100 Papacy, 29-30, 73-76, 102-3, 127, 129, Scotland, 11
Louis IX (king of France), 110, 121, 123 130-31, 132, 142, 143 Serfs. See Farming; Feudalism; Revolts
Louis the German (king of Franks), 48— Papal bulls, 103 Shiites (Islam), 51
49 Papal States, 40 Sicilian Vespers, 125
Louis the Pious (Holy Roman em- Parliament (England), 122—23 Sicily, 28, 78, 102, 124, 125, 127
peror), 47-49 Patrick, St., 30 Sidonius Apollinarius (Roman official),
Low Countries (Belgium, Netherlands), Pax Romana, 11 25-26
41, 77, 133. See also Flanders Peasants. See Farming; Feudalism; Revolts Sigismund (emperor of Germany), 143
Pepin the Short (Merovingian king), 40, Slavs, 49, 50
Magna Carta, 91, 104, 105 43 Song of Roland, 42, 43, 62, 63
Magyars, 53, 57 Perpetua (Christian martyr), 15—16 Sorbonne, Robert de, 116
Manuscripts, illuminated, 31 Persians, 13, 35, 36-37, 51-52 Spam, 22, 23, 44, 42, 50, 56, 78, 82,
Maps, medieval, 6 Peter, St., 29-30 125, 139
Marie de France (author), 85, 118 Peter of Aragon, 125 Stephen (king of England), 89, 98
Marriage, 61-62, 65, 71, 83-84, 96-97 Petrarch, Francesco, 131—32 Stephen, Pope, 40
Marshall, William (Earl of Pembroke), Philip II Augustus (king of France), 100, Strasborg Oaths, 48
89, 104 101, 104 Suger (abbot of St. Denis), 91-92
Marthana (early Christian), 18 Philip IV "the Fair" (king of France), Sulys, Battle of, 134
Martin of Braga (bishop), 47 123, 126-27, 132, 133 Sutton Hoo (England), 21
Martyrs, Christian, 15—16 Philippa (queen of England), 97 Sweden, 20, 21, 55. See also Vikings
Matilda (queen of England), 97-98 Philo Judaes (Jewish scholar), 19 Sylvester II, Pope, 69
Mecca, shrine of, 36 Picts, 11 Synod of Whitby, 32, 33
Medieval, definition of, 7 Plantagenet dynasty, 98
Merovingian dynasty, 27, 39 Poitiers, Battle of, 134, 135 Tacitus (Roman historian), 20
Michael III "the Drunkard" (Byzantine Poland, 135, 139 Tancred de Hauteville (Normandy),
emperor), 49 Polo, Marco, 126 77-78
Middle Ages, definition of, 7 Pompeii (Italy), 11-13 Theodora (Byzantine empress), 33-35,
Middle Kingdom (Holy Roman Em- Prince of Wales (title), 122 34
pire), 49, 55, 68 Printing press, 144, 145 Theodoric (Ostrogoth leader), 14
Milan, 76, 102 Procopius (historian), 33—34 Thousand and One Nights, 51—52
Monks. See Monastic orders Tournaments, 86—87
Monastic orders, 30-31, 41, 61, 71-72, Raymon of Toulouse, 80 Troubadors, 85
86, 108-9 Reconquista (Spain), 78 Troyes, Treaty of, 141
Montfor, Simon de, 121—22 Reims Cathedral (France), 92 Tudor dynasty, 142
Mortimer, Roger, 132 Relics, of saints, 29, 41, 107, 115 Turks, 78-79, 80, 81, 82, 101, 144. See
Moslems, 78. See also Arabs and Arab Religion. See Christianity; Greek Or- also Arabs and Arabic Empire; Islam
Empire; Islam; Turks thodox Church; Islam; Paganism; Ro- Tyler, Wat, 139
Muhammad (Prophet), 36, 50, 51 man Catholic Church
Music, 85-86 Revolts, of peasants, 138-39 Universities, 115-117
Mythras and Mythrasism, 13, 17 Richard I "the Lion-Hearted" (king of University of Paris, 113-115
England), 91, 100, 101-2 Urban II, Pope, 79-80
Naples (Italy), 102, 127 Richard II (king of England), 140-141
Netherlands. See Low Countries Richard III (king of England), 142 Vandals (tribe), 23
Nicene Creed, 17-18, 79 Robert (Duke of Normandy), 80 Van Eyck, Jan, 141
Nobles. See Feudalism Roman Catholic Church, 29-30, 40, 49, Verdun, Treaty of, 49, 68
Nogaret, William de, 123-24, 126 73-74, 75-76, 79, 102-9, 127, 130- Vesuvius, Mt., 13
Norman Conquest, 66—68 31, 142, 143. See also Cathedrals; Mo- Vikings, 53, 54, 55-59, 63
Normandy, 77-78, 66 nastic orders; Papacy Villard de Honnecourt, 93
Norway, 56, 58. See also Vikings Romances, and chivalry, 84, 85. See also Villein, definition of, 64
Novgorod (Russia), 50, 55 Courtly love Visigoths (tribe), 22, 25, 33
Roman Empire, 9-13, 20, 21, 27, 33-35 Vladimir (king of Kiev), 50
Nuns, 18, 88, 71, 144 Romanesque architecture, 72—73, 92
Rome, sack of, 22—23, 25 Wales, 122
Odofredus (law professor), 114 Roswitha of Gandersheim, 69 War of the Roses, 141-42
Omar Khayam, 52 Rubaiyat (Omar Khyyam), 52 William Iron-Arm (Normandy), 77-78
Omens, 47 Rudolf I of Hapsburg, 127 William the Conqueror (king of En-
Ostrogoths, 23, 27 Runnymead, Battle of, 104 gland), 66-68
Otto the Great (king of Germany), Rus (Vikings), 49-50, 55 Women, 34, 45, 46, 61-62, 64, 96,
68 Russia, 49-50, 55, 145. See also Slavs 117-18, 142. See also Courtly love;
Ottoman Empire. See Turks Saladin (Turk leader), 101 Marriage; Nuns
Oxford University, 115, 117 Scholastica, St., 30 Wycliffe, John, 130, 142-43, 144
Credits
120; Antivarisk—Topografiska Arkivet, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 13 [Rogers
Stockholm: 57 top; Art Resource, NY: Fund, 1903. (03.14.13)], 37 right [Rogers
31, 45, 122; The Bettmann Archive: 119; Fund, 1940. (40.162.2a)], 37 left [Rogers
Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Flo- Fund, 1952. (52.114)], 57 bottom
rence: 76; Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana [Rogers Fund, 1955. (55.46.1)], 60
[Fr. Z 21 (=257), f.145r (miniature)], 63; [Bashford Dean Memorial Collection,
Biblioteca Vaticana: 124 (MS Pal. Lat. Gift of Helen Fahnestock Hubbard, in
1071, f.81r) Bibliotheque Municipale de memory of her father Harris C.
Troyes, 61; Bibliotheque nationale de Fahnestock, 1929. (29.154.3)], 68 [Gift of
France, Paris, cover, 18 top, 36, 52, 82 George Blumenthal, 1941. (41.100.157)],
top, 135; The Bodleian Library, Oxford: 86 bottom [The Cloisters Collection,
82 bottom (MS Bodl. 264, f.2v), 117 1979. (1979.402)], 133 bottom [Rogers
(MS Bodl. 13, f.17v); British Library, 6, Fund, 1919. (19.49.4)]; Museo
20 bottom, 30 right, 32 top, 42, 46, 58, Capitolino, Rome: 12 top; Board of
59, 66, 98, 100, 105, 108, 116, 120, 134, Trustees, National Gallery of Art,
138; © The British Museum, 21, 23; By Washington: 139; The New York Public
Permission of the Syndics of Cambridge Library: 118 top; The New York Public
University Library: 29, 99; Chetham's Library, Picture Collection: 115; The
Library, Manchester: 102; The Govern- Pierpont Morgan Library/Art Resource,
ing Body of Christ Church, Oxford: 97; NY: 19, 65, 81, 84, 110, 145;
Corporation of London Records Office: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn: 26;
118 bottom (Cust. 4); Escorial Library, The Royal Collection Her Majesty the
Madrid, 78, 85; Fitzwilliam Museum, Queen Elizabeth II: 121; Scala / Art
Cambridge, 40; Foto Marburg/Art Resource, NY: 8, 20 top, 34, 41 top, 53,
Resource, NY, 15, 41 bottom, 47, 72, 73, 90, 94, 112, 137; Schloss Fnedenstein,
74, 101, 104; Fototeca Unione, Rome, Gotha: 132; Snark/ Art Resource, NY:
12 bottom; Fratelli Alinari: 107; 133 top; Staatsbibliothek Bamburg: 28
Giraudon /Art Resource, NY, 26, 28 top; Ira N. Toff: 51, 92; original maps by
bottom, 38, 43, 48, 67, 80, 86 top, 89, Gary Tong: 11, 22, 44, 77, 95; Master
96, 114, 123, 126, 128, 131, 136, 140, and Fellows, Trinity College, Cambridge:
142; Hirmer Fotoarchiv, 18 bottom; 32; © Ulnch K. Tutsch: 93;
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, 27; Universitetets Oldsaksamling, Oslo: 54,
Leiden, University Library: 79 (MS Voss. 56; Vanni/Art Resource, NY: 35;
Lat. F. 31, f.85r); Erich Lessing/Art Victoria & Albert Museum, London/Art
Resource, NY, 2, 14 top, 50, 70, 127; Resource, NY: 64.
About the Author
Barbara A. Hanawalt is the George III
Professor of British History at Ohio State
University. She was previously professor of
history at the University of Minnesota and
the director of its Medieval Studies Center.
Her most recent books include Growing Up
in Medieval London: The Experience of Child-
hood in History, The Ties that Bound: Peasant
Families in Medieval England, and 'Of Good
and III Repute': Gender and Social Control in
Medieval England.