TEACHING METHOD

Unit 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Teacher
A person that teaches something; especially: a person whose job is to teach students about certain subjects.
A person who want to bring positive change in some one behavior through the process of teaching is called
teacher.(Yunas)
One who inspires guides, enlightens and motivates people or students is called teacher.
A person who touch the lives of others forever and make the world a better place.
A person, who educates, instructs and inspires especially in school.
A good teacher is one who can challenge young minds without losing their own.
1.2 Teaching
The origin of the word ‘teach’ lies in the Old English tæcan which mean to ‘show, present, point out’ something.

Teaching is the job, profession or work of a teacher. Something that is taught: the ideas and beliefs that are taught by
a person, religion, etc.

Teaching is the process of attending to people’s needs, experiences and feelings, and making specific interventions to
help them learn particular things.
According to Gage, "Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behavior potential of another
person."
Edmund Amidon defined it as-" Teaching is an interactive process, primarily involving class room talk which takes
place between teacher and pupil and occurs during certain definable activity."
Brubacher say that the," Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a situation in which an individual will seek
to overcome and from which he will learn in the course of doing so."
According to Skinner, Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement."
Ryans is of the view that "Teaching is concerned with the activities which are concerned with the guidance or
direction of the learning of others."
So “Teaching is a process that improves the student's seeking level more easily and it might be overcome any situation
in an easy way."
Teaching involves showing, telling and demonstrating an information, knowledge or skill which is unknown to the
observer, hearer or follower. In a broad sense, teaching implies everything that needs to be learnt from a teacher.
1.3 The Concept of Effective Teaching
Effective described a particular teacher who had been the most successful in helping students to learn. An
effective teaching involves the following key points.
1) Teacher knowledge, enthusiasm and responsibility for learning
2) Classroom activities that encourage learning
3) Assessment activities that encourage learning through experience.
4) Effective feedback that establishes the learning processes in the classroom.
5) Effective interaction between the teacher and the students, creating an environment that respects, encourages
and stimulates learning through experience.
6) The quality of teaching has a great impact on the achievement of students and effective questioning and
assessment are at the heart of great teaching. This involves giving enough time for children to practice new
skills and introducing learning progressively. The student progress is the yardstick by which teacher quality
should be assessed.
7) Effective teaching involve classroom management which in turn involve how a teacher makes effective use of
lesson time, coordinates classroom resources and manages the behavior of students.
A good teaching means, there will be a practice of encouraging contact between students and faculty, encouraging
active learning, giving timely feedback and respecting diverse talent and ways of learning.
1.4 Role of teacher for Conducive learning environment
Conducive learning environment mean a suitable and effective place for learning. This learning environment
means classroom or the overall school environment where the teacher can play a key role in creating a conducive
learning environment. Following are some points which can bitterly explain the role of a teacher in creating
effective learning environment.
 1. Creating an Effective Physical Classroom Environment
Planning and arranging the physical set-up of the classroom is a logical starting point for classroom
management. The physical environment reflects the expectations of the teacher of how the room should be
used. Because well organized classroom can stimulate learning, help building a classroom community and
will help students to be self motivated, disciplined and responsible. Structuring the physical environment in
the class includes:
a) Desk Arrangements
i. Desks in group form, with students facing each other can help in stimulating students’ discussion.
ii. Desks in single or double rows are good for demonstration or individual work.
iii. Desks in U shape are recommended where possible.
iv. All seating arrangements should accommodate an inclusive learning environment.
So an effective teacher always keeps in mind all the above mentioned points.
b) Students Placement
Place easily “unfocused” students away from each other, doorways, windows and area of high traffic.
An effective teacher placed the students in the class in the area which is suitable for their needs.
c) Classroom Decoration
Students like to see their own work displayed, even in high schools. Class made charts help students to
develop a sense of belonging to the classroom. Plants, animals, maps, models and picture of events of
universe have positive effects on classroom, which is always kept in mind by an effective teacher.
d) Energize(refreshment) in the Class
To make the classroom environment more effective for learning the teacher should allow games, quizzes,
music and jokes for some time in order to make them fresh for further learning.
2. Structuring the Emotional Environment

Friendly teacher and students’ interaction are very important for effective classroom learning environment.
This is the duty and responsibility of a teacher to give equal importance and value to all students in the class
so that each student feel special and important. Teacher must know the psychology of his students. He must
diagnose the students problems like attention deficit hyper depression (ADHD). Teacher behavior must be
polite and not the rude one because individual differences are everywhere and all these differences and
problems should be takel by the teacher patiently. Students need extra motivation so that they can maintain
attention, work consistently and avoid boredom associated with repetitive tasks e.g. Maths.

Good interaction with students involve is to greet student personally, make eye contact, negotiate rules and
routine with students, acknowledge positive behaviour, use positive and polite language.

1.5 Personal Characteristics of an Effective Teacher

i. Good interpersonal and communication skills
ii. Approachable
iii. Empathy
iv. Good listening skills
v. A genuine desire to help others
vi. An open mind and flexible attitude
vii. Is supportive without being controlling
viii. Can give guidance to a students without making their decision.
ix. Will always give honest answers.
x. Does not apportion blame but looks to solution.
xi. Actively questions the students.
xii. Ability to cope with challenge.
xiii. Willingness to debate and discuss.
xiv. Has a realistic expectation of themselves and others.
xv. Good organizational skills.
1.6 Professional Characteristics of an Effective Teacher
i. Excellent teacher practitioner.
ii. Commitment and devotion to his job.
iii. Have subject command.
iv. Well trained in the field of education.
 v. Can facilitate and guide their students in an easy and polite way.
vi. Good instructur and demonstrator.
vii. Solve the problems of students on the spot.
viii. Help the students to identify practice which meets their professional requirements.
ix. Have effective classroom management.
x. Know the psychology of his students.

Some other characteristics are given as under:

1. Preparation
The most effective teachers come to class each day ready to teach.
 It is easy to learn in their classes because they are ready for the day.
 They don’t waste instructional time. They start class on time. They teach for the entire class period.
 Time flies in their classes because students are engaged in learning i.e., not bored, less likely to fall asleep.
2. Positive
 The most effective teachers have optimistic attitudes about teaching and about students.
 They See the glass as half full (look on the positive side of every situation).
 Make themselves available to students.
 Communicate with students about their progress.
 Give praise and recognition.
 Have strategies to help students act positively toward one another.
3. Fair
The most effective teachers handle students and grading fairly. They
 Allow all students equal opportunities and privileges
 Provide clear requirements for the class
 Recognize that “fair” doesn’t necessarily mean treating everyone the same but means giving every student an
opportunity to succeed
 Understand that not all students learn in the same way and at the same rate

4. Respect Students
The most effective teachers do not deliberately embarrass students. Teachers, who give the highest respect, get the
highest respect. They
 Respect students’ privacy when returning test papers
 Speak to students in private concerning grades or conduct
 Show sensitivity to feelings and consistently avoid situations that unnecessarily embarrass students.
5. Admit Mistakes
The most effective teachers are quick to admit being wrong. They
 Apologize to mistakenly accused students
 Make adjustments when students point out errors in grading or test material that has not been assigned.

6. Organization and Clarity

 Explains clearly
 Is well prepared
 Makes difficult topics easy to understand
 Uses examples, details, analogies, and variety in modes of explanation to make material not only
understandable but memorable.
 Makes the objectives of the course and each class clear.
 Establishes a framework for material.

7. Dynamism and Enthusiasm

 is an energetic, dynamic person

 seems to enjoy teaching
 conveys a love of the field
 has the feeling of self-confidence
 8. An effective teacher is a skilled leader. Different from administrative leaders, effective teachers focus on
shared decision-making and teamwork, as well as on community building. This great teacher conveys this
sense of leadership to students by providing opportunities for each of them to assume leadership roles.
9. An effective teacher collaborates with colleagues on an ongoing basis. Rather than thinking of herself as
weak because she asks for suggestions or help, this teacher views collaboration as a way to learn from a
fellow professional. A great teacher uses constructive criticism and advice as an opportunity to grow as an
educator.

1.7 The concepts of Teaching Approaches, Stratigies, Methods, Techniques and Teaching Maxims
Teaching Approaches
The way we look towards something or
point of view about something. Teaching
approach involve different strategies.
Examples
1. Teacher centered approach.
2. Student centered approach.
3. Parity centered approach(teacher and students both are
involved in teaching learning process through qustions
and discussion).
4. Inductive approach(teaching from specific (examples)
to general).
5. Deductive approach( teaching from general to specific)
.

Teaching Strategies Examples

The word strategy has been derived from 1. Active learning strategy.
Greek word strategia mean plan of 2. Problem solving strategy.
action. Strategy is the combination of 3. Experimental strategy
different teaching methods.

Teaching Methods Examples

The way we present contents is called
teaching method. A method involeve
different techniques.
1. Direct method.
2. Grammar translation method.
3. Activity base method.
4. Inquiry method.
5. Problem solving method.
6. Discussion method.

Teaching Techniques Examples

These are teaching tools which help in 1. Questions.
our teaching. A technique involve 2. Discussion.
different teaching principles. 3. Explanation.
4. Exposition (usefulness and utility of something).

Teaching Maxims Examples

These are teaching principles. When we
going to teach something we have to
follow these principles.
1. From simple to complex.
2. From known to unknown
3. From concrete to abstract
4. From whole to parts
5. From parts to whole
Unit 2
LESSON PLANNING IN TEACHING
2.1 Introduction
A lesson plan is the systematic preparation done in a scientific manner. Effective and successful teaching
mainly depends on perfect lesson planning. A lesson plan represents a single teaching unit meant for a class period.
Generally a lesson plan is teacher’s mental and emotional visualization of classroom activities.
Definition
“Lesson plan is the title given to a statement of the achievement to be realized and the specific means by which
these are to be attained as a result of the activities engaged in during the period”. (Bossing)
“Daily lesson planning involves defining the objectives, selecting and arranging the subject matter and determining
the method and procedure” (Binging and Binging)
A lesson is “A plan of action”

2.1.1 The Need for Lesson Planning

As planning mean think in advance about something. So lesson plan mean advance thinking and organization
of different parts of a lesson before going to teach in the class. For initial trainers lesson is a “project” written
down on paper. It is only a “project” because a lot of unseen events occur in the classroom. But it is the part of
behavior of those teachers who are skilled one and they do not need any written plan because they have all the
steps, procedure and techniques in their mind. It on the other hand provides a guide for controlling the
learning environment. As we know that the work as a designer as well as implementer of instruction, therefore
the preparation of lesson plan will ensure the organization of the lesson according to some criteria. Apart from
of the format, all teachers need to make active decisions about the strategies and methods they will employ to
help students move systematically toward learner goals. The more organized a teacher is, the more effective
the teaching, and thus the learning, will be. Writing daily lesson plans is a large part of being organized.
Following are the some needs of a lesson plan.

i. Objectives
Teachers need to have a accurate idea of educational objectives and standards. So the lesson plan
helps the teachers to know about the general as well as specific objectives of the lesson.
ii. Contents
Content is chosen according to the level and needs of the learners. It must be interesting and appealing
to them. The lesson plan helps the teachers to organize and present the lesson in a logical and
psychological order. A lesson plan helps in calling every step of curriculum unit.
iii. Instructional procedure
The effective teacher also needs to develop a plan to provide direction toward the attainment of the
selected objectives. Teachers must decide how to sequence the teaching items according to the
methodology and approach they opted for. Sequencing may be from easy to difficult, from known to
unknown, from familiar to unfamiliar, from whole to part or from part to whole etc.
iv. Timing
The effective teacher certainly controls the way time is used. Effective teachers systematically and
carefully plan for productive use of instructional time. The teachers give proper time to all topics and
activities.
v. Interest
Lesson plan help the teacher to develop his interest as well as the interest of the students during
teaching in the class. To make the lesson more interesting the teacher decide to use different A.V
aids to make the teaching more effective.
vi. Motivation and control
With the help of lesson planning the teacher can easily motivate and control the class toward learning.
A lesson plan develops the possibilities of adjustment in the classroom situation which makes the
teaching effective.
vii. Facilitate Teacher
Lesson plan help teachers and make the teaching process very easy for them. It saves the efforts and
energy of a teacher.
viii. Evaluation procedure
 There should be some kind of evaluation or feedback tasks to highlight lesson deficiencies. The
evaluation may be formative or summative or both. So lesson planning help what to evaluate, where
to evaluate and when to evaluate. Evaluation lead the teacher to know either the objectives of the
lesson have been achieved or not.
Lesson must not be rigid. There must be flexibility in the lesson plan. This flexibility will help teacher
to make any modification necessary according to the needs of the students and teaching-learning
process. The elements of a lesson plan should be just like guiding principles to be applied as aids, but
not as a fixed design, to systematic instruction.
2.1.2 Importance of Lesson Plan
Planning is essential for every aspect of human activities, but for a planned teaching more planning is
required.
i. Suitable Environment
In a lesson plan objectives are fixed and the teaching strategies, techniques and material aid etc. are decided
beforehand. When a proper teaching environment is created, the teaching task goes in a much planned way.
ii. Based on previous knowledge
In preparing lesson plans, the teacher presents new knowledge as the basis of previous knowledge of the
pupils. This enables the pupils to gain the knowledge very conveniently on one side; the teacher succeeds in
acquiring his objective on the other side.
iii. Psychological teaching
The teacher uses proper teaching strategies, techniques and instruments keeping in mind the interests,
aptitudes, needs, capacities and abilities of the pupils for teaching them when the lesson plans are prepared. This
makes the teaching more psychological.
iv. Limitation of subject matter
In a lesson plan, the subject matter becomes limited. This enables the teacher to give up irrelevant things. He
only remembers definite and limited matter and its presentation before the pupils become easy. The pupils also
receive the knowledge in a systematic and organized way.
v. Determination of activities
In a lesson plan, the teachers and pupils activities are pre-decided according to the class level. This makes the
teaching activities meaningful and purposeful.
vi. Preparation of material aids
At the time of preparing a lesson plan, the teacher decides what facts are to be clarified by what strategies,
techniques and instruments and what aid is to be used at what time. This prepares the necessary and effective aids
before starting the teaching task.
vii. Developing of teaching skill
The lesson plan acts as an important means for developing teaching skills in the pupil-teacher.
viii. Use of Theoretical knowledge
Whatever the pupil-teachers get theoretical knowledge during their training period, that knowledge.
ix. Teaching with confidence
The preparation of a lesson plan makes the subject and other allied subjects more clearly to the teachers. This
arouses self confidence among them. When a teacher gets developed the feeling of self-confidence, then he
presents the new knowledge to the pupils with more enthusiasm and pleasure.
x. Discipline in class
By preparing lesson plan, the teacher becomes aware of what, when and how much is to be done in the class.
This absorbs all the pupils in their respective tasks. Hence, it results in appreciable classroom discipline.
xi. Time sense
Lesson plan is prepared allotting to the duration of the periods.
xii. Teaching from memory level to reflective level
In an ideal lesson plan, development and thought provoking questions should be asked. Also there should be
an effort to stretch the teaching from memory level to reflective level.
2.2 Approaches to Lesson Planning
Approaches to lesson plan mean that someone look towards lesson planning or point of view about lesson
planning. There are different approaches towards lesson planning. Lesson planning may be daily, weekly, unit
wise or course wise.
 i. Daily Planning
Daily planning of lesson mean to prepare lessons plans by a teacher for those subjects which will be
taught by him/her in the school on the same day. He/she has the sketch of the lesson in his mind how
to teach, when to teach, what to teach and where to teach?
ii. Weekly Planning
Planning of lesson on weekly base is called weekly planning. Usually this planning is done for the
whole school, classes and for all subjects, that how much topics of a particular course will be taught
by a teacher in the working days of a particular week.
iii. Unit Planning
Planning of a unit of a subject according to time, duration, days, weeks and months is called unit
planning. Unit planning is nothing but the distribution of topics of a unit according to time.
iv. Course planning
Course planning means the distribution of whole course according to the duration and time of an
education institute in order to achieve the objectives, goals and aims of the institute.
2.3 Strategies for Effective Lesson Planning
A lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively
during the class time. Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning objectives for
the class meeting. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies to obtain
feedback on student learning. A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components:

i. Objectives for student learning

ii. Teaching/learning activities
iii. Strategies to check student understanding
Specifying concrete objectives for student learning will help you determine the kinds of teaching and learning
activities you will use in class, while those activities will define how you will check whether the learning
objectives have been accomplished(see in Fig bellow).

What do I want students

to learn?

How I will check for What teaching and learning

understanding? activities will I use?

2.3 Steps in Lesson Planning

This approach is generally known as Herbartian five steps approach in the procedure of the Herbartian
School propagated by J.F.Herbart (1776-1841) and his followers. The formal steps involved in the approach
as below
i. Introduction / Motivation
ii. Presentation
iii. Generalization
iv. Application
v. Recapitulation
i. Introduction / Motivation
This step is concerned with the task of preparing the students for receiving new knowledge. In preparation,
nothing new is taught to students. Relevant to the topic in hand the teacher should make himself sure of what the
pupils already know, by putting a few questions, based on the pupils previous knowledge. In general, with the help
of this step, the teacher can check the students entering behavior before he starts teaching the lesson. Thus, testing
 previous knowledge, developing interest in the minds of students and maintaining curiosity of the students can be
achieved with the help of this step.
The following activities involved in this step
i. The assumption about the previous knowledge of the students in relevance to the lesson.
ii. The testing of the previous knowledge
iii. Utilizing the previous knowledge for introducing the lesson (declaration of topic).
iv. Motivating the students for studying the present lesson
ii. Presentation
It is the key step and only through which the actual process of teaching is going to take place. Here the
objectives of the lesson should be stated clearly and the heading should be written on the blackboard. We have to
provide situation for both the teacher and the students to participate in the process of teaching and learning. Our
ultimate aim of the presentation is to make the concepts understandable to the students. Therefore simple language
is used. Appropriate and specific examples and illustrations of the concepts will make the understanding better.
The interest of the students on the subject matter should be maintained continuously by the way of asking
questions from time to time in this stage. The teacher should carefully and skillfully arrange his material so that
the learners may clearly and readily take hold of it. The teacher should make proper use of questions, charts,
graphs, pictures, models and other illustrative for demonstration and explanation.
More importance should be given in this stage to compare the facts observed by the students with another
concept by way of giving examples. By making use of this comparison, the students can derive definitions or
theories. The students are encouraged to give new suitable examples for the concept instead of the examples given
in the book to make them think in an innovative manner.
At the end of each section a few questions concerning that section only should be asked to whether the pupils
are now ready for the acquisition of new knowledge.
iii. Generalization
This step is concerned with arriving at some general ideas or drawing out the necessary conclusions by the
students on the basis of the different comparisons, contracts and associated observed in the learning material
present by the teacher. As far as possible the task of formulation should be left to students. The teacher at this
stage should try to remain in the background for providing only necessary guidance and correction.
iv. Application
In this stage, the teacher makes the students to use the understood knowledge in an unfamiliar situation.
Unless the knowledge of science is applied in new situations or in our day-to-day life, the study of science will
become meaningless. This application of scientific principles will strengthen learning and will make the learning
permanent.
v. Recapitulation
This stage is meant for the teachers to know whether students have grasped by reviewing a lesson or by giving
assignments to the students. Only through this step achieving end (in teaching) is possible. Different evaluation
techniques are applied to judge the students that either the desired objectives have been achieved are not.
2.4 The Lesson Plan Format
Following are some formats of lesson plan at secondary level. These are not the fixed one but the flexible one, as
one can change or modify it according to the need of the students. Because individual differences are everywhere.

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Instructional objectives correspond to the desired change in the learner who go through instruction in a lesson.
There are two types of instructional objectives. They are
1) General Objectives
2) Specific Objectives
When a teacher plans a lesson, he should ask himself, “Why should I teach this lesson?” The answer to this
question constitutes Instructional objectives. All instruction will result in learning which in turn bring about changes in
the behavior of the learners. So the instructional objectives it means the anticipated behavior change, which is what is
what the teachers expect as a result of their teaching.
1) General Instructional Objective (GIO’s)
If the objectives are stated in general and vague manner, then they are called general objectives. They contain
non-behavioral verb i.e. they contain non-action verb.
For example;
 i. The learner acquires knowledge of the various branches of science.
ii. The learner develops skill in manipulating apparatus.
Here the verbs ‘acquires’ and ‘develops’ are non-action verbs which are cannot measure or observe directly,
because they are in the form of inner development or passive aspect of mental activity.
Example;
The pupil,
i. Acquires knowledge of friction
ii. Understands various types of friction
iii. Applies knowledge of friction in relevant unfamiliar situation
iv. Develops skill in doing experiments
v. Develops interest in experimenting
2) Specific Instructional Objectives (SIO’s)
If the objectives are stated in specific, then they are called specific objectives. They contain behavioral verb i.e.
they contain ‘action’ verb. The observable and measurable behavioral changes as a result of realizing an objective is
termed as specific instructional objectives or specification.

For example
The learner defines friction
Here defines is the active verb
The statement of specification should contain two parts
i. Modification Part (MP)
ii. Content Part (CP)
Example;
The learner defines friction
MP CP
The following table show illustrative examples of specifications with specified behavioral as well as content
part from physical science.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / SPECIFICATIONS
LEVEL

THE BEHAVIORAL THE CONTENT PART

PART

Recalls The branches of science

KNOWLEDGE Recognizes

Distinguishes between metals and non-metals

Identifies the physical properties of metals
Selects colored salts from the salts
Compares velocity and acceleration
Classifies primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol

between rest and motion

UNDERSTANDING
Identifies
relationships for first order lever
Give examples
the preparation of Iron
the function of generator
Describes
Explains
the ideas of input devices
Generalizes
 Gives reason Why sky appears blue?
Infers The result obtained in the experiment
Computes The normality of the liquid
Analyses Analyses situations
APPLICATION Establishes relationship between metals and non-
metals
Establishes
Improvisation to apparatus
relationships Apparatus with purpose
Suggests
Detects errors
Selects
For friction
Detects

Give new
illustrations
Draws The diagram of screw gauge
Labels The part of a generator
SKILL Of simple pendulum
Doing experiments
In a science quiz
Participates
Collects Picture of scientists, some machines etc.
Prepares Posters on water pollution
INTEREST Writes An article on ‘Globalization’ for school magazine
Organizes science exhibition on ICT in Science
Organizes Education

Unit 3
PEDAGOGY BY LEVEL
3.1 Pedagogy
Teaching to the children usually at school level is called pedagogy. It refers to, “that set of instructional techniques
and strategies which enable learning to take place and provide opportunities for the acquisition of knowledge, skills,
attitudes and dispositions within a particular social and material context. It refers to the interactive process between
teacher and learner and to the learning environment” (Siraj-Blatchford)
Pedagogy is the systematic study about science of teaching and learning. It is about how knowledge is organizing
effectively and used in order to implement curriculum.
3.2 Pedagogy of Early Childhood Education
Early childhood mean the age below 5 years in which generally children are out of school in developing countries like
Pakistan. While early childhood education mean education or teaching learning process for such children. Now the
techniques, methods and strategies used in educating early child is known as pedagogy of early child education. This
pedagogy is arranged and implemented according to the interest, likes and dislikes of the children. Pedagogy of early
childhood stress on the following points.
xvi. Emphasis on age-appropriateness and play in pedagogy, and encourages staff to employ different
approaches and practices flexibly.
xvii. Favorable staff-child ratios in place that can positively impact pedagogy. The regulated number of
children per practitioner (or staff-child ratio) can influence how much time practitioners can spend
per child. With a higher number of children per staff, conditions for individualized attention and
interaction with children are less favorable.
xviii. Require proper trained teachers.
xix. Special rooms full of pictures, models, blocks, decorated with colors and painting.
xx. Teachers must be aware of the psychology of students.
 xxi. The play-based learning is found to be a highly effective method in enhancing children’s socio-
emotional and academic development. Play has found to mostly contribute to a child’s
development when it is regarded as meaningful, i.e. has the explicit purpose to learn a child
something such as a puzzle or constructional materials.
xxii. Multimedia arrangement is very important for Early Child Education (ECE).
xxiii. Democratic learning environment is the vital need of ECE.
xxiv. The classroom should just look like home environment in which the children will not feel that
they are out of his parents.
xxv. Pedagogical knowledge must be according to psychology of the children.
xxvi. Play is the focus point for children.
xxvii. There is need of a strong monitoring system in place which even monitors process quality.
3.3 Pedagogy of Early Childhood Education in Pakistan
The education system of Pakistan is not according to the standard. There are so many flaws in our
education system especially in early child education. Curriculum for early child education has been
developed in 2007 but still it has not been implemented by the government in public schools. There are no
enrollments of early children in majority of the Govt; schools, no specific trained teachers, no specific
rooms and teaching materials.
On the other hand at private sector the situation of early child education is much effective than the public
schools. There is a well developed program about the ECE in private schools and colleges regarding
admission, classrooms management, learning environment, AVAids, teaching methodology, play tools
and teaching methodology of teachers.
Early childhood pedagogy is the play base methodology of maria montessory and Probal kindergarten
techniques. In this learning methodology all the children are free to take part in any activity according to
their interest under the guidance and supervision of teacher. In initial stages learning of simple counting,
names, alphabets colours and shapes are involved through play-play education.
In today global world there is special need of early child education both in public and private schools.
Students at the age of 3 to 5 years must be enrolled in schools. For this purpose parents meeting at schools
should be arranged. Mass compain should be arranged to aware the masses to enroll their children below
the age of 5 years. Eductaion minister, secrateries, directors and DEO should take special interest in
developing the early child education and pedagogy. Because the curriculum has been developed in 2007
but still have not been implemented.
3.4 Pedagogy of Elementary Education
As we know hat pedagogy is the systematic study about science of teaching and learning. It is about how knowledge is
organizing effectively and used in order to implement curriculum. While elementry education mean education up to 8 th
class that we call middle education. Now it is very simple and clear that the teaching principles, techniques, methods,
strategies and approaches used by the teachers in implementing the curriculum for the effective learning of students.
This involve all the leaning activities in the process of education at elementry level. Some of the important elements of
the teaching learning process at elementry level are discussed below.
i. Learner or Student
Priority is always given to learner because when there is learner there will be learning environment
(school, class) and teachers. At elementry level the students join school at the age of 5 years and continue
till the age of 14 years. So this period of education is very sensitive on the behalf of learner education. The
educationists and teacher should keep in mind all the needs, likes, dislikes and individual differences
while making curriculum for them and teaching them. Learner will be the central point and the learning
activities must revolve the students need and interest
ii. Teacher
Teacher must be democratic, friendly, polite, cooperative, trained and skillful. He must know the
psychological needs of the students. He should arrange the learning activities according to the interst of
the students. In modern education the teacher role is to guide, facilitate and lead the students in a best
direction. He has to supervise the activities in such a way that the student consider him as a friend not an
authority.
iii. Teaching Method
Teaching methodology is mainly concern with activities and lecture method is used very less. Activities
are include practical work which include both mental and physical involvement. The teacher often
remains passive and the students remain active. Rich AV aids are used to support the learning process.
Contents should be explained in a simple way by following the principles of teaching.
 iv. Learning Environment
School and classroom is the learning environment which must be decorated, arranged, full of AV aids i.e.
charts, colorful things, animals, flowers, maps, picture of heroes and models.
Class room must be clean and clear. All the possible needs of the students must be available in the class.
Arrangement of light and ventilation must be there. Less strength and large space for the students must be
provided in order the students move freely and easily. All these measures will facilitate the learning of the
students. If possible field trips should be arranged for them.
v. Evaluation
Different evaluation techniques are used in pedagogy of elementary education. These techniques are both
qualitative and quantative in nature. Usually formative and summative evaluations are used by the teacher
which include both oral and written test. Written test include both subjective and objective type questions.
Evaluation question, items and statements must be simple, clear, specific, measurable, attainable, relevant
and time bound (SMART).
3.5 Pedagogy of Elementary Education in Pakistan
The above mentioned statements reveal that very less of these are implemented in Pakistan at elementary
level. Less practical work, activities and rich AV aids are used in the schools by the teachers. Learner needs,
like and dislikes are ignored, students always remain passive in the class and teacher as an authority is active.
Only lecture method and dictation is followed in the class. No effective environment for learning is available
in the class and the evaluation process is just formality. There is need of special improvement in the pedagogy
of elementary education in Pakistan.

Unit 4
INQUIRY/ INDIRECT METHODS
This is the method of teaching in which we make some investigation about a topic, problem or thing. The problem
usually assigns by the teacher or the students select it with their own interest after discussion with his teacher. This is
also known as Heuristic method. This method is the combination of several methods or we may say that there are
several ways through which we can make inquiry about a topic or problem. These methods or ways are given as
under;
1.1 The Inductive Method
In this method of teaching we generally go from specific (examples) to general (theory). It begins with
specific details, concrete data and examples and end with an abstract. Learners are more engaged with in
teaching learning process. This method gives us new knowledge. Students acquire firsthand knowledge and
information by actual observation. Here the learning becomes more interesting because the teacher start from
the experiences of students. It helps in the development of higher order thinking and skills. Critical thinking
and analysis are required to go toward generalization. It need much time to lead students to formulate
generalization. Teacher goes to ask right question, organize answers and comments to pave the way to the
derivation of generalizations or principles.
Advantages of Inductive Method
i. The learners are more engaged in teaching-learning process. The learner formulates the generalization
or rule.
ii. Learning becomes more interesting at the outset because teacher begin with the experiences of the
students. Teachers begin with what they know.
iii. According to the needs of the students.
iv. Concept clearance is very easy in this method.
v. Students are motivated very easily.
vi. Teacher students’ interaction is more and active.
vii. Known to unknown and simple to complex rules are followed which is according to the students’
psychology.
viii. It is full of activity.
Disadvantages
i. Time consuming method.
ii. It is a slow process of teaching.
iii. Majority teachers have no skill of inductive methodology.
iv. Teachers are unable to take help from the examples and activities in an easy way related to our daily
life.
1.2 Deductive Method
This is also one of the inquiry methods of teaching. In this method we go from general to specific. First a
theory, principle or general thing, definition etc are teaching to the students and then explanation with
example is followed. The teacher gives lecture or presents the theory and principles in his own style with
proper explanation and at the last give examples. For example when a teacher teach noun in the class through
deductive method he come to class and start from the definition that “dear students today we will discuss
about noun, noun is the name of a person, thing or place. For example girl, boy, Akram, Peshawar, Quaid-i-
Azam, chair, table etc.
So it is the teacher dominated approach of teaching. It begins with the abstract rules, generalization, principles
and ends with specific examples and concrete details. It covers a wider scope of subject matter. In this method
learning is passive process; the learners do not take part in the generation of conclusion or generalization.
Drill, exercise or practice comes after the explanation of the principle.

Example of Science
Teacher defines: All animals with backbones are classified as vertebrates. Then teacher give examples: dog is
vertebrate because it possesses backbone. Cat, Frog and Cow are vertebrates, they possesses backbones.
Advantages of Deductive Method
i. This method of teaching covers a lot of subject matter.
ii. Teachers remain active and provide more information in very less time.
iii. No consumption of time in this method.
iv. It is a quick process of teaching.
Disadvantages
i. Less involvement on the part of learner.
ii. Learners do not take part in the generation of conclusion.
iii. Teaching and learning is not interested because it always starts from abstracts.
iv. There is less scope of activity.
v. Stress on rote learning.
1.3 Scientific Method
The word science has been derived from Latin word scientia which mean “to know”.
So the science is a step wise approach based on observation, hypothesis and experiment. Therefore we can say
that scientific method is a systematic approach towards the solution of a problem. A step-by-step process
scientists use to answer questions and solve problems is called scientific method.
The scientific process of inquiry is outlined by steps. These steps are collectively called the Scientific Method.
The steps are:
i) Observation ii) Problem/ Question iii) Hypothesis iv) Experiment v) Results vi. Conclusion
i. Observation
Observation means to keep an eye on something or any phenomenon or group of phenomena while
using our senses. These observations must be on scientific basis, which must be detectable and
measurable.
ii. Problem/Question
This is the second step in which a question or problem or gap arises after observation that explain the
phenomena. The cause and relationship of the problem with other phenomena is determined through
comparison.
iii. Hypothesis
A tentative statement for the solution of a problem is called hypothesis. After selecting a problem a
supposed solution is made for the problem.
iv. Experiment
Develop and follow a procedure. Include a detailed materials list and data. The outcome must be
measurable (quantifiable).
v. Result
Modify the procedure if needed. Confirm the results by retesting. Include tables, graphs, and
photographs.
vi. Conclusion
Include a statement that accepts or rejects the hypothesis. Make recommendations for further study
and possible improvements to the procedure.
1.4 The Problem Solving Approach

Definition of a Problem

Before discussing problem solving first it is necessary to define problem. Problem is a gap, question or
weakness in any process? Is this a problem? Talha has two cats and three dogs. How many pets does he have?
For many pre-school-aged children, this could be considered a problem. For the average second-grade student,
this problem would be solved within a matter of seconds, no problem. To truly be considered a problem, a
mathematical quest must contain some effort or thought on the part of the solver. As a teacher you must
remember that what is a problem for some students may be a mere exercise for others.

Problem-solving is the ability to identify and solve problems by applying appropriate skills systematically.

Problem-solving is a process, an ongoing activity in which we take what we know to discover what we don't
know. It involves overcoming obstacles by generating hypotheses, testing those predictions, and arriving at
satisfactory solutions.

Problem-solving involves three basic functions:

1. Seeking information
2. Generating new knowledge
3. Making decisions

Problem-solving is, and should be, a very real part of the curriculum. It presupposes that students can take on
some of the responsibility for their own learning and can take personal action to solve problems, resolve
conflicts, discuss alternatives, and focus on thinking as a vital element of the curriculum. It provides students
with opportunities to use their newly acquired knowledge in meaningful, real-life activities and assists them in
working at higher levels of thinking.

Here is a five-stage model that most students can easily memorize and put into action and which has direct
applications to many areas of the curriculum as well as everyday life:

Here are some techniques that will help students understand the nature of a problem and the conditions that
surround it:

List all related relevant facts.

i. Make a list of all the given information.

ii. Restate the problem in your own words.
iii. List the conditions that surround a problem.
iv. Describe related known problems.

For younger students, illustrations are helpful in organizing data, manipulating information, and outlining the
limits of a problem and its possible solution(s). Students can use drawings to help them look at a problem
from many different perspectives. Following are the five steps for solving a problem.

1. Understand the problem. It's important that students understand the nature of a problem and its related goals.
Encourage students to frame a problem in their own words.
2. Describe any barriers. Students need to be aware of any barriers or constraints that may be preventing them
from achieving their goal. In short, what is creating the problem? Encouraging students to verbalize these
impediments is always an important step.
3. Identify various solutions. After the nature and parameters of a problem are understood, students will need to
select one or more appropriate strategies to help resolve the problem. Students need to understand that they
have many strategies available to them and that no single strategy will work for all problems. Here are some
problem-solving possibilities:
 i. Create visual images. Many problem-solvers find it useful to create “mind pictures” of a problem
and its potential solutions prior to working on the problem. Mental imaging allows the problem-
solvers to map out many dimensions of a problem and “see” it clearly.
ii. Guesstimate. Give students opportunities to engage in some trial-and-error approaches to problem-
solving. It should be understood, however, that this is not a singular approach to problem-solving but
rather an attempt to gather some preliminary data.
iii. Create a table. A table is an orderly arrangement of data. When students have opportunities to design
and create tables of information, they begin to understand that they can group and organize most data
relative to a problem.
iv. Use manipulative. By moving objects around on a table or desk, students can develop patterns and
organize elements of a problem into recognizable and visually satisfying components.
v. Work backward. It's frequently helpful for students to take the data presented at the end of a problem
and use a series of computations to arrive at the data presented at the beginning of the problem.
vi. Look for a pattern. Looking for patterns is an important problem-solving strategy because many
problems are similar and fall into predictable patterns. A pattern, by definition, is a regular, systematic
repetition and may be numerical, visual, or behavioral.
vii. Create a systematic list. Recording information in list form is a process used quite frequently to map
out a plan of attack for defining and solving problems. Encourage students to record their ideas in lists
to determine regularities, patterns, or similarities between problem elements.
4. Try out a solution. When working through a strategy or combination of strategies, it will be important for
students to:
i. Keep accurate and up-to-date records of their thoughts, proceedings, and procedures. Recording
the data collected, the predictions made, and the strategies used is an important part of the problem
solving process.
ii. Try to work through a selected strategy or combination of strategies until it becomes evident
that it's not working, it needs to be modified, or it is yielding inappropriate data. As students
become more proficient problem-solvers, they should feel comfortable rejecting potential strategies at
any time during their quest for solutions.
iii. Monitor with great care the steps undertaken as part of a solution. Although it might be a natural
tendency for students to “rush” through a strategy to arrive at a quick answer, encourage them to
carefully assess and monitor their progress.
iv. Feel comfortable putting a problem aside for a period of time and tackling it at a later time. For
example, scientists rarely come up with a solution the first time they approach a problem. Students
should also feel comfortable letting a problem rest for a while and returning to it later.
5. Evaluate the results. It's vitally important that students have multiple opportunities to assess their own
problem-solving skills and the solutions they generate from using those skills. Frequently, students are overly
dependent upon teachers to evaluate their performance in the classroom. The process of self-assessment is not
easy, however. It involves risk-taking, self-assurance, and a certain level of independence. But it can be
effectively promoted by asking students question such as “How do you feel about your progress so far?” “Are
you satisfied with the results you obtained?” and “Why do you believe this is an appropriate response to the
problem?”

4.5 Advantages and Limitation of Inquiry Method

There are many benefits to implementing inquiry-based learning programs. These benefits include the
following:

i. Leads to more motivated students

ii. Helps develop information literally
iii. Helps develop critical thinking skills
iv. Results in better long term retention of information
v. Helps develop deeper understanding of subjects
vi. Helps students become better learners and helps prepare them to be life-long learners
vii. Encourages self-direction
viii. Reinforces physical, emotional and cognitive growth
ix. Encourages development of interpersonal and team skills
 x. Emphasizes intrinsic rather than extrinsic rewards
xi. Can give students the opportunity to teach and learn from each other
xii. May engage students who do not function well in a more traditional learning environment
xiii. Validates the knowledge and experiences of students, including those from minorities and disadvantaged
groups
xiv. Can be adapted for any age group
xv. Pace and content can be adapted to suit individual learning needs of students

Ideally, inquiry-based learning should be a collaborative effort involving all stakeholders, including students,
teachers, media specialists, administrators and parents. All stakeholders benefit during the process of
collaboration. According to Harada and Yoshina, three main benefits exist:

i. Access to a wide range of resources

ii. Support in using various technologies for learning and teaching
iii. Opportunities for creative synergy and collegial problem solving.

Informed students become informed community members, and they are then better prepared to become critical
thinkers who can ably participate in and contribute to a democratic society.

Because students and staff often are the key participants, specific benefits apply to them:

Students

i. Acquire skills needed in the workplace (working in small groups, communicating clearly, applying knowledge
to solve real problems)
ii. Participate in opportunities for reflection
iii. Engage in interesting research
iv. Learn how to become lifelong learners
v. Become more engaged and interested
vi. Determine own direction of learning
vii. Evaluate a wide range of resources

Staff / Educaors

i. Experience improvement of work quality

ii. Feel more satisfaction and have an improved morale

Unit 5
ACTIVITY METHODS AND COOPERATIVE LEARNING

5.1 Project Method of Teaching

Project method is one of the most modern method of teaching in which, the students point of view is
given importance in designing the curricula and content of studies. This method is based on the
philosophy of pragmatism and the principles of “learning by doing”. In this strategy students perform
constructive activities in natural condition. A project is a list of real life that has been imparted into
the school. It demand work from the students.
Following are some definitions of project method by different people.
i. According to W.H. Kilpatrick, “A project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social
environment”.
ii. According to Ballord, “A project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into school”.
iii. According to Thomas and Long, “It is a voluntary undertaking which involves constructive effort or
thought and eventuates into objectives results”.
Characteristics of Project Method
i. It takes the students beyond the walls of the classroom.
ii. It is carried out in a natural setting, thus making learning realistic and experiential.
iii. It encourages investigative learning and solution of practical problems.
 iv. It is focused on the student as it enlists his active involvement in the task set.
v. It encourages the spirit of scientific inquiry as it involves validation of hypothesis based on
evidence gathering from field through investigation.
vi. It promotes a better knowledge of the practical aspects of knowledge gained from books.
vii. It enhances the students’ social skills, as it requires interaction with social environment.
viii. Teacher plays a facilitative role rather than the role of an expert.
ix. It allows the students a great degree of freedom to choose among from the options given to them;
hence it provides a psychological boost.
x. It encourages the spirit of research in the student.
Types of Project
There are different types of project. These types are given as under.
i. Individual Project

In this type of project the problem is selected, planned, organized, implemented and evaluated a
single person or individual. Social qualities, skill and ethics are developed in the students under the
supervision of his teacher.
ii. Group Project

In this type of project the problem is solved by the group of students in the class. Here the social
citizenship qualities, team work, sense of cooperation and coordination are develops.

iii. Simple Project

In the simple projects the students are only completing one work at a time. It gives the deep
information about the project in one angle. The students get deeper and broader knowledge about
the problem.

iv. Complex Project

In the complex project the students are carried out more than one work at a time. They are focuses
on the work in various subject and angles. Here the students get the knowledge about the work in
the various activities and dimensions.
According to Kilpatrick there are four types of Projects:

i. Constructive Project

Practical or physical tasks such as construction of article, making a model, digging in the well and
playing drama are done in this type of projects.

ii. Aesthetic Project

Appreciation powers of students are develop in this type of project through the musical programmes,
beautification of something, appreciation of poems, painting etc.

iii. Problematic Project

This type of project is totally related to the development of problem solving capacity of the students
through their experiences. It is based on cognitive domain of the students.
iv. Drill Project
It is for the mastery of the skill and knowledge of the students. It increase the work efficacy and
capacity of the students.
Steps of Project Method
Following are the main steps involve in a project method of teaching.
1. Creating Situation
This is the first step in which a teacher create a proper situation to the students in the class. He puts up
the knowledge about the project method procedure, steps, and sues to the students.
Generally a project should arise out of a need felt by students and it should never be forced on them. It
should be purposeful and significant.
2. Selection of the Problem
The teacher helps the students to select the problem and guide them. Students are having freedom to
choose the topic or problem based on their interest and ability. Before choosing a topic the principles
should be taken into an account. Such as school tasks are to be as real and as purposeful and they are
of such a nature that the students are genuinely eager to carry them out in order to achieve a desirable
and clearly realized aim. Teacher should only tempt the students for a particular project by providing
a situation but the proposal for the project should finally come from students.
3. Planning
The teacher discuss with the students about the problem in various angles and points. After the free
expression of the students’ opinion about the problem, the teacher writes down the whole programme
of action stepwise on the blackboard.
In the process of planning teacher has o act only as a guide and should give suggestions at times but
actual planning be left to the students.
4. Implementation
The students are stating their work in this step. They are collecting the relevant information and
material at first. The teacher should give the time and right to the students according to their own
speed, interest and ability. During this step the teacher should carefully supervise the students in
manipulative skills to prevent waste of materials and to guard accidents. Teacher should constantly
checkup he relation between the chalked out plans and developing project.
5. Evaluation
Evaluation of the project should be done both by the students and the teachers. Here the students
evaluating their task. They find out that whether the objectives have been achieved or not. After that
they criticize and express their feeling about the task freely. The evaluation of the project has to be
done in the light of plans, difficulties in the implementation and achieved results.
6. Reporting and Recording
It is the last step of the project method in which each and every step of the work are reported. The
reported things are recorded in a certain order in a book form. It should include the proposal, plan and
its decision, duties allotted to different students and how far they were carried out by them. It should
also include the details of places visited and surveyed, guidance for future and all other possible
details. The book formatted report is submitted to the teacher at the end.
Merits of Project Method
i. As students get proper freedom to execute the project in accordance with their interest
and abilities, because of which they get their psychological needs satisfied to considerable
extent.
ii. This method is not only subject centered , but due to importance is being provided to the
students also.
iii. This method provide various opportunities to students by which they can satisfy their
interest and desires.
iv. This method develop critical thinking of students.
v. In this method there is great chance of coordination between students’ bodies and minds.
vi. Teacher can lead a well balanced development of the students.
vii. Through this method, science teaching can be done with considerable success, as science
is a practical subject and this method is also scientific and practical in nature.
viii. It promotes social interaction and cooperation among the students.
ix. Knowledge is acquired by the students directly through his own experience which is
permanent in nature.
x. Project is a task or assignment mostly carried out in classroom which reduces the home
work of the students.
xi. It widens the mind of the students.
xii. It involves problem solving and thus stimulates constructive and creative thinking.
Demerits of Project Method
i. This method is time consuming in planning and executing a Project.
ii. One project cannot cover all the topics and it is not possible to construct different projects for different topics.
iii. To implement a project properly need huge financial resources.
iv. The successfulness of this method needs high talented and active teachers.
v. Some time the projects may be so complex and beyond the students’ capacity to complete.
1.2 Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a teaching method where students of mixed levels of ability are arranged into
groups and rewarded according to the group's success, rather than the success of an individual
member. Cooperative learning structures have been in and out of favor in American education since
the early 1900s, when they were introduced by the American education reformer John Dewey.
Cooperative learning is sometimes thought of simply as 'group work,' but groups of students working
together might not be working collaboratively.
Elements of Cooperative Learning
According to David and Roger Johnson there are five elements that define cooperative learning:
Face-to-Face Interaction
Students are promoting each others' learning through face-to-face activities where they discuss and
explain assignment topics with each other.
Positive Interdependence
Students have the sense that they're 'in this together,' feeling that each member's individual effort will
not only help him, but the whole group. The grade of each student is dependent upon the effort of
other group members.
Individual Accountability
Each student is accountable for their own contribution to the group. Clearly described goals ensure
that each student knows what he is responsible for and what the group is responsible for.
Group Processing
Students are given a means for analyzing their group for how well the group has learned, and whether
or not collaborative skills are being used.
Collaborative Skills
Students learn not only the subject matter, but interpersonal skills and how to work in teams. Students
are taught skills of communication, leadership, and conflict management during the early stages of
cooperative learning sessions.
Cooperative Learning Methods
Before collaborative groups are formed, it's important to teach skills of collaboration. During the
lesson, a teacher should circulate around the classroom to make sure all students are participating in
their individual groups. Shy and introverted students might not find the cooperative process helpful
and shouldn't be forced to be in the group.
Techniques for Cooperative Learning
Following are some techniques for cooperative learning.
Mutual Questioning
This method is used after a teacher has presented a lecture or lesson, and students work in groups of
two or three, where they ask and answer each others' questions about the material. Teachers provide
prompts or 'stem' questions that help students develop lesson-specific questions, such as: What would
happen if...? or What is the meaning of…?
Numbered Heads Together
Ask students to number off in their teams from one to four. Announce a question and a time limit.
Students put their heads together to come up with an answer. Call a number and ask all students with
that number to stand and answer the question. Recognize correct responses and elaborate through rich
discussions.
Roundtable
Present a category (such as words that begin with "b"). Have students take turns writing one word at a
time.
Write Around
For creative writing or summarization, give a sentence starter (for example: If you give an elephant a
cookie, he's going to ask for...). Ask all students in each team to finish that sentence. Then, they pass
their paper to the right, read the one they received, and add a sentence to that one. After a few rounds,
four great stories or summaries emerge. Give children time to add a conclusion and/or edit their
favorite one to share with the class.
Jigsaw
In this technique some groups are formed and each group is given different topics are tasks. After
completing the task all the members of each group are mixed together in such a way that every group
got new members from each group. Every new member from each group share their knowledge and
 ideas with each other and thus they get more knowledge about different topics with in no time in an
cooperative manner.
Corners
This cooperative learning tool used the corners of the classroom. Identify four subdivisions of a unit
of instruction, parts of a theory, or academic concepts prior to beginning the activity. These become
the labels for the classroom corners. Announce corners, provide think time, ask student to go to the
corner that best represents their thinking, value, experience, knowledge, etc. When students arrive at
the classroom corner, give them an academic task. After preparation time the Corner teams may
present their work to the class for their corner. Corners can be a teambuilding experience by asking
students to report to corners based upon style of shoes, color of clothing, academic major, etc. Ask
students to form cooperative learning teams of four—one member from each corner.

Pairs Check

College students complete individual academic tasks, then pair with a partner to work as a team to
check, monitor, informally evaluate, practice and review for mastery of course content. This tool can
be used successfully for test review of academic material, reinforcement of practice of skills, peer
coaching or problem solving in the college classroom. Pairs-Check allows student's time on task to
master knowledge and skills. Use Pairs-Check as a vehicle to check comprehension, understanding,
application, and evaluation of a given lesson

Tea Party
In this technique students from two concentric circles or two lines facing each other. You ask a
question (on any content) and students discuss the answer with the student facing them. After one
minute, the outside circle or one line moves to the right so that students have new partners. Then pose
a second question for them to discuss. Continue with five or more questions. For a little variation,
students can write questions on cards to review for a test through this "Tea Party" method.
After each Cooperative Learning activity, you will want to debrief with the children by asking
questions such as: What did you learn from this activity? How did you feel working with your
teammates? If we do this again, how will you improve working together?
Other Ideas
A simple way to start Cooperative Learning is to begin with pairs instead of whole teams. Two
students can learn to work effectively on activities such as the following:
i. Assign a math worksheet and ask students to work in pairs.
ii. One of the students does the first problem while the second acts as a coach.
iii. Then, students switch roles for the second problem.
iv. When they finish the second problem, they get together with another pair and check answers.
v. When both pairs have agreed on the answers, ask them to shake hands and continue working in pairs
on the next two problems.

Literature circles in groups of four or six are also a great way to get students working in teams. You can
follow these steps:

i. Have sets of four books available.

ii. Let students choose their own book.
iii. Form teams based on students' choices of books.
iv. Encourage readers to use notes, post-its, and discussion questions to analyze their books.
v. Have teams conduct discussions about the book.
vi. Facilitate further discussion with the whole class on each of the books.
vii. Have teams share what they read with the whole class.
viii. For the next literature circles, students select new books.

Advantages of Cooperative Learning

i. It reinforces learning and information processing ensure that knowledge is created, not just
transferred.
 ii. It creates critical thinking and reflective thoughts which empower students to be responsible for
their own learning.
iii. It increases students’ achievement.
iv. It builds relational support among students.
v. Turns emotional passiveness into emotional energy.
vi. It develops group processing and social skills.
vii. Increases student self-esteem.
viii. Provides opportunities for understanding and appreciating diversity among students.
Disadvantages
i. Time consuming method.
ii. Not possible for very large classes.
iii. Require large place for grouping and activities.
iv. It needs mastery on the part of the teachers.

Unit 6
DISCUSSION METHOD

6.1 Class Room Discussion

Discussion means to engage in an orderly verbal interchange and to express thoughts on a particular
subject or topic. This method is very old one but very fruitful for learning. This is also known as
platonic method because it was developed by the Plato a Greek philosopher. It is the mutual
interaction or exchange of knowledge between two or more than two persons. Classroom discussion is
among the teacher and students or even students to students. Productive classroom discussion involve
the efforts of teacher to enable students to invent, create, imagine, take risks, and dig for deeper
meanings, can only take place in which students feel safe to offer their ideas. Teacher can create such
a climate by being mindful of the essential conditions of interactive teaching.
Goals of Conducting Classroom Discussion
i. To increase the confidence of students by sharing their own ideas.
ii. To enables the students to become more mature, self guided and independent individual.
iii. To enable the students to live and work with others in a cooperative, productive and
responsible way.
Types of Discussion
1. Report
In this type of discussion one student or team of two gives repot on a topic followed by
questions and discussions by the entire class. The teacher motivates and supports the
discussion process. The communicative language must be simple and understandable to avoid
the complexity and confusion during the process.
2. Brainstorming
In this type of discussion students find a good idea to a certain situation, problem or
phenomena. The one who has the best solution is called the brain child. This type of
discussion is totally imaginative in nature, because this method involves deep thinking about
something.
3. Debate
This type of discussion involves formal speeches made by two opposite teams especially in
competitions. It is a technique appropriate for discussing a controversial issue. The class is
divided into two sides of pro/con or either/or, and each side and each speaker has a limited
amount of time to speak. The object of the activity is to construct reasoned arguments that
address the material and consider the arguments of the other side. Beware not to allow
students to discredit fellow class members with ad hominem attacks.

4. Jury Trail
In this type of discussion class students simulates a courtroom as a judge, attorney, jury
members, recorders and others. This is a role play type discussion on a topic or problem
according to the situation for fruitful learning.
5. Group Discussion
 This discussion is done in the form of groups. It consists of facilitator, material manager,
recorder and reporter. Role may be changed but not regularly. Group discussion include
following types.

Developmental Discussion is a technique in which a large group breaks down the problem-solving process into stages
that approximate the scientific method. In the first part of class, students collectively identify a problem. Next, they
suggest hypotheses concerning the problem, muster relevant data, evaluate alternative interpretations of the data, and
assess the ability of the data to address the problem they identified at the beginning of class.

When using Discussion Clusters, members of a class are divided into smaller groups of four to six people, and the
clusters are given one or two questions on a subject. One member of the cluster is chosen to record and report the
group’s ideas to the entire class. This technique is particularly useful in larger classes and can encourage shy students
to participate.

In a Panel Discussion, a selected group of students act as a panel, and the remaining class members act as the
audience. The panel informally discusses selected questions. A panel leader is chosen and he/she summarizes the
panel discussion and opens discussion to the audience.
Steps in planning Classroom Discussion
1. Appropriate use of Physical Space
a. U-shape Seating
b. Circle Seating
2. Time for preparation
3. Authority (teacher leader)
4. Time
5. Material provision to be used.
6. Rules establishment
7. Recording

Strategies to Improve Classrm Discussion

i. Choose texts that inspire debate.
Stories that are driven by character actions and motivation are the ones that inspire discussion.
Texts that inspire questions encourage students to return to the text and find support for their
answers. Look for stories that naturally raise questions about why characters do what they do.
ii. Use your greatest tool: good questions!
Questions are the greatest tool you have to prompt and encourage student thinking. By starting
with one overarching focus question like “Which brother made the better choice?” you can create
sequences of smaller questions that prompt students to return to the text during discussion. Some
ideas: What does the character say? Why did you choose that evidence? How does the evidence
support your position?
iii. Get evidence from the get-go.
Require students to have evidence ready at the start of the discussion. Knol sets the expectation
that her students will use textual evidence, and she tells students to “prove it” so often that they
anticipate her request, have their texts open, and often return to the text before she prompts them.
Requiring evidence early in the discussion sets an expectation. Reinforcing that expectation turns
using textual evidence into a habit.
iv. Invite multiple perspectives.
Students may think that finding evidence is proof that there’s one right answer. But in discussion,
says Riley, evidence will actually open up a text to different interpretations. Citing evidence
promotes the development of different ideas when students read two statements in two different
ways. “Part of the Shared Inquiry™ method of learning is knowing that there are other people
who will take that evidence and come up with another argument,” says Knol. And that is fine.
Establish the expectation that answers can and will diverge. “The more your classroom has an
inquiry focus, the more students will be able to see other perspectives.”
v. Add interpretation.
Heidi Morgan, fifth- and sixth-grade language arts teacher in New Lenox, Illinois, finds that
students often want to find a quote and declare themselves done. The challenge is getting students
 to expand and explain. To get students to explain why they choose a piece of evidence, provide
them with a structure that moves from evidence to interpretation. Williams’ students use a graphic
organizer with three columns: They write their answer in the first column, note textual evidence in
the second, and explain their evidence in the third.
vi. Use sentence starters strategically.
Williams gives her students sentence starters to identify their evidence (e.g., “In the text … the
author mentions …”). Then, she helps them make the bridge from evidence to interpretation with
additional sentence starters (“the author uses this evidence to … this lets us know that …”). “The
sentence starters help,” she says, “because students know the direction in which they’re supposed
to go.”
vii. Develop and deepen arguments.
During discussion, send students back to the text for more evidence by prompting them to expand
on a classmate’s idea or deepen the discussion. Prompt students by saying, “I heard this person
say something that contradicts …” or “These students all said something similar … does anyone
have a different idea?” You want students to consider implications and bulk up their answers by
developing their arguments, says Williams.
viii. Slow down discussion.
Stopping to get evidence slows the speed of discussion, and that’s a good thing. “Most
discussions move too quickly,” says Riley, “and great ideas get totally lost.” Give students
enough time to flip through and find just the right piece of evidence. If other students are getting
antsy, choose one of your always-ready students to share, then loop back to the student who
needed time with the text.
ix. Practice in a pattern.
To avoid a pileup of one idea, establish a discussion structure that requires debate. Every student
in Williams’ class must respond by addressing the claims of the people before them and then
provide their counterclaims. “The easy part is making the claim,” says Williams. “They become
masters when they are able to use evidence to knock out someone else’s claim.”
x. Go for the nitty-gritty.
Once students have answered the focus question, encourage them to get into the details. Exploring
specific sentences and words can engage students with additional aspects of the text and spin off
into an analysis of the author’s craft.
xi. Anticipate and correct misunderstandings.
“Just because there’s more than one right answer,” says Riley, “doesn’t mean there’s no wrong
answer.” If a student offers up a misunderstanding or misinterpretation, prompt him or her to go
back to the text, or offer it up to the group. Either way, make sure students leave with a clear
understanding of what the text said and how.
xii. Encourage ownership.
Knol knows her students are making progress when she sees them move from using the
prescribed list of sentence starters (“According to page …”) to putting their textual evidence in
their own words. “At the beginning of the year,” she says, “they’re dependent on [the sentence
starters], and by the end of the year, they use those naturally.” Listen for how students personalize
the discussion, and encourage them to develop their own voice. Once students have built a
repertoire of authentic starters and prompts, create an anchor chart that makes their language a
part of your class.
xiii. Reflect.
After their Shared Inquiry™ discussions, each student writes a reflection. They answer the focus
question a second time, explain whether or not they changed their answers, and reflect on how the
evidence brought up during discussion impacted their thinking. Taking time to reflect solidifies
the importance of textual evidence and helps students incorporate the lessons learned.

The Suggestions Below can Help you to Facilitate Good Class Discussions.

Devote a moment to communicating the value of discussion to your students. It may help to convey your rationale for
discussion, perhaps deepening not only their sense of why they are expected to engage in active learning but also their
engagement with the course.
 1. Before Class

 Learn students’ names.

 Review lesson-related material, even if you have already mastered content. Extemporaneous recall can breed
trouble.
 Plan. Write out more discussion questions than you think you will need before class begins, but don’t treat
your questions like a to do list. Your questions should be a resource for you; they should not inhibit your
students from taking the discussion in a productive direction.
 If students were assigned reading prior to a class meeting, plan to use the text. You may want to begin class
with a short reading from the text and have discussion flow from that reading.

2. During Discussion

 Every student should have an opportunity to speak.

 Encourage students to look and talk to each other rather than to just look and talk to you. Too often
“discussions” take the format of a dialogue between teacher and a series of students.
 Before the discussion starts, ask your students to take several minutes to write down everything they know
about the topic of the discussion. This will prime them for the discussion.
 If possible, make the class space more conducive to discussion. Arrange seats in a circle or in a manner that
enables students to see each other easily. Don’t let students sit in seats that are outside this discussion space.
 After asking a question, wait at least eight to ten seconds before calling on someone to answer it (measure the
time by counting silently to yourself). Otherwise, you signal they need only wait a few seconds for the “right”
answer to discussion questions.

3. Posing discussion questions

 Ask questions that encourage responses from several people (“What do the rest of you think about that?”)
 Use phrasing that implies that the students are a learning community (“Are we in agreement?” / “Do we have
any differences of opinion?”)
 Ask a mix of questions, including questions that ask students to
o Recall specific information
o Describe topics and phenomena
o Apply abstract concepts to concrete situations
o Connect the general with the specific
o Combine topics or concepts to form new topics or concepts
o Evaluate information
 Avoid yes/no questions – Don’t phrase questions in a way that the students can answer in one word (“Is X
true?”). Open-ended questions elicit student thought (“In what way has X impacted Y?”)
 Avoid asking, “Are there any questions?” This implies you have finished talking about a topic. Sensing that
you have said your piece, students may only ask questions about minor points of clarification or will simply
hope that rereading the textbook will answer their questions. Consider asking instead, “Is there anything that
is unclear or needs further clarification?”
 Avoid dissertation questions. If you want your students to entertain broad questions, break the question down
into smaller queries that students are more able to address.

4. Dignify your students

 Avoid a style of questioning that is designed to punish inattentive or lazy students.

 Refer to your students by name. This models the intellectual community.
 Treat your students like experts. If a student makes a good comment, refer back to that comment in
subsequent discussions (e.g., “Do you recall what Henry said last week? How does this new information
confirm or deny his conclusion?”).
 Allow a student to “pass” on a question, but come back to him or her later in class.
 Admit when you make a mistake in class. Similarly if a student asks you a question to which you do not know
the answer, promise to research the question after class or to provide students with appropriate resources to
find the answer him or herself.
  Keep the discussion focused.
 State the discussion topic at the beginning of the class.
 Periodically summarize the main themes/points brought out in discussion. Consider writing these main
themes/points on the board.

5. End discussion smoothly

 Review the main points of the discussion or ask a student, notified previously, to review the main points.
 At the end of the discussion, allow students to write down any conclusions or lingering questions they have.
Perhaps, ask them how the discussion affected their views on a topic or their understanding of a concept. Ask
several students to share these.
 Point out how the day’s discussion will tie in with the next discussion.

Challenges to Discussions

i. Students who do not contribute: Be attentive to the sensibilities of shy and quiet students;
integrate them into the discussion with support. Nervous or inarticulate students may be greatly
aided by writing down some thoughts before contributing (even before the class
meeting). Encourage them to try that approach.
ii. Students who contribute more than appropriate: Approach students who dominate the
discussion. You might suggest they develop some of their discussion points with you via ELMS
or email or during office hours or that their contributions are limiting the ability of others to
contribute to class discussion. Alternatively, you might resort to restructuring the discussion a
little. Make other students responsible for presenting small group discussions, require students to
raise their hands, or begin calling on individual students.
iii. Students who fail to respect the discussion and their peers: Make the group responsible for
controlling unproductive antagonists by structuring a group response, i.e. articulate the
student’s position (on the chalkboard, perhaps), and ask for a response. Of course, students who
violate University codes of conduct should be referred to the Office of Student Conduct.
iv. Students who are unprepared: Quizzes or reflections to stimulate out-of-class reading may be
effective. Make sure questions are structured to foster discussion based on comprehension.

Advantages of Discussion Method

Following are the advantages of discussion method.

i. Friendly and mutual interaction between teacher and students.

ii. Friendly and mutual interaction among students.
iii. Confidence building among students.
iv. Exchange of information and different views.
v. Motivation and encouragement of students.
vi. Habit of asking questions are developed among students.

Unit 7
DEMONSTRATION METHOD

In this method the teacher or a student shows how a process is done while students of the class become
observers. The demonstrator is knowledgeable in preparing the apparatus needed according to the steps to
be followed. The rest of the class becomes focused on the activity and concentration on the subject is
assured.

Types of Demonstrations
 1. Classroom experiments
In many disciplines, there are extensive sets of appropriate classroom experiments that allow
students to see concepts in action. These experiments can benefit from the Interactive Lecture
Demonstration format. Before taking part in an experiment, students can predict the outcome so
that attention will be focused on the main concept to be learned. Reflection after the experiment
can help students appraise what was learned and transfer this understanding to other contexts.
2. Classroom surveys
Survey data from students' own lives can show the application of concepts. Because everyone's
data is needed, surveys involve all students. And, because the outcome is not predetermined,
surveys create a sense of uncertainty that may be absent in textbook presentations. The Interactive
Lecture Demonstration format focuses student attention on the underlying concept, often
revealing contradictions between student prediction and what the data actually show.
3. Data analysis
Analysis using data is most effective if the data show a surprising result. Data analyses can be
relatively straight-forward, asking students to graph or otherwise manipulate a given set of data,
while more sophisticated data analyses may require students to find data on their own, or to
conduct statistical analyses.
Show advantages of small group work for data analysis
4. Simulations
Classroom instructors often ask "what if" questions that are then answered by a simulation. The
Interactive Demonstration approach can be used to engage students in this analysis, first asking
them to make a prediction, including, if possible, a description of their underlying economic
model even if it is not well specified. The simulation demonstration then will offer concrete
results, prompting the student to revise or make for specific their prior view.
Guide Line for the Effective Use of Demonstration Method
Before

v. The demonstrator must be a skilled person. He must know how to operate modern equipment and
make scientific investigation.
vi. Make sure that all the material is easily available when planning the activities.
vii. Demonstration should be scheduled according to the day and class period. He / she must be ready
to use the equipments and tools.
viii. The demonstrator must try the activity several times to reduce the chances of error for an accurate
result.
ix. Full concentration on the part of observer is needed throughout the whole activity.
x. Demonstrator must be ready for revision, alternate steps or substitute materials when needed.
xi. Arrange the observers in such a way that they will be able to observe the ongoing activity easily.
xii. To draw the attention of the students, demonstrator must give questions to the students.

During

i. Demonstration environment must be quite in order to ensure the attention of the observers.
ii. Extreme care must be taken in performing some delicate steps.
iii. The activity must not be disturbed by unnecessary announcements or noise in the surroundings.
iv. Observers are allowed to take down short notes or record some data which may be analyzed after.

After

i. Allow some questions which bothered them during the demonstration.

ii. An examination of the observed data and all information recorded follows.
iii. Have an analysis of trends, patterns or uniform occurrences that can help in arriving at a
conclusion.
iv. The solution or summary must be cooperatively undertaken by the whole class.
v. Assess learning by way of a short test, an oral evaluation or a performance test.
 Advantages of Demonstration Method

i. The procedure of demonstration method is systematic in nature.

ii. It is well planned method.
iii. It will not result to trial and error learning.
iv. Reliable and accurate findings are there, because the procedure has been tried before.
v. Confidence on the part of demonstrators developed.
vi. The ability of keen observation and curiosity are developed in observers.

Disadvantages

i. Time consuming in nature.

ii. Expensive on the part of equipments and tools.
iii. Need skillful teachers.
iv. Some time activities cannot controlled in specified time.
v. Uncontrollable in huge classes for less skilled person.

Unit 8
DIRECT METHOD

This method is named “direct” because meaning should be connected directly with the target language without
translation into the native language. This method is also known as Natural method, Phonetical method, Anti-
Grammatical method or Reform Method. This method is mainly uses in English subjects or learning a
language. Language can be learnt through demonstration instead of analytical procedures of explaining
grammar rules, students must be encourage to use language naturally and spontaneously so that the encourage
grammar. The learning of second language was seen as parallel to the acquisition of the child’s first language.
This method therefore emphasize the importance of sound, simple sentences and direct association f language
with object and person of immediate environment, the classroom, the home, the garden, etc.
Basic Principles of Direct Method
vii. Classroom instruction is conducted in the target language. The teacher should
demonstrate, not explain or translate.
viii. Only every day vocabulary and sentences are taught.
ix. Vocabulary is taught through known words, demonstration, authentic objects, pictures,
and miming (imitating).
x. Grammar is taught inductively. No explicit grammar rule is given.
xi. New teaching points are introduced orally.
xii. Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.
xiii. Learning is done by self-correction.
xiv. The syllabus is based on situations or topics, not usually on linguistic structures.
xv. Correct pronunciation is emphasized.
xvi. Students should learn to think in the target language as soon as possible.
xvii. Focus is on communication, therefore the students need to learn how to ask questions as
well as answer them.

Core Idea behind Direct Method

The following ideas can replicate the importance of this natural language learning process.

i. Uses Only the Target Language. The first principle of DM is that we only ever use the language
we’re teaching. The teacher never translates for students or lets them use a language other than
English in the classroom.
ii. Students Figure out Rules Themselves. Because we aren’t translating for our students, we’re
introducing language in context through action and interaction. We’re pushing students to think in
English and to develop their own understanding of the rules of the language. For example, by
 hearing the teacher say “he is a student” to Ricardo, and “they are students” to Chris and Natalia,
students start learning verb conjugations without creating diagrams or having patterns laid out for
them.
iii. Highly Active. Because DM doesn’t allow anyone in the classroom to fall back on their first
language, it demands that teachers and students alike are active—acting, moving, drawing,
pointing and touching—as they explore and learn English. This is also part of what makes it a
natural process—think of how much listening and acting small children engage in before they
begin speaking and using language.
iv. Focuses on Speaking. Again, because it’s a natural method, DM typically focuses more on
speaking and listening than on reading and writing. Having said this, there’s plenty of room for
reading and writing in the DM classroom, as I’ll discuss later.

Strengths of the Direct Method

The following list of strengths show the worth of direct method and when it’s most appropriate to use it.

i. Natural Learning. The first strength of DM comes from the fact that it’s a natural method;
because it replicates how we learned our native language, it feels more intuitive to our students
and allows them to learn English more deeply than other methods. (Note that for students who
haven’t been taught in this way, it can be disorienting at first. Trust me, after a few days they’ll
get used to it. This doesn’t mean that they won’t complain—DM often demands more of your
students than traditional teaching.)
ii. Improved Pronunciation. Because of its focus on speaking and listening, students who learn
through DM typically develop improved pronunciation, along with confidence in speaking.
iii. Thinking in English. In classrooms that allow students to switch back and forth between
languages, thinking in English is discouraged; in contrast, a classroom that immerses students in
English pushes them to do more thinking in English.
iv. Real-world Skills. Although reading and writing are important skills, particularly in school, in
daily life we simply speak and listen more than we read and write. It’s easy to see why speaking
and listening are more important skills when we consider how many people have been able to find
success despite being illiterate, versus how difficult life can be for those who cannot speak or
hear.
Techniques uses in Direct Method
i. Question and Answer: The teacher ask questions and the students answer.
ii. Dictation: The teacher chooses a passage and read the text aloud. Teacher read the passage three
times.
iii. Reading Aloud: students take turn reading sections of a passage, play or dialogue out loud.
iv. Map Drawing: Students are given a map without labeled then students label it by using directions the
teacher gives.
v. Paragraph Writing: The students are asked to write a passage in their own words.

Components of a Direct Method Lesson

Okay, so we’re on the same page about the strengths of DM. But how do we actually plan a successful DM lesson?

i. Warm Up. Warm-up activities are useful no matter how you’re teaching, but they’re particularly
important when using the Direct Method because your students need encouragement to be active, to get
up on their feet, to shout out in English and to be willing to make mistakes. The ideal warm up will
be physically active, quite vocal (I have had many neighboring teachers ask me to quiet my class over the
years) and will refresh your students’ memories about the previous lessons.
ii. Introduction of Material. After warming up, the teacher introduces new material, one term or phrase at a
time. For example, I might introduce the phrases “how are you?” and “I am happy / sad / angry,” by
acting out the different feelings and showing pictures while I speak.
iii. Modeling. The teacher then models how to use the phrases. Use students in pairs to help acting things
out as necessary while doing this. Begin by having the class ask you “how are you?” and model picking a
card. Show the feeling image to the students, and then answer the question while acting out the
 feeling. Next, ask a pair of students “how is you?” and let them pick a card that they will then act out
while answering.
iv. Check for Understanding. You can see how this is built in throughout the process. As students try out
the phrases, and act out the feelings you will be checking for understanding throughout. Move from pairs
to different groupings of students—have the first row turn to the second and ask them “How are you?”
and let the second row answer while acting out the feeling they have chosen.
v. Guided Practice. Guide pairs of students as they practice asking and answering these questions. You can
point to a picture that will determine their answer, or could have them pick a picture out of a stack of
pictures.
vi. Independent Practice. Let students wander the room, ask one another “how are you?” and choose their
own answers, acting out the feelings while they speak.
vii. Closure. Finally, end the lesson by moving to reading and writing, putting the phrases on the board,
letting students write them down and drawing pictures to help them remember the meaning. You can
incorporate a final check for understanding in many ways—for example, you might ask individual
students how they’re doing as they leave the classroom, and let them answer while making faces at you.
Advantages
i. One of its advantage is that it promises to teach the language and not about the language.
ii. It is the natural method which teaches language in the same way the mother tngue is acquired. Only
the target language is used and the learning is contextualized.
iii. It emphasizes on speech made it more attractive for those who have needs of real communication in
the target language.
iv. It is one of the first methods to introduce the teaching of vocabulary through realties (authentic
objects).
Disadvantages
i. This method do not fulfill the needs of educational system because it is not applicable in public
schools where the constraints of budget, classroom size, time and teacher background(native
speakers) made such a method difficult to use.
ii. Due to its short coming it paved the way to the Audio-lingual Method.

A Sample Direct Method Lesson

This sample lesson teaches students the phrase “where are you going?” and the response “I am going to (school / the
grocery store / the library / the doctor).”

Warm Up

Why not start with a song?

In one of my current classes we’ve been learning different verses from the song “The Wheels on the Bus” each day
(here are the lyrics) and singing the verses we know. Visual aids are a great help here—so I show a picture of the bus
and then a picture of a wheel which I spin around and around as we sing, repeat and act out “the wheels on the bus / go
round and round.”

If you’re warming up with a children’s song like this, be creative, pretend to hold a baby as “the baby on the bus /
goes “wah wah wah,” and be sure to cry loudly on the “wah”s!)

If you’re teaching older students, then choose a pop song that they know and love to practice with!

Introduction of Vocabulary / Phrases

Since my students have been singing about a bus, I’ll now take the bus for a ride around the classroom to introduce
our vocabulary: “where are you going?” “I am going / We are going to school / the grocery store / the library / the
doctor.”
I’ll have printed pictures and post them around the classroom ahead of time, so that I can use the images and take the
bus to the different places.

Modeling

As in the example of teaching feelings, after introducing the vocabulary and phrases I would model asking and
answering the question, gradually involving more and more students in the modeling—first they might ask me where
I’m going or point to the destination they want me to go to, and then pairs of students might hold the bus and answer
the question.

Practice

As we broaden our practice, I would hand out pictures of all four places to my students so that they can practice asking
and answering in pairs, perhaps choosing their own answers and pointing to them, or choosing for each other by
pointing and making them answer the question.

How to Extend This Lesson

There are many ways to extend this lesson. We might close with me writing the names of the places on the pictures
themselves, and then having the students add them all to their notebooks. We might learn more place names and create
a “classroom city” for students to navigate, and then focus on not where they are going but how to get there, learning
directions and how to give them.

Or we could label places on maps of our town or our school (if we learn the names of different classrooms and
subjects).

We could learn ordinal numbers (first, second, third), and ask students to move from place to place in a particular
order—maybe one student is the bus driver, and has to take other students to their destinations and drop them off in
order….

As you can see, with a little planning, there are many great ways to use DM in the ESL classroom, and doing so can
help you engage your students and strengthen their speaking, listening and even thinking (in English) skills!

Unit 9
LECTURE METHOD
9.1 Definition
The word lecture comes from the Latin word lectus, from the 14th century, which translates roughly into
“to read.” The term lecture, then, in Latin, means “that which is read.” It wasn’t until the 16th century that
the word was used to describe oral instruction given by a teacher in front of an audience of
learners.Today, lecturing is a teaching method that involves, primarily, an oral presentation given by an
instructor to a body of students. In this method the teacher teaches critical information, theories and
inquiries orally to a group of class participants.
The lecture is an excellent method for presenting information to a large number of persons in a short
period of time.(Adivi Ravi)
A lecture is a speech that is delivered before Audience so as to set forth some subject.
9.2 Introduction
Lecture method is the most commonly used method of teaching. It is a teacher controlled and information
centered approach in which the teacher works as a sole-resource in classsroom instruction. In lecture
method only the teacher talks and students are passive listners. Since the student do not actively
participate in this method of teaching. This is teacher centered method. Majority of the teacher use this
method in higher classes i.e. 9th, 10th and above. Where the teacher aim to cover the prescribed syllabus
quickly and also this method will help them to prepare themselves for college where lecture method of
teaching is a dominant method of imparting instruction. This method of teaching can be made more
beneficial if the teacher encourages his students to take notes during the lesson. After the lesson, teacher
 can give his students some time for asking questions and answer their queries without any hesitation. If a
teacher can introduce some homour in his lesson it would keep students interested in his lesson.

9.3 Purpose of Lecture

The purpose of the lecture method is to:
xiv. Give general information on a subject.
xv. Gain acceptance for a new point of view.
xvi. Change basic attitude.
xvii. Teach a particular skill.
xviii. To motivate students.
xix. To clarify the concept of students.

9.4 Planning and organizing the Lecture

Before starting the lecture the teacher must be able to answer four basic questions:
Who is your audience? Why to teach (purpose)? How much time is available? What is to teach?

Organizing the Lecture

Aim

Introduction
Body
Examples Discussion Demonstration
Illustration
Questions

Conclusion

9.5 Situations for the Use of Lecture Method

Lecture method can be use in the following situations:
ii. In introducing the new topics.
iii. In the introduction of new instruments.
iv. In revising and summarizing lessons.
v. Covering the syllabus quickly.
vi. Presenting the history of plants and animals.

9.6 Merits
 i. Teacher control: Because the lecture is delivered by one authoritative figure – a teacher,
professor, or instructor of some other kind – that person has full reign of the direction of the
lesson and the tone of the classroom. They alone are able to shape the course, and so lectures
remain highly consistent when it comes to what kind of information is delivered, and how it’s
delivered.

ii. New material: Lectures are literally just long-winded explanations of information, deemed
important by the lecturer. As such, students can absorb large quantities of new material.

iii. Effortless: The lecture method makes the learning process mostly effortless on the part of the
students, who need only pay attention during the lecture and take notes where they see fit.
Because so little input is required from students, it’s the most clear, straightforward, and
uncomplicated way to expose students to large quantities of information – as explained above –
and in a way that is controlled and time sensitive. Students just need to know how to take good
notes.

iv. Economical: It is quite economical method because it is possible to handle a large number of
students at a time and no laboratory equipments, aids, materials are required.

v. Quick Transfer of Knowledge:In this method knowledge is quickly imparted to students and
the syllabus can be covered in very less time.

vi. Easy and Attractive:This method is quite easy and attractive to follow and teacher can
develop his own style of teaching and exposition.

vi. Creative Thinking: This method of teaching motivate students for creative thinking.
9.7 Demerits
i. One-way: People who are against the lecture method see it as a one-way street. Professors dictate
information to students, who have little to no opportunity to provide their own personal input, or protest
the information being delivered. What if the professor is wrong, or what if the student disagrees with the
professor on a fundamental ideology in their lecture? Well, the student just has to sit down and take it;
sometimes, the student will even be forced to agree with the lecture if they want a passing grade. If the
lecture is on a sensitive topic, over which there is much conflicting discourse, you can imagine the
problems this might cause.
ii. Passive: Not only do people see the lecture method as a biased, one-way road, but they also see it as a
wholly passive experience for students. This isn’t just harmful because of the ways we described above.
Not being actively engaged in a discussion over certain material can make the material itself seem
worthless to a student. After all, the point of an education isn’t to be programmed to think a certain way,
according to your instructor’s lectures, but to critically analyze the information being provided and learn
how to apply it in different contexts. If a student has no place to opportunity the course material with the
person delivering the lecture, they will receive only a shallow understanding of the subject being
discussed. Simply put, they might even be bored by the material because they will have no opportunity to
learn how the subject applies to them on a personal level.
iii. Strong speaker of choice for many students, being the one that is expected to do the lecturing might
not be the best way for every instructor to present their course material. But because the range of
academic teaching methods are so limited, they are usually expected to do exactly that, potentially losing
the elements of their lesson plan that makes it so strong.
iv. Expectations: The lecture method can be disadvantageous to the professor, as well. Not all academics
can be expected to have the same level of public speaking skill. What if a teacher is a genius in his or her
field, knows the material from every angle, and is enthusiastic about the subject but has trouble speaking
in front of large groups? The quality of a professor’s course should not suffer because they are unable to
prepare a decent lecture. Just as being lectured to might not be the learning method.
v. Attention and Understanding: In this method it is very difficult to make sure the concentration and
undersanding of students about the contents taught to them by their teacher.
vi. Less Applicable for Science Subject: There is no place of ‘learning by doing’ thus it is applicable
very less in the subject of science.
 vii. Individual Difference: Students needs and differences are not considered in this method of teaching.
viii. Authoritarian and Undemocratic Method: Becaue the students cannot challenge or question the
decision of the teacher.
ix. No Feedback: This method provide no positive feedback to slow learners.

Unit 10
TEACHER-STUDENT AND STUDENT-TEACHER INTERACTION

10.1 Interaction
This theme addresses the climate of communication between the instructor and students in class. Lessons
where students have multiple opportunities to communicate with the teacher are essential for the effective
construction of student knowledge. By welcoming curiosity and encouraging students to raise their own
questions about the content or claims being discussed, the instructor can guide students to develop habits of
mind for framing and answering questions. When an instructor creates a climate of respect in the classroom
and encourages students to generate their own ideas involving scientific ways of thinking, students are more
likely to think deeply and continue in the face of challenges.
10.2 Importance of Good Teacher Students Interaction
No significant learning occurs without a significant relationship. A strong student-teacher interaction can
make all the difference in how successful a student is. When the student likes and respects the teacher, he/she
will be more willing to learn from them. When a teacher likes and respects a student, he/she is more likely to
get a positive response from the students and therefore making the students more successful and the teacher
getting more job satisfaction and happiness. Students can share their problems with mature teachers and get
effective solutions. The increasing depression in students resulting in use of drinks, drugs, and even suicidal
thoughts could be reduced tremendously by a good teacher to guide and help them out. The effective teacher
students’ relationship not only improves the quality of education but overall develop the student character and
personality.
10.3 Constructive Interaction between Teacher and students
For constructive teacher-students interaction the following suggestion should be kept in mind:
i. The teacher advisory system should be fair.
ii. It is the responsibility of students and teachers that they use the system properly. Student teacher ratio
should be kept low to make the system more efficient.
iii. Teachers should be given opportunities to make use of their technical and organizing expertise in
education institutes fests to ensure that the standard of fests to be kept high.
iv. Both teachers and students have to make self evaluation.
v. Teacher should treat their students in a friendly way not as enemy.
vi. Teacher should cover the syllabus on time, and give them sufficient time to study for exams.
vii. Teacher should give enough time to students’ problems.
viii. Teacher should avoid discrimination among students.
ix. Teacher is not only to teach the syllabus but also to share their experience and guide them in different
fields.
x. For constructive interaction both the attitude of teacher and students should be healthy in nature.
10.4 Constructive Interaction between students
For constructive student-student interaction the following suggestion should be kept in mind:
i. Identify your friends’ problem and bring it out to teachers if it cannot handle by them.
ii. The use of internet and mobile phone should be reduced by the students.
iii. The easygoing attitude of students toward the study should be changed.
iv. Students have to make self-evaluation.
v. For increasing the contact hours vacation time should be reduced.
vi. Students must involve in more creative activities and outdoor games.
vii. Noise level should be reduced in classroom for effective interaction.
viii. They should not feel any hesitation in asking questions.
 Unit 11
STUDENTS MOTIVATION

11.1 Concept of Motivation

Internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it direction;

Desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior;

It is the influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.

It is the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior.

Importance of motivation

Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of all learned responses; that is, a
learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized. The major question among psychologists, in general, is whether
motivation is a primary or secondary influence on behavior. That is, are changes in behavior better explained by
principles of environmental/ecological influences, perception, memory, cognitive development, emotion, explanatory
style, or personality or are concepts unique to motivation more pertinent.

For example, it is known that people respond to increasingly complex or novel events (or stimuli) in the environment
up to a point and then the rate of responding decreases. This inverted-U-shaped curve of behavior is well-known and
widely acknowledged. However, the major issue is one of explaining this phenomenon. Is this a conditioning (is the
individual behaving because of past classical or operant conditioning), another type of external motivation such as
social or ecological, an internal motivational process (e.g., cognition, emotion, or self-regulation), or is there some
better explanation?
11.2 Types of Motivation

In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized as either extrinsic (outside the
person) or intrinsic (internal to the person). Intrinsic sources and corresponding theories can be further subcategorized
as either body/physical, mind/mental (i.e., cognitive/thinking, affective/emotional, conative/volitional) or
transpersonal/spiritual.

In current literature, needs are now viewed as dispositions toward action (i.e., they create a condition that is
predisposed towards taking action or making a change and moving in a certain direction; Franken, 2006). Action or
overt behavior may be initiated by either positive or negative incentives or a combination of both. The following chart
provides a brief overview of the different sources of motivation (internal state) that have been studied. While
initiation of action can be traced to each of these domains, it appears likely that initiation of behavior may be more
related to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism vs. pessimism; self- esteem; etc.) while persistence may be
more related to conation (volition) or goal-orientation.
11.3 Theories of Motivation

Behavioral

Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory posits a primary factor in motivation. Classical
conditioning states that biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior (Huitt & Hummel,
1997a). Operant learning states the primary factor is consequences: the application of reinforcers provides incentives
to increase behavior; the application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease in behavior (Huitt &
Hummel, 1997b).

Cognitive

There are several motivational theories that trace their roots to the information processing approach to learning (Huitt,
2003b). These approaches focus on the categories and labels people use to help identify thoughts, emotions,
dispositions, and behaviors.

One cognitive approach is attribution theory (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974). This theory proposes that every individual
tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions." These attributions are either
internal or external and are either under control or not under control. The following chart shows the four attributions
that result from a combination of internal or external locus of control and whether or not control is possible.
Internal External
No Control Ability Luck
Control Effort Task Difficulty

In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to develop a self-attribution explanation of

effort (internal, control). If the person has an attribution of ability (internal, no control) as soon as the individual
experiences some difficulties in the learning process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning behavior (e.g., I'm
not good at this). If the person has an external attribution, then the person will have a believe that nothing the person
can do will help that individual in a learning situation (i.e., responsibility for demonstrating what has been learned is
completely outside the person). In this case, there is nothing to be done by the individual when learning problems
occur.

A second cognitive approach is expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) which proposes the following equation:

Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) *

Connection of Success and Reward (Instrumentality) *
Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)

Since this formula states that the three factors of Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valance or Value are to be
multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of motivation. Therefore, all three must
be present in relatively high levels in order for motivation to occur. That is, if an individual does not believe
he or she can be successful at a task OR the individual does not see a connection between his or her activity
and success OR the individual does not value the results of success, then the probability is lowered that the
individual will engage in the required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory, all three variables
must be high in order for motivation and the resulting behavior to be high.

The third cognitive approach is cognitive dissonance theory which is in some respects similar to disequilibrium in
Piaget's theory of cognitive development (Huitt & Hummel, 2003). This theory was developed by Leon Festinger
(1957), as social psychologist, and states that when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or
between a belief and an action, individuals will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies. The implication is that if an
appropriate amount of disequilibrium is created, this will in turn lead to the individual changing his or her behavior
which in turn will lead to a change in thought patterns which in turn leads to more change in behavior.

Psychoanalytic theories

The psychoanalytic theories of motivation proposed a variety of fundamental influences. Freud (1990)
suggested that all action or behavior was a result of internal, biological instincts that are classified into two
categories: life (sexual) and death (aggression). Many of Freud's students broke with him over this
concept. For example, Erikson (1993) and Sullivan (1968) proposed that interpersonal and social
relationships are fundamental, Adler (1989) proposed power, while Jung (1953, 1997) proposed temperament
and search for soul or personal meaningfulness.

Humanistic Theories

One of the most influential writers in the area of motivation is Abraham Maslow (1954), who attempted to
synthesize a large body of research related to human motivation. Prior to Maslow, researchers generally
focused separately on such factors as biology, achievement, or power to explain what energizes, directs, and
sustains human behavior. Maslow posited a hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency
needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the next
higher level. Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a deficiency is detected, the
individual will act to remove the deficiency. The first four levels are:

1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;

2) Safety/security: out of danger;

3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and

4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.

 According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth needs if and only if the deficiency needs
are met. Maslow's initial conceptualization included only one growth need--self-actualization. Self-actualized
people are characterized by: 1) being problem-focused; 2) incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation
of life; 3) a concern about personal growth; and 4) the ability to have peak experiences. Maslow later
differentiated the growth need of self-actualization, specifically naming two lower-level growth needs prior to
general level of self-actualization (Maslow & Lowery, 1998) and one beyond that level (Maslow, 1971). The
growth needs in this revised formulation are:

5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;

6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;

7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential; and

8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to help others find self-fulfillment
and realize their potential.

Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more self-actualized and self-transcendent, one becomes more
wise (develops the ability to efficiently and effectively make decisions and solve problems based on personal
experience) and becomes fluid in interacting with the environment in a wide variety of situations. Maslow's
ultimate conclusion that the highest levels of self-actualization are transcendent in nature is especially
important as it comes from someone who spent most of his professional life investigating the topic.

Social Learning

Social learning (or observational) theory suggests that modeling (imitating others) and vicarious learning (watching
others have consequences applied to their behavior) are important motivators of behavior (Huitt, 2004).

Social Cognition

Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal determination as a primary factor in both learning and motivation (Huitt,
2006). In this view, the environment, an individual's behavior, and the individual's characteristics (e.g., knowledge,
emotions, cognitive development) both influence and are influenced by each other two components. Bandura (1986,
1997) highlights self-efficacy (the belief that a particular action is possible and that the individual can accomplish it)
and self-regulation (the establishment of goals, the development of a plan to attain those goals, the commitment to
implement that plan, the actual implementation of the plan, and subsequent actions of reflection and modification or
redirection. The work of Ames (1992) and Dweck (1986) discussed below is a major component of social cognitive
views on motivation.
Transpersonal or Spiritual Theories
Most of the transpersonal or spiritual theories deal with the meaningfulness of a person's life or ultimate
meanings. Abraham Maslow (1954) has also been influential in this approach to motivation. Other influential
scholars included Gordon Allport (1955), Victor Frankl (1998), William James (1997), Carl Jung (1953, 1997), Ken
Wilber (1998).
Achievement Motivation
One classification of motivation differentiates among achievement, power, and social factors (see McClelland, 1985;
Murray, 1938, 1943). In the area of achievement motivation, the work on goal-theory (Pintrich, 2000) has
differentiated three separate types of goals: mastery goals (also called learning goals) which focus on gaining
competence or mastering a new set of knowledge or skills; performance goals (also called ego-involvement goals)
which focus on achieving normative-based standards, doing better than others, or doing well without a lot of effort;
and social goals which focus on relationships among people (see Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Urdan & Maehr,
1995). In the context of school learning, which involves operating in a relatively structured environment, students
with mastery goals outperform students with either performance or social goals. However, in life success, it seems
critical that individuals have all three types of goals in order to be very successful.
One aspect of this theory is that individuals are motivated to either avoid failure (more often associated with
performance goals) or achieve success (more often associated with mastery goals). In the former situation, the
individual is more likely to select easy or difficult tasks, thereby either achieving success or having a good excuse for
why failure occurred. In the latter situation, the individual is more likely to select moderately difficult tasks which
will provide an interesting challenge, but still keep the high expectations for success.
11.4 Strategies to Motivate Students

1. Praise Students in Ways Big and Small

Recognize work in class, display good work in the classroom and send positive notes home to parents, hold weekly
awards in your classroom, organize academic pep rallies to honor the honor roll, and even sponsor a Teacher Shoutout
section in the student newspaper to acknowledge student’s hard work.
2. Expect Excellence
Set high, yet realistic expectations. Make sure to voice those expectations. Set short terms goals and celebrate when
they are achieved.
3. Spread Excitement Like a Virus
Show your enthusiasm in the subject and use appropriate, concrete and understandable examples to help students
grasp it. For example, I love alliteration. Before I explain the concept to students, we “improv” subjects they’re
interested in. After learning about alliteration, they brainstorm alliterative titles for their chosen subjects.
4. How to Motivate Students: Mix It Up
It’s a classic concept and the basis for differentiated instruction, but it needs to be said: using a variety of teaching
methods caters to all types of learners. By doing this in an orderly way, you can also maintain order in your
classroom. In a generic example for daily instruction, journal for 10 minutes to open class; introduce the concept for
15 minutes; discuss/group work for 15 minutes; Q&A or guided work time to finish the class. This way, students
know what to expect everyday and have less opportunity to act up.
5. Assign Classroom Jobs
With students, create a list of jobs for the week. Using the criteria of your choosing, let students earn the opportunity
to pick their classroom jobs for the next week. These jobs can cater to their interests and skills.
Classroom Job Examples
 Post to the Class blog
 Update Calendar
 Moderate review games
 Pick start of class music
 Watch class pet
 Public relations officer (address people who visit class)
 Standard class jobs like Attendance, Cleaning the boards, putting up chairs, etc.
6. Hand Over Some Control
If students take ownership of what you do in class, then they have less room to complain (though we all know, it’ll
never stop completely). Take an audit of your class, asking what they enjoy doing, what helps them learn, what they’re
excited about after class. Multiple choice might be the best way to start if you predict a lot of “nothing” or “watch
movies” answers.
After reviewing the answers, integrate their ideas into your lessons or guide a brainstorm session on how these ideas
could translate into class.
On a systematic level, let students choose from elective classes in a collegiate format. Again, they can tap into their
passion and relate to their subject matter if they have a choice.
7. Open-format Fridays
You can also translate this student empowerment into an incentive program. Students who attended class all week,
completed all assignments and obeyed all classroom rules can vote on Friday’s activities (lecture, discussion, watching
a video, class jeopardy, acting out a scene from a play or history).
8. Relating Lessons to Students’ Lives
Whether it is budgeting for family Christmas gifts, choosing short stories about your town, tying in the war of 1812
with Iraq, rapping about ions, or using Pop Culture Printables, students will care more if they identify themselves or
their everyday lives in what they’re learning.

9. Track Improvement
In those difficult classes, it can feel like a never-ending uphill battle, so try to remind students that they’ve come a
long way. Set achievable, short-term goals, emphasis improvement, keep self-evaluation forms to fill out and compare
throughout the year, or revisit mastered concepts that they once struggled with to refresh their confidence.
10. Reward Positive Behavior Outside the Classroom
Tie service opportunities, cultural experiences, extracurricular activities into the curriculum for extra credit or as
alternative options on assignments. Have students doing Habitat for Humanity calculate the angle of the freshly cut
board, count the nails in each stair and multiply the number of stairs to find the total number of nails; write an essay
about their experience volunteering or their how they felt during basketball tryouts; or any other creative option they
can come up with.
Motivate Students Beyond the Classroom
The idea of cash incentives is a timely yet controversial topic, so I’d like to look at this attempt to “buy achievement”
through a different lens. It seems people are willing to dump some money into schools, so let’s come up with better
ways to spend it.
11. Plan Dream Field Trips
With your students, brainstorm potential field trips tiered by budget. Cash incentive money can then be earned toward
the field trips for good behavior, performance, etc. The can see their success in the classroom as they move up from
the decent zoo field trip to the good state capitol day trip to the unbelievable week-long trip to New York City. Even
though the reward is delayed, tracking progress will give students that immediate reward.
12. College Fund Accounts
College dreams motivate athletes; why not adapt the academic track to be just as tangible for hard-working student?
One way is to keep a tally of both the cash value and the potential school choice each student has earned. As
freshman, they see they’ve earned one semester at the local junior college. By second semester of junior year, they’re
going to four-years at State for half the price. By graduation, watch out free ride to their dream school

Twenty Tips on Motivating Students

Few teachers would deny that motivated students are easier to teach, or that students who are interested in learning do,
in fact, learn more. So how do teachers motivate their students? Here are some practiced, tried-and true strategies to
get (and keep) your students interested in learning.
1. Know your students' names and use their names as often as possible.
2. Plan for every class; never try to wing it.
3. Pay attention to the strengths and limitations of each of your students. Reward their strengths and strengthen
their weaknesses.
4. If possible, set your room in a U-shape to encourage interaction among students.
5. Vary your instructional strategies; use lectures, demonstrations, discussions, case studies, groups, and more.
6. Review the learning objectives with your students. Be sure students know what they are expected to learn, do,
know, etc.
7. Move around the room as you teach.
8. Make your classes relevant. Be sure students see how the content relates to them and the world around them.
9. Be expressive. Smile.
10. Put some excitement into your speech; vary your pitch, volume and rate.
11. Give lots of examples.
 12. Encourage students to share their ideas and comments, even if they are incorrect. You'll never know what
students don't understand unless you ask them.
13. Maintain eye contact and move toward your students as you interact with them. Nod your head to show that
you are listening to them.
14. Provide opportunities for students to speak to the class.
15. Be available before class starts, during break, and after class to visit with students.
16. Return assignments and tests to students as soon as reasonably possible. Provide constructive feedback.
17. Be consistent in your treatment of students.
18. Make sure that your exams are current, valid, and reliable. Tie your assessment to your course objectives.
19. Plan around 15-20 minute cycles. Students have difficulty maintaining attention after a longer period of time.
20. Involve your students in your teaching. Ask for feedback.
Impacting Motivation in the Classroom
Sternberg (1994) and Stipek (1988) suggested there are a variety of reasons why individuals may lack in
motivation and Stipek provided a list of specific behaviors associated with high academic achievement. This
is an excellent checklist to help students develop the conative or self-regulation component of their lives. In
addition, teacher efficacy is a powerful input variable related to student achievement as it impacts a teacher's
motivation to engage students in the teaching/learning process (Proctor, as cited in Huitt, 2000).
There are a variety of specific actions that teachers can take to increase motivation on classroom tasks (Huitt,
2005). In general, these fall into the two categories discussed above: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic
motivation.
Intrinsic Extrinsic
o Explain or show why learning a o Provide clear expectations
particular content or skill is important o Give corrective feedback
o Allow students some opportunities to o Provide valuable rewards for simple
select learning goals and tasks learning tasks
o Create and/or maintain curiosity o Make rewards available
o Provide a variety of activities and o Allow opportunities for students to
sensory stimulations observe more correct exemplars
o Provide games and simulations o Allow for opportunities to engage in
o Set goals for learning social learning activities
o Relate learning to student needs o Provide for scaffolding of corrective
o Help student develop plan of action feedback
As a general rule, teachers need to use as much of the intrinsic suggestions as possible while recognizing that
not all students will be appropriately motivated by them. The extrinsic suggestions will work, but it must be
remembered that they do so only as long as the student is under the influence of the external factors. When
outside of that influence, unless the desired goals and behaviors have been internalized, the learner will cease
the desired behavior and operate according to his or her internal standards or to other external factors.

Unit 12
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS/TEACHING TOOLS
12.1 Instructional Materials (A.V aids)
As we all know that today's age is the age of science and technology. The teaching learning
programmes have also been affected by it. The process of teaching - learning depends upon the
different type of equipment available in the classroom.

12.2 Need of Instructional Materials

1) Every individual has the tendency to forget. Proper use of teaching aids helps to retain more
concept permanently.

2) Students can learn better when they are motivated properly through different teaching aids.

3) Teaching aids develop the proper image when the students see, hear taste and smell properly.

4) Teaching aids provide complete example for conceptual thinking.

 5) The teaching aids create the environment of interest for the students.

6) Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the students.

7) Teaching aids helps the teacher to get sometime and make learning permanent.

8) Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students.

12.3 Importance of Instructional Materials
Teaching aids play a very important role in Teaching- Learning process. Importance of teaching aids is as
follows.

1) Motivation: Teaching aids motivate the students so that they can learn better.

2) Clarification: Through teaching aids, the teacher clarifies the subject matter more easily.

3) Discouragement of Cramming: Teaching aids can facilitate the proper understanding to the students which
discourage the act of cramming.

4) Increase the Vocabulary: Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the students more effectively.

5) Saves Time and Money: teaching aids save money and time because no cost and low cost materials are very
helpful in this regard.

6) Classroom Live and active: Teaching aids make the classroom live and active.

7) Avoids Dryness: Teaching aids are helpful in removing boring environment.

8) Direct Experience: Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students

12.4 Types of Instructional Materials (A.V aids)

There are many aids available these days. We may classify these aids as follows.

1) Visual Aids
The aids which use sense of vision are called Visual aids. For example :- actual objects, models, pictures, charts,
maps, flash cards, flannel board, bulletin board, chalkboard, overhead projector, slides etc. Out of these black board
and chalk are the commonest ones.

2) Audio Aids
The aids that involve the sense of hearing are called Audio aids. For example: - radio, tape recorder, gramophone etc.

3) Audio - Visual Aids

The aids which involve the sense of vision as well as hearing are called Audio- Visual aids. For example: - television,
film projector, film strips etc.