STUDY AND TESTING OF VACUUM BRAKE SYSTEM

IN LIGHT COMERCIAL VEHICLE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

DHIRAN.P.N.B (211614102018)

SASIKUMAR.B (211614102047)

SATISH KUMAR.A (211614102048)

VINODH.S (211614102062)

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ANNA UNIVERSITY: 600 025

APRIL 2018

i
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “STUDY AND TESTING OF VACUUM BRAKE SYSTEM
IN LIGHT COMMERICAL VEHICLE” is the bonafide work of “DHIRAN.P.N.B,
SASIKUMAR.B, SATISH KUMAR.A, VINODH.S” who carried out the project work under
my supervision

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr.K.BHASKAR Mr.R.ANBALAGAN
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR
Department of automobile engineering ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
Rajalakshmi engineering college Department of automobile engineering
Chennai-602105 Rajalakshmi engineering college
Chennai-602105

Held on………………

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are obliged to our respected chairman Mr.S.MEGANATHAN, chairperson

Dr.M.THANGAM MEGANATHAN and our beloved principal Dr.S.MURUGESAN, who
have constantly encouraged us in all aspects and accelerating us as successful engineers

We thank our Head of the Department Dr.K.BHASKAR for his motivation, guidance
and help in making our project activities. We thank him for spending his valuable time in
supporting and guiding us

Our hearty thank to our guide Mr.R.ANBALAGAN Associate Professor Automobile

Engineering for supporting us through the project regarding technical and for his personal
guidance on the topic

Our sincere thanks to the lab assistants of Automobile engineering department for their
co-operation in completing this project successfully

iii
 ABSTRACT

The project deals with study of vacuum brakes system in a light commercial vehicle and to test
its performance in various aspects. Vacuum brakes have been in use in railways and vacuum
assisted brakes are still in use in automobiles. There is always a need for better braking system
than the current generation of brakes. The main objective of this project is to prove that vacuum
brakes can be a better alternate solution for the current generation hydraulic brakes. Since the
brake actuatuation is done using a mechanical linkage, a suitable wheel cylinder assembly has
been designed and manufactured.

To know the maximum strength of EN 8 material with which the wheel cylinder assembly and
cam shaft has been manufactured, a tensile test has been carried out on the sample material of
EN 8 and its properties such as yield strength and ultimate tensile strength are fed to the
engineering data of ANSYS software. The dimensions of wheel cylinder assembly and cam shaft
were measured and the same has been modelled in PTC Creo Parametric. The modelled solid
parts were imported to ANSYS and static structural analyses were carried out using FEA
approach based on calculations done previously. The equivalent stress results from ANSYS is
compared with actual yield strength to find out the reliability of the system.

The vehicle that has been fit with vacuum brakes is tested on road and dynamometer. With
results obtained from brake tests on road and dynamometer, various braking parameters have
been calculated and compared with the result of commercially used hydraulic brakes system.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
TITLE
NO NO

ABSTRACT IV
LIST OF FIGURES VII1
LIST OF TABLES 1X
NOMENCLATURE X

1 INTRODUCTION 13
1.1 Vehicle braking system 13
1.2 Types of conventional brakes 13
1.2.1 The drum brake 13
1.2.2 The disc brake 14
1.3 Types of braking system 15
1.3.1 Air brake system 15
1.3.2 Principle of air brake system 15
1.4 Hydraulic brake system 16
1.4.1 Principle and working of hydraulic brake system 16
1.5 Vacuum assisted brake system 17

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 20

3 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING 22

3.1 Construction of vacuum brake system 22
3.1.1 Compressor 22
3.1.2 Vacuum reservoir 23
3.1.3 Direction control valve 23
3.1.4 Flow control valve 23
3.1.5 Brake cylinder 23
3.1.6 Drum brake 23
3.2 Principle of operation 23
3.3 Working 24

4 DESIGN OF COMPONENTS 26
4.1 Design of components 26
4.1.1 Design of wheel cylinder with piston 26
4.1.2 Design of rounded rectangular cam 28
4.1.3 Design of cam shaft 28

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 4.1.4 Design of link rectangular bar 29
4.1.5 Design of pneumatic cylinder 30

5 METHODOLOGY OF ANALYSIS 32
5.1 Pre-processing 32
5.1.1 Material definition 32
5.1.2 Defining the geometry 35
5.2 Meshing 36
5.2.1 Mesh details 37
5.3 Static structural analysis of wheel cylinder assembly 38
5.3.1 Load conditions 38
5.3.2 Solving 38
5.4 Static structural analysis of cam shaft 40
5.4.1 Load conditions 40
5.4.2 Solving 40
5.5 Post processing 41

6 CALCULATION OF BRAKE PARAMETER 42

6.1 Deceleration 42
6.2 Load distribution in the vehicle 42
6.3 Brake balance 43
6.4 Braking force on level road 43
6.5 Braking torque (level road condition) 44
6.6 Brake efficiency 44
6.7 Heat generation in brake drum (level road condition) 45
6.8 Mean lining pressure (level road condition) 45
6.9 Maximum slope conditions 46
6.10 Curved path conditions 49
6.11 Tables and graphs 50
6.11.1 Stopping distance (hydraulic, vacuum) Vs Speed 50
6.11.2 Deceleration (hydraulic, vacuum) Vs Speed 51
6.11.3 Vehicle braking force (hydraulic, vacuum ) Vs speed 52
6.11.4 Overall braking efficiency (hydraulic, vacuum ) Vs Speed 53

7 DYNAMOMETER TEST 54
7.1 Testing equipment 54
7.2 Testing procedure 54
7.3 Test outputs 56
7.3.1 Vacuum brake test result 56
7.3.2 Hydraulic brake test result 57
7.4 Brake force at rear axle 58
7.5 Braking time 58

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 7.6 Brake efficiency 58
7.7 Table and graph 58
7.7.1 Brake parameters for hydraulic and vacuum brake system 58

8 CONCLUSION 61
REFERENCES 62

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 LIST OF FIGURES
FIG
TITLE PAGE NO
NO
1.1 Cam Operated drum brake 14
1.2 Layout of Disc brake 15
1.3 Layout of Air brake system 16
1.4 layout of hydraulic brake system 17
1.5 Vacuum servo 19
3.1 Vacuum braking system 22
3.2 Brake Applied 24
3.3 Brake released 25
4.1 Layout of vacuum braking system 26
4.2 Brake drum 26
4.3 3-D models of wheel cylinder assembly 28
4.4 Design of Cam shaft 29
4.5 Design of link rod mechanism 30
4.6 Design of pneumatic cylinder 31
5.1 Steps of Ansys Workbench 32
5.2 Types of analysis 33
5.3 EN 8 properties 33
5.4 Lab test report 34
5.5 Wheel cylinder assembly 35
5.6 Cam shaft 35
5.7 Wheel cylinder assembly 35
5.8 Importing geometry in ANSYS 36
5.9 Mesh of Wheel cylinder Assembly 37
5.10 Mesh of Cam Shaft 37
5.11 Total deformation of Wheel cylinder Assembly 38
5.12 Equivalent stress of Wheel cylinder Assembly 39
5.13 Total deformation of cam shaft 40
5.14 Equivalent stress of cam shaft 41
6.1 Stopping Distance Vs Speed 50
6.2 Deceleration Vs speed 51
6.3 Vehicle Brake force Vs speed 52
6.4 Vehicle brake efficiency Vs speed 53
7.1 Testing Equipments 54
7.2 Dynamometer 55
7.3 Dynamometer result layout 55
7.4 Brake force and out of balance result (vacuum brake system) 56
7.5 Brake force Vs Time (vacuum brake system) 56
7.6 Brake force and out of balance result (hydraulic brake system) 57

viii
7.7 Brake Force Vs Time (hydraulic brake system) 57
7.8 Brake force Vs Speed 59
7.9 Braking time Vs Speed 59
7.10 Brake efficiency Vs speed 60

ix
 LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
TITLE
NO NO
6.1 Stopping distance (Hydraulic, vacuum) Vs Speed 50
6.2 Deceleration (Hydraulic, vacuum) Vs Speed 51
6.3 Vehicle braking force (Hydraulic, vacuum) Vs Speed 52
6.4 Vehicle braking efficiency (Hydraulic, vacuum) Vs Speed 53
7.1 Brake parameters for vacuum and hydraulic brake system 58

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 NOMENCLATURE
F Force
P safe pressure
d piston rod diameter
D diameter of shaft
T torque of shaft
d shaft diameter
c co-efficient for rectangular bar
a length of rectangular
b breath of rectangular bar
µ co-efficient of friction
f deceleration of vehicle
g acceleration due to gravity
S velocity of vehicle
mf load acting at front axle
mr load acting at rear axle
M mass of vehicle
h height of centre of gravity from ground
f deceleration of vehicle
w weight of vehicle
b wheel base
wt brake balance
d static laden diameter of the wheel
r speed ratio between wheel and brake
Mbtr maximum braking torque at front wheel
f braking force
r effective wheel radius

xi
w brake lining
α contact angle of each lining
C Radius of the curve
m metre
N Newton
m/s2 metre per second
Cf centrifugal force
mm millimetre

xii
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 VEHICLE BRAKING SYSTEMS

Brakes are mechanical devices which increases the frictional resistance that retards the
turning motion of the vehicle wheels. Generally braking system is to convert kinetic energy
(turning wheel) in to heat energy. To slow down or stop the vehicle in the shortest possible time
at the time of need. To control the speed of vehicle at turns and also at the time of driving down
on a hill slope. It does so through the friction at the brake lining and brake drum or the brake
pads and the disc.

Some vehicles are fitted with secondary braking system there are known as retarders.
Some of retarders are exhaust brakes and electric brakes. In all cases the factor that how much
braking can be applied is the grip of the tires on the driving surface

1.2 TYPES OF CONVENTIONAL BRAKES

Two basic types of friction brakes are in common use in vehicles:

1. The drum brake.

2. The disc brake.

1.2.1 THE DRUM BRAKE

A drum brake has a hollow drum that turns with the wheel. Its open back is covered by a
stationary backplate on which there are two curved shoes carrying friction linings.

The shoes are forced outwards by hydraulic pressure moving pistons in the brake's wheel
cylinders, so pressing the linings against the inside of the drum to slow or stop it.

13
 Fig 1.1 Cam operated drum brake

1.2.2 THE DISC BRAKE

A disc brake has a disc that turns with the wheel. The disc is straddled by a caliper, in which
there are small hydraulic pistons worked by pressure from the master cylinder.

The pistons press on friction pads that clamp against the disc from each side to slow or stop it.
The pads are shaped to cover a broad sector of the disc.

There may be more than a single pair of pistons, especially in dual-circuit brakes.

14
 Fig 1.2 Layout of disc brake

1.3 TYPES OF BRAKING SYSTEM

Brakes system can be classified following types
1.Air brake system
2.Hydraulic brake system
3.Vaccum assisted hydraulic brake system
1.3.1 AIR BRAKE SYSTEM
In the air brake system, we use air to generate this force. This type of braking is similar to
the hydraulic brakes expect that in their case compressed air is used to apply brakes instead of
hydraulic pressure.

1.3.2 PRINCIPLE OF AIR BRAKE SYSTEM

Air brake is better understood by the layout of as shown in figure. The compressor takes
air form the atmosphere through the filter and the compressed air is sent to the reservoir through
the unloader valve, which gets lifted at a predetermined reservoir pressure and relieves the

15
compressor of load. Form the reservoir the air goes to various accessories and also to the brake
chambers also called the diaphragm units at each wheel, through the brake valve.

The control of brake valve is with the driver who can control the intensity of braking
according to the requirement. When the brakes are applied, the pressure in the reservoir
decreases. When the pressure drops to approximately 700kPa, the governor again cuts in the
compressor to raise system pressure. In case the air system pressure falls to about 400 kPa, a
warning usually in the form of a buzzer is sounded.

Fig 1.3 Layout of Air Brake System

1.4 HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEM

The brakes which are actuated by the hydraulic pressure (pressure of a fluid) are called
hydraulic brakes. Hydraulic brakes are commonly used in the automobiles.
1.4.1 PRINICIPLE OF HYDRULIC BRAKE SYSTEM
Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascal’s law which states that “pressure at a
point in a fluid is equal in all directions in space”. According to this law when pressure is
applied on a fluid it travels equally in all directions so that uniform braking action is applied on
all four wheels.

16
 When brake pedal in pressed, the force is transmitted to the brake shoes through a liquid
(link). The pedal force is multiplied and transmitted to all brake shoes by a force transmission
system. Figure 1.3 shows the system of hydraulic brake of a four-wheeler automobile. It consists
of a master cylinder, four-wheel cylinders and pipes carrying a brake fluid from master cylinder
to wheel cylinder.

Fig 1.4 Layout of hydraulic brake system

The master cylinder is connected to all the four-wheel cylinders by tubing or piping. All
cylinders and tubes are fitted with a fluid which acts as a link to transmit pedal force from master
cylinder to wheel cylinders.
1.5 VACUUM ASSISTED BRAKE SYSTEM

A vacuum servo of the type shown in Figure 1.5 is used as a means of increasing the
force that the driver applies to the brake pedal. The term “vacuum servo” is actually a generic

17
term for any device which uses a vacuum to amplify/boost the mechanical effort of a device by
use of a vacuum brake servo, the unit is placed between the brake pedal and the hydraulic master
cylinder, using stored vacuum to amplify the drivers pedal efforts, giving a greater braking force.

A brake booster is used on virtually all vehicles which uses hydraulic brakes for their
primary braking circuit. Vacuum servos are not used on vehicles which use cables, rods, or
pressurized air system for their primary brake circuits.

The vacuum can be generated in two distinct methods, dependent on the type of internal
combustion engine, or other motive force. In naturally-aspirated petrol engines, the manifold
vacuum is used, whereas in turbo charged, diesel engines, and electric/hybrid vehicles a separate
vacuum pump is used or in certain high attitude places, naturally-aspirated vehicles are not
capable of producing enough vacuum to booster.

The vacuum booster or vacuum servo is used in most modern hydraulic brake systems
which contain four wheels. The vacuum booster is attached to the master cylinder and the brake
pedal and assists the braking force applied by the driver. These units consist of a hollow housing
with a movable rubber diaphragm across the centre, creating two chambers. When attached to the
intake manifold engine or the vacuum pump, the pressure in both chamber of the unit is lowered.

When the brake pedal is applied, the movement pushes against a small spring which
pushes against an air valve thus opening it to allow atmospheric pressure air to flow into the
supply chamber of the booster. Once the pedal stops advancing forward, the air valve closes
again and can open further to allow more air in for continued boosted braking. Since the pressure
becomes higher in one chamber, the diaphragm and the differential pressure. The force, in
addition to the driver’s foot force, pushes on the master cylinder piston. When the pedal is
allowed to return to rest, the air from the supply chamber escapes to the vacuum chamber and
then flow towards the source of vacuum.

A relatively small diameter booster unit is required, for a very conservative 50%
manifold vacuum, an assisting force 1500N (150kgf) is produced by a 20 cm radius diaphragm
with an area of 0.03 square meters. The diaphragm will stop moving the forces on both sides of
the chamber reach equilibrium. This can be caused by either the air valve closing or if run out is

18
reached. Run out occurs when the pressure in one chamber reaches atmospheric pressure and no
additional force can be generated by the now stagnant differential pressure.

Fig 1.5 Vacuum servo

19
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Vacuum braking system is a system which uses only the vacuum for the application of
brakes. Many scientists and researchers have done projects and presented papers on the area of
vacuum brakes. Some of them are briefly explained in this survey.

Echart Rudigerand HermannBauer[5] (1989) invented the vacuum braking force booster.
It has a sequential control valve without a response path. Two chambers are separated by a
diaphragm with a disk in it and the diaphragm disk is connected with a shaft that supports a
radially inward valve seat which presses against a spring biased sealing disk. Communication
between the two chambers is past the inner valve seat. A shifting type sleeve extends through the
lid of the first of the chambers and includes a collar which engages the inside of the lid for
determining the maximum extension which the sleeve can move out of the lid. A pressure piston
extends through the sleeve. A bridge connects the sleeve with the pressure piston for moving
together. An elastomeric bellows attaches the sealing disk to the sleeves and the pressure piston;
the outer valve seat is defined on the sleeve for engaging the sealing disk. A spring normally
urges the sealing disk toward both of the valve seats. A second flow path in the booster extends
from the atmosphere through the bridge past the outer valve seat and into the first chamber. In
the alternate embodiment, the outer valve seat is directly on the sleeve and the inner valve is
directly on the valve shaft connected with diaphragm disk. There is a return spring
communicating with the diaphragm disk for urging the diaphragm disk to move the inner valve
seat toward sealing disk.

Gary Chris Fulksetal[6] (2000) developed the supplemental vacuum assist unit for vehicle
booster. Their unit is provided for use with a vacuum brake booster and a source of vacuum in a
motor vehicle. The unit includes within a single housing, an electric motor, an air pump driven
by the motor, a manifold defining air exhaust and assist vacuum chambers, a pair of check valves
permitting air flow from the pump outlet and the assist vacuum chamber to the air exhaust
chamber, an outlet from the air exhaust chamber with a fitting for connection to the vacuum
source, an opening from the assist vacuum chamber with a fitting providing communication
directly to the interior of the vacuum chamber of the booster, and a pressure sensor including a

20
diaphragm, plunger , magnet with a Hall effect sensor and motor control circuit board within the
assist vacuum chamber. The unit is compact, light in weight and efficient and is designed to
attach directly to the booster with no intervening vacuum hose there between.

Walter W. McCury and Walter G. Pettit[10] (1980) invented the braking system for towed
vehicles. A braking system for automatically braking a towed vehicle coupled to a towing
vehicle having an electrical brake control circuit and a vacuum line wherein the towed vehicle is
provided with a normally closed solenoid valve for connecting both a vacuum reservoir in the
towed vehicle and the vacuum line in the towing vehicle with a vacuum responsive bellows
operatively connected to the brake pedal in the towed vehicle with the solenoid operated valve
electrically connected through a normally open breakaway switch to the battery whereby the
operation of the braking system on the towing vehicle is accompanied by an actuation of the
solenoid operated valve and the application of a vacuum to the bellows for concomitant
operation of the brake pedal in the towed vehicle and upon a decoupling of the towed and towing
vehicles.

A similar actuation of the solenoid operated valve when the breakaway switch closes to
apply vacuum to the bellows for actuation of brake pedal to brake the decoupled towed vehicle.

21
 CHAPTER-3

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

3.1 CONSTRUCTION OF VACUUM BRAKE SYSTEM

Vacuum braking system as shown in figure 3.1 consists of brake cylinder, compressor,
vacuum reservoir, direction control valve, flow control valve, brake hoses, brake linkages, drum
brake and foot brake pedal.

Figure 3.1 vacuum braking system

3.1.1 COMPRESSOR
Single-acting compressors are usually reciprocating compressors, which has piston
working on air only in one direction. The other end of the piston is often free or open which does

22
not perform any work. The air is compressed only on the top part of the piston. The bottom of
the piston is open to crankcase and not utilized for the compression of air.

3.1.2 VACUUM RESERVOIR

A cylindrical shaped is used a vacuum reservoir which is used to create vacuum and store
air in it. It is placed between the direction control valve and vacuum pump. Hoses and fittings are
mainly used for connecting the reservoir tank with valve to the compressor.

3.1.3 DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE

Direction control valve is used to change the direction of air flow. 3/2 type of valve is
used here.

3.1.4 FLOW CONTROL VALVE

Flow Control Valves are used to reduce the rate of flow in a section of a pneumatic
circuit, resulting in a slower actuator speed. Unlike a Needle Valve, a Flow Control Valve
regulates air flow in only one direction, allowing free flow in the opposite direction.

3.1.5 BRAKE CYLINDER

A double acting type pneumatic cylinder is used as brake cylinder for the application of
brakes. Brake is released in forward stroke and applied in return stroke. The top end of the piston
is connected to direction control valve and bottom end is connected to the direction control valve
and flow control valve.

3.1.6 DRUM BRAKE

A brake drum is attached to the rotating axle and rotates with the wheel. A back plate is
mounted on the stationary axle casing. The back plate supports expander, anchor and brake
shoes. The outer periphery of the back plate is lipped and fits over the brake drum. This design
protects the drum and shoe assembly from mud and dust.

3.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The principle of vacuum brake is nothing but the pressure difference created in the
actuator that is the brake released with a full vacuum and the brake applied with vacuum and

23
spring force. The term vacuum is used to describe the region of pressure below 1 atmospheric of
pressure, also referred to as negative pressure. The pressure in the atmospheric is defined as 1 bar
and reducing atmospheric pressure to zero bar creates a near perfect vacuum which is measured
as 30 inches of mercury.

3.3 WORKING

The brakes are always in released condition with vacuum unit the driver pushes the brake
pedal. In this condition position of piston cap is in cap end of the brake cylinder and cam is
twisted for compressing the spring which provides free rotation of drum.

When the driver pushes the brake pedal slowly then the flow control valves open slightly
to the atmosphere. It loss of vacuum causes the brake to be applied due to spring force. When the
flow control valve opens fully then alternatively the forward direction.

The direction of flow is changed and atmospheric air enter through the exhaust port of
direction control valve to piston cap end. Due to pressure difference the piston moves backward
with vacuum and spring force.

The movement of link rod attached with piston rod releases the cam to normal position
which makes internal resistances from the brake shoes against drum. Figure 3.2 shows the brake
in applied condition

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 Fig 3.2 Brake applied

When driver release the brake pedal then valve lever comes back to initial position. The
direction of flow is again changed and atmospheric air enter through the exhaust port of direction
control valve to piston rod end. Due to pressure difference the piston moves forward with
vacuum.

Figure 3.3 Brake released

The movement of link rod attached with piston rod twists the cam and compresses the
spring which makes enough clearances between brake shoes and the drum. This release the
brake.

25
 CHAPTER - 4

DESIGN OF COMPONENTS
4.1 DESIGN OF COMPONENTS

Fig 4.1 layout of vacuum braking system

4.1.1 DESIGN OF WHEEL CYLINDER WITH PISTON
Calculation of brake force

26
 Fig 4.2 Brake drum
Area of brake shoe (A) = 2πr x 2θ/360 x W
Drum radius (r) = 115 mm
Angle of brake shoe lining (θ) = 105 degree
Width of brake shoe lining (W) = 34 mm
A= 2 x π x 115 x 2 x (105/360) x 34
A= 13927 mm2
Assume safe pressure = 0.2 N/mm2
Force (F) = P X A
= 0.2 x 13927

F = 2785 N
Allowable stress ( a) = yield strength ( y) / factor of safety
Assume Factor of safety = 4

a= 216/4

a = 54 N/mm2

a = F/a
54 =2785 / (π/4)d2

d=8.15
mm

27
 Fig 4.3 3-D models of wheel-cylinder assembly

4.1.2 DESIGN OF ROUNDED RECTANGULAR CAM

τ=T / (cab2)

= shear stress act on link rectangular cam (N/mm2)

C= coefficient for rectangular torsion bar=0.312

a= length of rectangular bar (mm)

b= breath of rectangular bar (mm)

T= torque act on bar (N.mm)

F= force act on rectangular bar (N)

a= 3 b

b= ((2875) /(0.312  2 108))

b=6mm

a=18mm

4.1.3 DESIGN OF CAM SHAFT

T= (πτd3)/16
T= 25065 N.mm

28
 T=torque act on shaft (N.mm)
F= brake force (N)
= shear stress act on shaft (N/mm2)
Yield strength of stainless steel = 216MPa
d= diameter of shaft (mm)
Shear stress = (1/2) x yield strength of stainless steel
= (1/2) x 216
= 108 MPa (or) 108 N/mm2
25065 = (π×108×d3)/16
d= 10.5mm

3D 2D

Fig 4.4 Design of cam shaft

4.1.4 DESIGN OF LINK RECTANGULAR BAR

τ=T/(cab2)
= shear stress act on link rectangular bar (N/mm2)
C= coefficient for rectangular torsion bar=0.321
a= length of rectangular bar (mm)
b= breath of rectangular bar (mm)

29
 T= torque act on bar ( Nmm)

b = 3 25065 /(0.32110  72)

b = 4.2 mm
a =10b
a = 42 mm
Force act on piston rod =T/L
L = 210 mm
=25065/210
F =120 N

3D 2D

Fig 4.5 Design of link rod mechanism

4.1.5 DESIGN OF PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Vacuum pressure (p)= 77mm/hg (or) 0.01 N/mm2

Working pressure = atmospheric pressure - vacuum pressure

30
 = 0.1- 0.01

= 0.09 N/mm2

π (D2-d2)/4 = F/p

D= piston diameter (mm)

d= piston rod diameter (mm)

F= force act on piston rod

π (D2-d2)/4 = 120 /0.09

Assume D = 2.5 d

(2.5 d)2 – d2 = 1333.33

6.25 d2-d2 = 1333.33

5.25d2 = 1333.33

d = 16 mm

D = 2.5 d = 2.5 x 16 = 40 mm

Fig 4.6 Design of pneumatic cylinder

31
 CHAPTER - 5
METHODOLOGY OF ANALYSIS

The general steps involved in the static structural analysis of wheel cylinder with piston and cam
shaft are pre-processing, solver and post processing. The various steps in Ansys software are
given below in the Fig.5.1

Fig. 5.1 Steps of Ansys Workbench

5.1 PRE-PROCESSING
Pre-processing is the first step of static structural and transient structural analysis. Its major steps
are defining Engineering Data, creating or importing the model to be analyzed in Ansys, model
definition which includes geometry definition, model meshing

5.1.1 MATERIAL DEFINITION

The first step involved in analysis is the material definition for the model to be analyzed. The
properties to be defined for model varies depending upon the analysis to be carried on the model.
Ansys workbench offers different types of analysis to be carried out. The different types of
analysis that can be performed in Ansys Workbench is given in Fig. 5.1

32
 Fig. 5.2 Types of analysis
In the engineering data section, the material chosen for analysis is EN 8 and their properties are
defined in Ansys material definition. The type of analysis that needs to be carried on the wheel
cyli
nder
with
pist
on
and
cam
shaf
t is
stati
c
stru

33
ctural analysis.

Fig. 5.3 EN 8 properties

34
 Fig 5.4 Lab Test Report

The tensile yield strength and tensile ultimate strength that has been defined in the engineering
data are based on a tensile test that has been performed on EN 8 material.

35
5.1.2 DEFINING THE GEOMETRY
MODELLING OF WHEEL CYLINDER WITH PISTON AND CAM SHAFT
For the analysis of wheel cylinder with piston and camshaft, the 3-D model is required in
ANSYS workbench. The wheel and its dimensions are measured.
The 3-D model of the wheel cylinder is created in Creo software using the measured dimensions.
This model file is exported to ANSYS workbench and the analysis is to be carried out under
different load condition.
The model to be analyzed in ANSYS is either imported or created in the ANSYS workbench
itself. The 3-D model of wheel cylinder assembly and cam shaft are shown in Fig X.X and Fig
X.X respectively.

Fig. 5.5 Wheel cylinder assembly Fig. 5.6 Cam shaft

The exploded view of the wheel cylinder assembly has been rendered with keyshot software and
is shown in Fig. 5.6

Fig. 5.7 Wheel cylinder assembly

36
The geometry of the assembly to be analyzed is imported in IGES format by selecting the import
geometry option.

Fig. 5.8 Importing geometry in ANSYS

5.2 MESHING
In meshing the model is well divided into a small number of connected cells. The points to be
remembered for carrying out a good meshing on a 3D model are

 Create, read or import boundary meshes

 Check the quality of boundary mesh
 Improve and repair the boundary mesh
 Generate volume mesh
 Perform further refinement if required
 Inspect quality or volume mesh
 Remove silver and degenerate cells
 Save volume mesh
Meshing can be done in hyper-mesh (has higher accuracy) or in ANSYS workbench itself.
Meshing can be classified into structured mesh, unstructured mesh, hybrid mesh. Based on
dimension they are classified into 2D mesh and 3D mesh. Based on mesh quality they are
classified into coarse mesh, medium mesh and fine mesh.

37
In the ANSYS WORKBENCH, the 3D model of the wheel cylinder assembly is finely meshed.
The quality of meshing chosen here was medium mesh with an element size of 1 mm. The final
product of fine meshing of wheel cylinder assembly and cam shaft is shown in diagram.

Fig. 5.9 Mesh of Wheel cylinder Assembly Fig. 5.10 Mesh of Cam Shaft

5.2.1 MESH DETAILS:

Global mesh
Element size: 1mm
Mesh quality: Medium
Transition ratio: 0.272
Nodes: 81750(wheel cylinder assembly), 189917(cam shaft)
Elements: 45434(wheel cylinder assembly), 110921(cam shaft)

38
5.3 STATIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF WHEEL CYLINDER
ASSEMBLY
5.3.1 LOAD CONDITIONS
1) A force of 1392.5N is applied on the both the pistons individually inside the wheel cylinder
where the cam makes its contact with the pistons.

2) The wheel cylinder is constrained in all directions with the cylindrical hole provided for the
piston to actuate.

5.3.2 SOLVING
In this part the load condition according to which structure analysis is done is defined for the
wheel cylinder assembly model. The unit for the boundary condition is also assigned.

The boundary to be defined is classified according to the results and the type of analysis that is
need to be done on the wheel cylinder assembly model is also selected.

Fig. 5.10 Total deformation of Wheel cylinder Assembly

39
 Fig. 5.11 Equivalent stress of Wheel cylinder Assembly
The maximum deformation occurred is 0.002829 mm and maximum stress developed on the
piston is 94.29 MPa which is less than the yield strength of the material (440 MPa). Hence the
analysis can be concluded saying that the wheel cylinder assembly can withstand more force than
it is actually experiencing.

40
5.4 STATIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF CAM SHAFT
5.4.1 LOAD CONDITIONS

1) A force of 1392.5N is applied on the both the edges of cam individually by which it makes
contact with the piston

2) The other end of the cam shaft is constrained in all direction as it is fixed with the Link rod of
the vacuum brake system.

5.4.2 SOLVING

The procedure to solution is same as the analysis of wheel cylinder assembly. The unit for the
boundary condition is also assigned. The boundary to be defined is classified according to the
results and the type of analysis that is need to be done on the cam shaft model is also selected.

Fig 5.13 Total deformation of cam shaft

41
 Fig. 5.14 Equivalent stress of cam shaft

The maximum deformation occurred is 0.06598 mm and maximum stress developed on the
piston is 253.72 MPa which is less than the yield strength of the material (440 MPa). Hence the
analysis can be concluded saying that the wheel cylinder assembly can withstand more force than
it is actually experiencing

5.5 POST PROCESSING

In post processing, the various results that are needed for this analysis are defined in the results
cells and various results like contours, animations and reports are obtained for the 3-D model.
The various results obtained are compared with each other to arrive at a conclusion.

42
 CHAPTER -6
CALCULATION OF BRAKE PARAMETERS

6.1 DECELERATION:
Deceleration of the vehicle (f) = U2/2S

Where

U= Initial velocity of the vehicle (m/s)

f= Deceleration of the vehicle (m/s2)

velocity of the vehicle = 13.9 m/s

Therefore

For hydraulic,

Deceleration of the vehicle = 13.9/(2*11.2)

= 8.62 m/s2

For vacuum,

Deceleration of the vehicle = 13.9/ (2*10.8)

= 8.94 m/s2

6.2 LOAD DISTRIBUTION IN THE VEHICLE

Assume 55% of load acting at front axle

Therefore,

Mass of the vehicle taking consideration (m) = 800 kg

Then,

Load acting at front axle (mf) = 440 kg

Load acting at rear axle (mr) = 360 kg

43
6.3 BRAKE BALANCE
Load transfer during sudden braking of vehicle Wt = (µ × h × f × W)/ (b × g)

Where,

h= height of C.G from the ground (m)

W= Vehicle gross weight (N)

b= Wheel base (m)

Load transfer = (0.8×0.468×7.848×800×9.81)/ (1.81×9.81)

= 1298.69 N.

6.4 BRAKING FORCE ON LEVEL ROAD

Braking force= (m × f) N

Where

m= Mass of the vehicle (kg)

f= Deceleration of the vehicle (m/s2)

For hydraulic,

Average braking force= 800×8.22

= 6576 N

For vacuum,

Average braking force= 800×8.73

= 6988 N

Maximum Braking Force at front wheel (MBFf) = [(mf × g) +Wt)/2] N

= [(440×9.81) +1068.46)/2]

= 2692.43 N

Maximum Braking Force at rear wheel (MBFr) = [(mr × g)/2] N

44
 = (360×9.81)/2

= 1765.8 N

6.5 BRAKING TORQUE (LEVEL ROAD CONDITION)

Maximum Braking Torque produced at Front Wheel= (MBFf× d)/r

d= Static laden diameter of the wheel (m)

r= Speed ratio between wheel and brake (Assume r=1)

Maximum Braking Torque at front Wheel= 2692.43×0.325 = 875.04 N.m

Maximum Braking Torque produced at Rear Wheel= (MBFr× d)/r

= 1765.8×0.325

= 573.89 N.m

Overall work done to stop the Vehicle= Average braking force × stopping distance

= 6278.4×12.29

= 77.16 kN.m

6.6 BRAKE EFFICIENCY

Brake efficiency of the vehicle= Brake force/ Vehicle weight

For hydraulic,

Brake Efficiency = 6896 / 800

= 87.8%

For vacuum,

Brake Efficiency = 7155 / 800

= 91.16%

45
6.7 HEAT GENERATION IN BRAKE DRUM (LEVEL ROAD
CONDITION)

Assume the vehicle speed= 13.89 m/s (50 kmph)

Heat generation at Front wheel drum= (MBFf × v × 60)/1000 Kj/min

Where,

v= velocity of the vehicle (m/s)

Assume velocity of vehicle = 13.89 m/s (50 kmph)

Heat generation at front wheel drum = (2692.43×13.89×60)/ 1000

= 2243.87 kJ/min

Heat generation at rear wheel drum= ([MBFr-(Wt/2)] × v × 60)/1000 Kj/min

= ([1765.8-(601.01/2)]×13.89×60)/1000

= (1231.57×13.89×60)/1000

= 1026.39 kJ/min.

6.8 MEAN LINING PRESSURE (LEVEL ROAD CONDITION)

Mean lining pressure developed in the brake shoe= (180×F×R)/ (8 × π × µ × r2 × w × α) N/m2

Where,

F= Braking force (N)

R= Effective wheel radius (m)

r= Radius of the brake drum (m)

w= Brake lining width (m)

α= Contact angle of each lining (Degrees)

46
Therefore

Mean lining pressure at front wheel = (180×2692.43× [0.325/2]) /

(8×π×0.8×0.115×0.115×0.04×105)

= 70.52 kN/m2

Mean lining pressure at rear wheel = (180×1765.8× [0.325/2]) /

(8×π×0.8×0.115×0.115×.04×105)

= 46.25 kN/m2

6.9 MAXIMUM SLOPE CONDITIONS

The three possible conditions arise while travelling in the slope road is

 Case A (Brakes applied to rear wheels only)

 Case B (Brakes applied to front wheels only)
 Case C (Brakes applied to all the wheels)
Maximum gradient vehicle moving down (θ) = 30 Degrees

Perpendicular distance of C.G from rear axle (l) = 0.99 m

Case A:

Brake force at front wheels = µRf (N)

Brake force at rear wheels = µRr (N)

Normal reaction between

Front wheels and ground (Rf) = {([l+µh] × cosθ)/ (b+µh)} × W (N)

Normal reaction between

Rear wheels and ground (Rr) = {([b-l] × cosθ)/ (b+µh)} × W (N)

Normal reaction

At front wheels = [(0.99 + (0.8×0.468))× cos30]/(1.81+(0.8×0.468)) x800x 9.81

= 4245.21 N

47
Normal reaction At Rear wheels =

[(1.81-0.99) × cos 30] / (1.81+(0.8×0.468))x800x9.81]

= 2551.36 N

Total brake force at front wheel = µRf

= 0.8×4245.21

= 3396.16 N

Total brake force at rear wheel = µRr

= 0.8×2551.36

= 2041.09 N

Case B:

Brake force at front wheels = µRf (N)

Brake force at rear wheels = µRr (N)

Normal reaction between

Rear wheels and ground (Rr) = {([b-l- µh] × cosθ)/ (b-µh)} × W (N)

Normal reaction between

Front wheels and ground (Rf) = {(l ×cosθ)/ (b-µh)} × W (N)

Normal reaction at Rear wheels = [(1.81-0.99-(0.8×0.468)) ×

cos30]/(1.81-(0.8×0.468))x800×9.81]

= 2109.6 N

Normal reaction at front wheels = [0.99×cos 30] / (1.81-(0.8×0.468))×800×9.81]

= 4686.96 N

Total brake force at front wheel = µRf

= 0.8×4686.96

48
 = 3749.57 N

Total brake force at rear wheel = µRr

= 0.8× 2109.6

= 1687.68 N

CASE C:

Brake force at front wheels = µRf (N)

Brake force at rear wheels = µRr (N)

Normal reaction between

Front wheels and ground (Rf) = {([l+µh] × cosθ)/ b} × W (N)

Normal reaction between rear wheels and ground (Rr) = {([b-l- µh] × cosθ)/ b} × W N

Normal reaction at front wheels = {[(0.99+(0.8×0.468)) × cos 30]/1.81}×800×9.81

= 5123.34 N

Normal reaction at

Rear wheels = [(1.81-0.99-(0.8×0.468)) × cos 30×800×9.81]/1.81

= 1673.23 N

Total brake force at front wheel = µRf

= 0.8×5123.34

= 4098.67 N

Total brake force at rear wheel = µRr

= 0.8× 1673.23

= 1338.58 N

49
6.10 CURVED PATH CONDITIONS

Assume the radius of the curve = 50 m

Velocity of the vehicle at given curve = 11.11 m/s (40 kmph)

Centrifugal force acting on the vehicle = (W×V2) / (g × C) N

Where,

W= weight of the vehicle (N)

V= velocity of the vehicle in the curve (m/s)

g= acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)

C= radius of the curve

Centrifugal force acting on the vehicle (Cf) = (800×9.81×11.112) / (9.81×50)

= 1974.91 N

Centrifugal force shared by front wheels = (l/b) × Cf N

= (0.99/1.81) ×1974.91
= 1080.19 N

Centrifugal force shared by rear wheels = (b-l)/b× Cf N

= [(1.81-0.99)/1.81] ×1974.91

= 894.71 N

Total braking force acting at front wheel = Load transfer + [(Cf) Front/2]

= 1068.46+ (1080.19/2)

= 1608.55 N

Total braking force acting at rear wheel = Load transfer+ [(Cf) Rear/2]

= 1068.46 + [894.71/2)

50
 = 1515.81 N

6.11 TABLES
AND Speed GRAPHS:
Stopping Distance
(Km/hr)
6.11.1 Stopping
Hydraulic Vacuum
distance (m) (m) (Hydraulic,
vacuum) vs. 20 2.1 1.9 Speed
30 4.4 4.1
40 7.4 7.15
50 11.2 10.8
60 15.7 14.8

20
STOPPING DISTANCE (m)

15

10
HYDRAULIC

5 VACUUM

0
10 20 30 40 50 60
SPEED (km/hr)

Fig 6.1 Stopping Distance vs Speed

51
In the Fig 6.1 Stopping distance is along Y-axis and Speed is along X-axis. The stopping
distance is lower in vacuum brake system than hydraulic brake system for the respective speed of
the vehicle.

6.11.2 Deceleration (Hydraulic, vacuum) vs. Speed

Speed Deceleration
(km/hr) Hydraulic Vacuum
(m/s) (m/s)
20 7.46 8.25
30 7.82 8.40
40 8.32 8.67
50 8.62 8.94
60 8.88 9.42

10

8
DECELRATION (m/s2)

6
HYDRAULIC
4
VACUUM
2

0
10 20 30 40 50 60
SPEED (km/hr)

Fig 6.2 Deceleration vs speed

52
In the Fig 6.2 Deceleration is along Y-axis and Speed is along X-axis. The Deceleration is higher
in vacuum brake system than hydraulic brake system for the respective speed of the vehicle.

6.11.3 Vehicle braking force (Hydraulic, vacuum) vs. Speed

Speed Vehicle Brake Force

(km/hr) Hydraulic Vacuum
(N) (N)
20 5968 6600
30 6256 6720
40 6656 6936
50 6896 7155
60 7104 7536

53
 8000
7000
6000
BRAKE FORCE (N)

5000
4000
HYDRAULIC
3000 VACUUM
2000
1000
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
SPEED (km/hr)

Fig 6.3 vehicle Brake force vs speed

In the Fig 6.3 Brake force is along Y-axis and Speed is along X-axis. The Brake force is higher
in vacuum brake system than hydraulic brake system for the respective speed of the vehicle.

6.11.4 Overall braking efficiency (Hydraulic, vacuum) vs. Speed

Speed Brake Efficiency

(km/hr) Hydraulic Vacuum
(%) (%)
20 76.04 84.06
30 79.72 85.62
40 84.10 88.37
50 87.83 91.16

54
 60 90.5 96.02

100
VEHICLE BRAKE EFFICIENCY (%)

80

60
HYDRAULIC
40
VACUUM
20

0
10 20 30 40 50 60
SPEED (km/hr)

Fig 6.4 Vehicle brake efficiency vs speed

In the Fig 6.4 Vehicle brake efficiency is along Y-axis and Speed is along X-axis. The vehicle
brake efficiency is lower in vacuum brake system than hydraulic brake system for the respective
speed of the vehicle.

CHAPTER 7
DYNAMOMETER TEST

7.1 TESTING EQUIPMENT

Software used - pro-line brake tester
Roller speed - 15km/hr

55
Error - ±0.5%
Max acceptable load - 30,000 N

Fig 7.1 Testing equipment

7.2 TESTING PROCEDURE

The procedure for vacuum brake testing is as follows:

First the front axle of the vehicle is weighted using weighing sensors. Then the vehicle is moved
to the dynamometer rollers where it is tested for various values such as braking time, braking
force and out of balance from which the braking efficiencies can be calculated manually. The

56
 TEST VEHICLE

REAR WHEEL

ROLLER

Fig 7.2 Dynamometer

dynamometer rollers have a constant speed of 15 km per hour. As the vehicle wheels starts roll
on the dynamometer roller the driver applies the brake gradually. As the braking limit reaches
maximum value the wheels are locked after which the software takes the readings from the
dynamometer and calculates various values. To give the braking force on both wheels, out of
balance, braking time. And the software also shows the graph between braking force and the
time.

57
 Fig 7.3 Dynamometer result layout
Then the rear axle is weighed and moved to the roller setup to carry out the brake test, after
which the software gets the value and gives the result of brake parameters.

7.3 TEST OUTPUTS

 BRAKING FORCE
 OUT OF BALANCE
 BRAKING TIME

58
7.3.1 VACCUM BRAKE TEST RESULT:
Fig 7.4 brake force and out of balance result (vacuum brake system)

Fig 7.5 Brake force Vs time (vacuum brake system)

7.3.2 HYDRAULIC BRAKE TEST RESULT:

59
 Fig7.6 brake force and out of balance result (hydraulic brake system)

Fig 7.7 Force (vs) time graph (hydraulic brake system)

7.4 BRAKE FORCE AT REAR AXLE

At 15 Km/hr:

60
For vacuum = 2700 N
For hydraulic = 2520 N

7.5 BRAKING TIME

From dynamometer test result
For vacuum = 7.8 s
For hydraulic =9.8 s

7.6 BRAKE EFFICIENCY

Brake efficiency = Braking force / Rear axle weight
For vacuum,
Brake efficiency = 2700 / 330
= 83.4%
For hydraulic,
Brake efficiency = 2520 / 330
= 77.8%
Therefore, the braking efficiency is high in vacuum than hydraulic braking system

7.7 TABLE AND GRAPH:

7.7.1 Brake parameters for hydraulic and vacuum brake system
PARAMETERS HYDRAULIC VACUUM
Time (sec) 9.8 7.8
Force (N) 2520 2700
Brake Efficiency (%) 77.8 83.4

61
 3000
2500
2000
BRAKE FORCE(N)

1500
HYDRAULIC
1000 VACUUM
500
0
15Km/hr
SPEED (km/hr)

Fig 7.8 Brake force Vs speed

12
10
BRAKING TIME (Sec)

8
6
HYDRAULIC
4
VACUUM
2
0
15km/hr
SPEED (km/hr)

Fig 7.9 Braking time Vs speed

62
 100
BRAKE EFFICIENCY (%)
80

60
HYDRAULIC
40
VACUUM
20

0
15KM/HR
SPEED (km/hr)

Fig 7.10 Brake efficiency Vs speed

In the fig.7.8, 7.9 and 7.10 the brake force, braking time and brake efficiency from dynamometer
test at 15km/hr are observed to be better in vacuum brake system than hydraulic brake system.

63
 CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
The detailed study on the vacuum brakes system has been done. From the calculations based on
the brake tests performed on road and dynamometer, various parameters like deceleration,
stopping distance, brake efficiency, brake force are known to be better in vacuum brake system
than hydraulic brake system.
Further, the results of static structural analysis performed with ANSYS software shows that the
material EN 8 material with which the camshaft, wheel cylinder assembly has been
manufactured was found to be reliable and can withstand more force than it is actually
experiencing. Further, the air from the compressor can be used for any other auxiliary systems
like tire inflation system, Air impact wrench, etc. Hence it can be concluded that vacuum brakes
can be a good alternate to current generation hydraulic brake system.

64
 REFERENCES

1. Allan Bonich and Derek Newbold (2000) “A practical approach to Motor

Vehicle Engineering and Maintenance”.

2. Antony L. Adams and Richardson (1974) “Vacuum Braking System for

Semiconductor Wafers”.

3. Cheng and Chi-Neng (2005) “Design and Control for The Pneumatic Cylinder

Precision Positioning Under Vertical Loading”.

4. Currie, J.R.L. (1971). The Runaway Train: Armagh 1889. Newton Abbot:

David & Charles. pp. 109.

5. Echart Rudigerand Hermann Bauer (1989) “Vacuum braking force booster”.

6. Gary Chris Fulkset al (2000) “Vacuum assist unit for vehicle booster”.

7. Giri N.K (2000) “Automobile Technology”.

8. Y.khan, P.kulkarni and k.Youcef-Toumi at (1994) “Modeling,

Experimentation and Simulation of a Brake Apply System”.

9. J. Dyn. Sys. Meas.,at (1994) “Brake System Modeling for Simulation and

Control”

65