ENBS 117

Ventilation

11 December 2009
Dr Pieter de Wilde
 Learning goals
After this lecture, you should:
 Appreciate the objectives, criteria and
constraints for ventilation of buildings
 Be familiar with the common systems and
their most important components
 Be able to carry out simple ventilation
calculations
 Need for ventilation
Ventilation is needed:
 To provide/maintain indoor air quality (IAQ)
 To help regulate the thermal climate
 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
Acceptable IAQ:
“air in which there are no contaminants at
harmful concentrations as determined by
cognizant authorities, and with which a
substantial majority (80% or more) of the
people exposed do not express
dissatisfaction” (ASHRAE, 2004)

Two main aspects: comfort + health

 Providing IAQ
1. Limiting pollution at the source
(materials, systems)
2. Isolating unavoidable sources of pollution
(location on site, zoning)
3. Providing for an adequate supply and
filtering of fresh and recirculated air
4. Maintaining a building and services in a
clean condition
(maintenance, cleaning, commissioning)
Sources and impact of pollutants
• Odors
• Irritants
• Toxic particulate substances
• Biological contaminants
• Radon and soil gas

Comfort / psychology, health / physiology

 Odors
• People are extremely sensitive to odors.
• Perception can be positive, neutral or
negative.
• Typical situation: blending – body,
perfumes, food, machines, cleaning,
materials, tobacco odors.
• Blending: masking; only one or two odors:
increased sensitivity.
 Irritants
• Often imperceptible at first
• Symptoms: itching/burning eyes,
sneezing, coughing, dry nose and throat,
sore throat, tightness of the chest.
• New buildings – chemicals (volatile
organic compounds / VOC)
• Long term occupancy – impact of systems,
mineral fibres, tobacco, low humidity,
cleaning
 Toxic particulate substances
• Asbestos (asbestos cement, venyl-
asbestos floor tiles, sprayed-on asbestos
insulation)
• Respirable particles resulting from
incomplete combustion
 Biological Contaminants
• Bacteria, fungi, viruses, algae, insects,
dust
• Moisture encourages biological
contamination
• Might result in allergic reactions, diseases
 Radon and soil gas
• Radon: radioactive gas
• Methane
• Pesticides

Image: www.ukradon.org Image: http://geoscape.nrcan.gc.ca

 Sick building syndrome
Impacts on people:
Comfort (odour, suffy environment)
Acute health effects (burning eyes, chest
symptoms, transmission of disease)
Chronic (allergies and their effects)
 IAQ/SBS Problems
Causes for an increase in problems:
 Increase in building airthightness
 Reduction in ventilation (energy saving)
 Increased use of computers, printers etc
 Increased use of floor covering and
furnishing that emit pollutants
 Increased use of airconditioning
 Lack of maintenance
 Common air pollutants
Excess moisture
Source: cooking, washing, exhaling
Effects: increase of fungi growth, bacteria, dustmites
Control: exhaust ventilation at source, dehumidification
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Source: human respiration
Effects: stuffiness, minor discomfort
Control: increased ventilation rate
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Source: incomplete combustion
Effects: headache, dizziness, muscle weakness, lethal
Control: sealed combustion, safe exhaust
 Common air pollutants
Nitrogen oxides
Source: high-temperature combustion
Effects: irritation, immune suppression
Control: sealed combustion, safe exhaust
Sulfur oxides
Source: burning of oil, coal that contains sulfur
Effects: irritation, burning eyes, reduced long function
Control: alternative fuel, sealed combustion/safe exhaust
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
Source: smoking, wood/coal fire, burnt food
Effects: irritation, cancer risk
Control: no smoking, clean fuels, sealed combustion
 Common air pollutants
Ozone
Source: copiers, printers, motors, electronic air cleaners
Effects: wheezing, asthma, inflammation of bronchia
Control: remove ozone at source, maintenance
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), formaldehyde
Source: particle board, laminated panels, glue, paint
Effects: skin rash, nausea, dizziness, fatigue, eyes/nose
Control: use of alternative materials, increase ventilation
Lead
Source: paint, pipes and solder, dust/soil near roads
Effects: neurotoxic: learning disability, nausea, trembling
Control: remove, no food from roadside
 Common air pollutants
Pesticide residues
Source: treatment of pests, indoor or outdoors
Effects: neurotoxic, liver risk, cancer risk
Control: remove or seal-in
Asbestos
Source: pipe insulation, furnace parts, tiles, cement
Effects: long-term cancer risk
Control: remove or seal-in
Mineral and glass fibre
Source: thermal / pipe insulation, fire-resistant barriers
Effects: irritation, burning eyes, lung damage/cancer
Control: remove or seal and enclose
 Common air pollutants
Fungus particles, dust mites
Source: moist basements, carpet, bedding, closets
Effects: allergy, burning eyes, skin rash, congestion
Control: ventilation, cleaning, borax to retard fungus
Hazardous bacteria (legionella)
Source: standing (warm) water
Effects: respiratory illness, lethal
Control: prevent standing water, high temperature
Radon gas
Source: natural occurrence in soils
Effects: cancer risk
Control: seal foundation and drains, ventilation
 Common air pollutants
Methane and other soil gas
Source: landfill, leaking sewage, toxic waste
Effects: explosive risk, toxic, odor nuisance
Control: remove soil, or seal building and ventilate

Source: Stein et al (2006): Mechanical and electrical equipment for buildings, page 114,
after Rousseau and Wasley (1997)
 Measuring ventilation
 Outdoor air supply rate (l/s)
 Ventilation rate (ACH)
 Age of air (residence time, τr)
 Ventilation effectiveness (ε)
 Purging flow (Up)
 Ventilation requirements
 Air supply to a person: 8 l/s

 Air supply to a space 1.5 ACH (general)

 Domestic room: 1 ACH
 Toilet: 3 ACH
 Office: 2-6 ACH
 Classroom: 3-4 ACH
 Restaurant: 10-15 ACH
 Kitchen: 20-40 ACH
Pollution concentration (ppm) Pollution vs ventilation

maximum
concentration
minimum
ventilation rate

Ventilation rate (ACH)

Figure after Awbi, 2003
 Air replacance
Fraction of air molecules that was not in the
space at an earlier reference time
Replacance (%)
ACH
Time (h) 0.06 0.12 0.25 0.50 1.00 2.00
0.25 1.6 3.1 6.1 11.7 22.1 39.3
0.5 3.1 6.1 11.7 22.1 39.3 63.2
1.0 6.1 11.7 22.1 39.3 63.2 86.5
2.0 11.7 22.1 39.3 63.2 86.5 98.2
4.0 22.1 39.3 63.2 86.5 98.2 99.9
8.0 39.3 63.2 86.5 98.2 99.9 100

Table after Stein et al (2006) based on Shurcliff (1981)

 Displacement flow

RETURN AIR

SUPPLY AIR
 Conventional mixing
(entrainment flow / coanda effect)

SUPPLY AIR RETURN AIR

Main ventilation types overview
Natural, hybrid and low energy
 Rapid ventilation
 Trickle ventilation

Mechanical:
 Extract ventilation (remove
contamination)
 Supply ventilation (bring in fresh air)
 Balanced ventilation (both)
 Windows
Rapid ventilation

Trickle ventilation
 Operable windows
Sliding/tilting (pivots at hor./vert.)

• Operable windows
• Occupant control
• No filtering
• Can interfere with HVAC system
• Mainly dependent on wind, some stack
effect
 Wind driven
 Wind-variation induced single-sided
ventilation
 Wind-driven cross-ventilation
 …. and combinations with stack effect
Break
 Reminder – before break
Natural, hybrid and low energy
 Rapid ventilation
 Trickle ventilation

Mechanical:
 Extract ventilation (remove
contamination)
 Supply ventilation (bring in fresh air)
 Balanced ventilation (both)
 Mech. vent. - extract only

SUPPLY AIR RETURN AIR

 Mech. vent. - supply only

SUPPLY AIR
RETURN AIR
Mech. vent. -balanced
SUPPLY AIR

RETURN AIR
Mechanical ventilation systems
Valves, sensors, connectors, suspension (Plant room RL Building)
 Mechanical ventilation
• Local exhaust ventilation (extractor hood)
• Mixing ventilation (VAV, CV)
• Displacement ventilation
• Piston ventilation (clean rooms)
Mechanical ventilation systems
 Air ducts
 Room distribution equipment
 Fans
 Air-handling units:
• Heating/cooling
• Humidification/drying
• Cleaning and pollution control
Mechanical ventilation systems
Air ducts:
 Important design aspects: leakage,
cleaning
 Main materials: steel, fibrous glass
 Flexible ducts
 Rectangular and round
 Plenums

Image from: www.ubbink.co.uk

 Mechanical ventilation systems
Room distribution equipment:
 Supply air outlets:
 Grille and register outlets
 Nozzles
 Linear slot outlets
 Ceiling diffuser outlets
 Displacement ventilation
Example from RL building
Outlet for displacement ventilation
Mechanical ventilation systems
Room distribution equipment:
 Air distribution units:
 Terminal units
• single/dual duct
• reheat/cool
• bypass
• Fan-assisted
 Induction units
Mechanical ventilation systems
Fans:
 Main types: centrifugal,
axial and special

 Aspects:
• Noise
• Vibration
• Control
 Infiltration
 Apart from ventilation (air exchange on
purpose) all buildings are subject to air
leakage: infiltration and exfiltration.

 In general, infiltration depends on:

• Size and distribution of leakage paths
• Flow characteristics of leakage paths
• Pressure difference across the leakage paths.
Infiltration
 NBC risks
Ventilation is about bringing in air –
but in some cases, you want the opposite!
 Nuclear
 Biological
 Chemical contamination
 NBC risks
 Passive protection: how safe are you by
staying inside, and just closing doors and
windows?
• Duration you can stay
• Evacuation
• Active measures
 NBC risks
And how about intentional events?
 Position of mail rooms
 Position of air intakes
 Access to building
NBC risks
Testing

Bouw

Airtightness testing by
pressurisation measurement
on an actual 1970 building
 In-class calculation
A laboratory hall in a factory has mechanical
ventilation only. The hall needs to have
ACH = 4.0

The size of the hall is 15 x 20 x 6 meter.

Calculate the capacity of the air supply

system in liters/second.
 Answer
• V = 15 x 20 x 6 = 1800 m3.
• ACH = 4.0 : ventilation rate = 4 x 1800 =
7200 m3/h
• 1 m3/h = 1000 l / 3600 s;
• 7200 m3/h = 7.200.000 l / 3600 sec =
2000 l/s
 In-class calculation
For the same hall
ACH = 4.0; size 15 x 20 x 6 meter
Ventilation rate = 7200 m3/h = 2000 l/s
the air is supplied through four ducts, each
with a cross-sectional area of 0.3 m2.

Calculate the required duct velocity.

 Answer
• Q = 7200 m3/h = 2000 l/s
• Four ducts:
each supplies 1800 m3/h = 500 l/s

V = Q/A = 1800/0.3 m/h = 1.67 m/s

or
V = Q/A = 500 *0.001/ 0.3 = 1.67 m/s
Testing
 Summary
• IAQ, SBS
• Odors, irritants, toxic particulates,
biological contaminants
• Common pollutants
• Measuring ventilation
• Natural and mechanical systems
• Infiltration
• NBC risks and issues
• Simple calculations
 Homework
• McMullan (2007). Environmental Science
in Building. Basingstoke: Palgrave
– Chapter 4: Air control in Buildings

• Awbi (2003). Ventilation of Buildings.

London: Spon Press

• Santamouris and Wouters (2006). Building

ventilation – the state of the art. London:
Earthscan