CIV 4204: ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Course outline
o Introduction and definitions
o Environmental policies and guidelines (water and effluent discharge standards)
o Environmental impact analysis
o Environmental monitoring of construction works
o Water pollution control
o Waste load allocations
o Air pollution control
o Noise pollution
o WETLANDS PROTECTION
o Control of land/soil pollution

9: WETLANDS PROTECTION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.1.1 What are wetlands?
Wetlands are a major feature of the landscape in almost all parts of the world. Wetlands are diverse in type,
extent and distribution, and range from swamps, marshes, mires, fens, and other wet ecosystems such as swamp
forests.

Wetlands normally develop near water bodies and their demarcation not easily made because
They are found along a continuous gradient from well-defined uplands to open water (Fig. 9.1)
Wetlands are often found on the margins between these ecosystems and so they exhibit some of the
characteristics of each
They show great variation in hydrologic conditions, size, location, vegetation and human influence
(Fig. 9.2).

Fig. 9.1 A typical wetland (Source: www.ducks.ca)

9.1.2 Examples of wetland definitions

The international definition adopted by the Convention on Wetlands of International importance especially as
water habitat (Ramsar Convention, Ramsar, Iran, 1971) is:

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 Areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water
that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salt including areas of marine water, the depth of which at
low tide does not exceed 6 metres.

Uganda ratified the Ramsar Convention in 1988.

The working definition of “Uganda wetland”, derived at a strategic planning meeting of the National Wetlands
Conservation and Management Programme is:
An area of land which supports/holds/keeps water for long enough so as to develop
characteristic/typical plants, soils and animals.

In Kenya, the National Wetlands Standing Committee has developed a definition for wetlands as;
Areas of land that are permanently, seasonally, or occasionally waterlogged with fresh, saline, brackish
or marine waters, including both natural and man made areas that support characteristic biota.

9.1.3 Distinguishing features of wetlands:

Wetlands are distinguished by the following features
The presence of water, either at the surface or within the root zone
Often, unique soil conditions that differ from adjacent uplands
A variety of plants adapted to the water saturated conditions. Conversely, flood-intolerant vegetation is
absent
In many, the accumulation of organic materials that decompose (break down) slowly

Fig. 9.2 Wetland variety (Source: www.livingplanetcommunity.org)

9.2 TYPES OF WETLANDS

Types of wetlands include
1) Riverine: mainly vegetated slowly moving edges of rivers and streams
2) Flood plains: result from an overflow from a river channel
3) Freshwater lakes: range from fresh to sodic lakes all of which are characterized by fringing vegetation
4) Salt lakes: include all the non-fresh water lakes of the rift valley most of which are permanent, but which
have varying depths and areas
5) Fresh water swamps: characterized by emergent vegetation of more than one metre tall
6) Marshes: characterized by emergent vegetation of less than one metre tall and often consist of grasses and
sedges
7) Seasonally flooded grasslands: occur either as pans or other flat areas where wetland grasses grow in those
seasons when runoff inundates the wetland
8) Peat lands/Alpine wetlands: occur in high altitude areas which experience low temperatures. They are
dominated by short plants like sphagnum moss
9) Man-made wetlands: include watery environments such as marine or freshwater fish ponds

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9.2 FORMATION OF WETLANDS
9.2.1 Wetland formation
Wetlands are formed when, in the hydrological cycle, water comes into a place through rainfall or a river and
for some reason it does not flow out as quickly as it comes. The water speed slows down, and the area develops
special characteristic features if there is impeded drainage due to landscape (e.g. flat relief) and soil type (e.g.
rock or impermeable soils). The slowed water movement leads to anoxia, and accumulation of aquatic
vegetation to which further impedes flow.

Conditions necessary to create a wetland include:

a slope or depression that permits the retention of water at, or very close, to the earth’s surface
a perennial or seasonal supply of water

Formation of wetlands is varied and this accounts for the different forms and types, e.g. riverine wetland,
lakeshore wetlands formed at the mouth of rivers or in bays, floodplains formed from rivers cutting across low-
lying areas; dambos or pan wetlands formed in depressions without inlets or outlets. In all cases, drainage is
impeded, allowing for a place to be wet enough and, with time, development of specially adapted organisms
occurs.

9.2.2 Wetland dynamics

Wetlands are dynamic landforms which vary in time and space. Those in Uganda can be regarded as young and
unstable in terms of the geological scale. The age of many is related to the formation of Lake Victoria perhaps
only 25,000 to 35,000 years ago. Deposition of sediments is a normal feature of wetlands: as water flow slows
down, carried particles settle to the bottom. Then other vegetation, e.g. Miscanthus and Papyrus, start growing
on them. The rate of change of wetlands is regulated by climatic and environmental factors such as water
balance, rates of sedimentation, nutrient availability and temperature. Wetlands management must take into
account these natural changes.

9.3 WETLANDS IN UGANDA

9.3.1 Extent and distribution of wetlands in Uganda
Wetlands cover about 13% of the total land area of Uganda including areas of permanent flood, but excluding
open waters. The wetlands are comprised of areas with impeded drainage (20,400km2), swamp forest (365km2),
and swamps (8,800km2). River reversal was especially prevalent in the central region, resulting in many
swamp-choked valleys. Floodplain formation is more common in the north-west and east of the country. The
largest wetlands are associated with lakes such as Victoria and Kyoga, but many small wetlands are found
throughout the country. Most of the wetlands are outside protected areas. This wide distribution of wetlands has
led to an important human consequence in that a large portion of the population has access to the wetlands,
resulting in their degradation.

9.3.2 Wetland diversity

Uganda is home to a great variety of wetlands. They are found on the floor of the Rift Valley, for example on
the shores of Lake George, to altitudes above 4000 metres in the Rwenzori Mountains. Size varies from less
than 1ha to the vast fringing wetlands of Lake Victoria. Wetlands occur on many soil types, including sand,
clays and peat. Papyrus swamp (Fig. 9.3) is the most common type of wetland in Uganda, but there are many
others – even swamp forests.

Factors influencing wetland type include

i. The period of flood (hydroperiod)
ii. The depth of water
iii. Altitude
iv. Soil type
v. Fertility of adjacent soils and incoming water
vi. Other environmental factors, including the effects of humans

Fig. 9.3 Papyrus wetland

(Source: www.people.ifm.liu.se)

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9.4 FUNCTIONS OF WETLANDS
9.4.1 Ecological functions
1. Ground water recharge and discharge
Wetlands play an important role in replenishing or “recharging” ground water supplies. Surface water bodies
connected to ground water systems can recharge these systems as the water moves and percolates into the
surrounding rocks or soil layers. Such wetland recharge areas serve an important role in maintaining ground
water levels at the local or regional level.

The potential for the wetland to serve as a ground water recharge or discharge site depends on its position
relative to the water table. Water tables can fluctuate with seasonal climate variations. Some wetlands can be
recharge areas during drier months of the year and during the wetter months become discharge areas. The
following wetland features are important in order for the wetland to act as a recharge area: water permanence,
nature of soils, the type and amount of vegetation.

2. Flood control
Wetlands can control floods passing through them by checking flood energy and slowing the water flow – using
the wetland plants. Many land depressions contain wetlands and thus perform a flood control function.
Characteristics important for wetlands to perform a flood control function are:
Size: the larger the wetland, the more area is provided for flood storage and reduction of speed of flow
of water
Location within the drainage basin
Nature and amount of vegetation, especially emergent reeds and papyrus

Although it is possible for an isolated wetland to perform a significant flood control function, effective flood
control is more often the result of the interrelationship of a series of wetlands within a particular watershed.

Whenever uncontrolled floods occur, there is damage to both crops and human settlement.

3. Sediment retention
Materials or soils eroded from the surrounding catchment by rivers or surface runoff can be trapped in wetland.
The wetlands capacity to retain sediment leads to creation of arable land within the wetland areas, and protects
the downstream economic activities from siltation. Economic activities include farms, and dams, or even rivers
and lakes.

4. Water Quality
Wetlands are important in maintaining the water quality by acting as filters to remove pollutants and sediments
from moving water. Water changes as it passes through wetlands because of the following; as the water enters
the wetland, the velocity of the water reduces; organic substances are decomposed by microorganisms;
metabolic activities of plants and animals; photosynthesis; and sediment binding of particles.

5. Wastewater treatment
Wetlands, natural or man-made (constructed, see Fig. 9.4), can play a big role in treatment of wastewater. Such
a function depends on the high rates of primary productivity of wetland plants; high rates of sedimentation and
accumulation of sediments and pollutants are readily absorbed by mineral and organic sediments; anaerobic
conditions in the bottom sediments permit the conversion of soluble forms of heavy metals to insoluble forms,
and the elimination of nitrogen through denitrification; high populations of decomposers, which convert
pollutants to harmless forms. However, the diversity of wetland types helps in fulfilling the function of
wastewater treatment.

a) Toxic substances
Heavy metals and various kinds of pesticides are examples of toxic substances that are introduced into wetlands
through natural or artificial means. Through chemical and/or biological processes of various kinds many of
these substances are changed to harmless non-toxic state.

b) Nutrients
Nitrogen and phosphorus introduced in water bodies degrade water quality and promote algal blooms.
Agricultural and urban runoff and wastewater are the primary sources of high concentrations of dissolved

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nitrogen and phosphorus. Phosphorus is removed by plant uptake during the growing season, and by several
chemical absorption and precipitation reactions at the sediment/water interface.

Nitrogen is removed from water through the nitrification/denitrification process. Nitrification and denitrification
occur at the water/substrate interface where bacteria are attached. Nitrification occurs in the aerobic zones
where oxygen is present while denitrification occurs in an anaerobic zone found in anoxic bottom sediments
and detritus layers.

Fig. 9.4 Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment and mitigation

(Sources: www.growseed.org, www.fairfieldcity.nsw.gov.au, www.wetlandmitigationinc.com )

Therefore wetlands function in various degrees as nutrient traps. They are capable of improving water quality
through the removal of nutrients from runoff waters. Wetland efficiency in this regard varies with many factors
including: vegetative characteristics, geographic location, nature of substance, size of wetland, water chemistry,
temperature and acidity/alkalinity.

6. Wildlife habitats and centres of biological diversity

Wetlands provide habitats for a variety of plants and animals. Many wetland plants are adapted to water-logged
conditions in wetlands and thrive there and nowhere else. Some animals are completely dependent on wetlands
for food, protection from weather and/or predators, resting areas, reproductive materials or sites, molting
grounds and other life requirements. Other animal species use wetlands for only part of their life functions.
Some species spend their entire life within a particular wetland, while others are resident only during a
particular period in their lifecycle or during the year of travel from wetland to wetland. Some animals use
wetland habitat throughout their lives but reside in deep water or upland.

9.4.2 Socio-economic function

These are values or functions that people or communities derive from the wetland, and they include;
1. Wetland plant resources
These are directly harvested for a number of products – fuel wood, timber, bark and building materials being
the most common wood products; medicines, papyrus and reed products being common non-woody wetland
plant products. Some of these products are marketed, and then the market price serves as a measure of its value.

2. Wildlife resources
Wetlands provide habitats for a wide range of animals and plants (e.g. antelopes, birds). These animals or their
products are either hunted (e.g. for meat, skins, etc.) or gathered (e.g. honey from bees, birds’ eggs, etc.). Like
all harvested resources they have a commercial value, but are also consumed or used by the household, e.g.
game/wild meat, honey and eggs.

3. Fisheries
Swamp fishing provides a potentially large catch of Clarias (catfish) and Protopterus (lungfish) as well as an
abundance of smaller Haplochromis (nkegye). The importance and potential of swamps as valuable fisheries
resources cannot be underestimated, especially considering that a range of fishes such as catfish and lungfish
inhabit swampy areas. Swamps contribute a lot of to open water fisheries of the lakes since they are important
breeding grounds for some fish species including tilapia. Swamps provide the most suitable areas for fish
farming.

Among other socio-economic functions are;

Forage resources (grasses, wild foods)
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 Agricultural resources (rice, yams, palm products)
Water supply (direct or via a borehole)
Energy resources (wood fuel)
Craft materials

9.5 WETLAND CONSERVATION

9.5.1 Traditional conservation
The traditional reason for wetland conservation was for preservation of the habitat for unique, rare or
endangered flora and fauna. However, wetlands support a wide range of biological, hydrological, chemical and
physical processes which result in ecosystem functioning and the provision of valuable goods or services
significant for:
1) Welfare of wildlife and maintenance of the gene pool
2) Direct and indirect human use
3) Environmental maintenance and quality

9.5.2 Wise use of wetlands

The wise use of wetlands is the sustainable utilization of wetlands for the benefit of human kind while
maintaining natural properties of the ecosystem.

The wise use of wetlands requires thorough knowledge of how they function and interact with the environment,
and what particular goods and services they provide. Other requirements include:
Identification of wetland functions and values
Integration of compatible uses where possible
Separation of incompatible uses
Zoning and environmental planning
Catchment management
Appropriate employment/social/economic strategies to relieve the ecosystem from damaging human
pressures

9.5.2 Wetland management in Uganda

In Uganda, the major threats to wetlands are mainly due to human activities. A summary of these activities is
given in Table 9.1 below:

Table 9.1: Human activities which affect wetlands in Uganda

Activity Problems caused by this use
Drainage Abstraction of water results in a net decrease in the water table, and inadequate recharge of streams and
springs. This has occurred especially in the valley wetlands around Bushenyi and Kabale. Agricultural
encroachment of areas with shallow water to grow sugarcane, yams, sweet potatoes, etc. has affected large
areas of wetlands in Iganga and Pallisa
Grazing Repeated and extensive burning of grasses every year to allow for growth of fresh vegetation for pasture (and
to facilitate hunting) leads to changes in the ecological character of wetlands
Brick-making Removal of soil and creation of water pools that may lead to spread of diseases like malaria and bilharzias. This
also causes lowering of the water table and changes the ecological character of the wetland
Cutting of At present most papyrus harvesting is not sustainable because of repeated harvests at short intervals. Cutting
vegetation of swamp forests for wood and other crafts products is a serious problem in some districts like Mukono and
Mpigi
Swamp fires Deliberate swamp fires to encourage regeneration of papyrus may change the natural swamp ecosystem
Rice-growing Has created large areas of monoculture, which among other things has attracted bird pests. Rapid decline of
fertility because of poor management practices where rice is harvested and the straw is burnt
Sewage This mainly applies to town treatment works: a wetland used for the purpose of effluent stripping must be
treatment prevented from silting up or accumulating toxic metal waste. Waste water and effluent, and runoff from
agricultural fields and mines carry nutrients, metals, pesticide, etc. which may affect the wetland ecosystem and
that of the open waters beyond
Solid waste Some wetlands close to towns and markets are affected by illegal dumping of garbage, e.g. around Kampala
dumping and Iganga
Hunting of While not a direct threat to wetlands, there is a dramatic reduction in populations of antelopes and birds
antelope and especially the sitatunga antelope and shoebill storks due to hunting. Although this activity is regulated by the
birds Game department, enforcement is inadequate
Sources: The National Environmental Action Plan for Uganda, 1995; NEMA State of the Environment Report for Uganda 2000/2001

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Some major problems faced in widely adopting the wise use of wetlands include the following;
Current knowledge is biased towards the developed world, and the data available on Ugandan wetlands
is scanty and inadequate. A wetlands inventory was started in 1993 and completed in 2000. The
National Biomass Study mapped land cover including wetlands in 1994.
Wetlands are extremely diverse, they do not all perform the same functions
Measurement of inherent wetland values generally lacks common scale
The driving force for maintaining wetlands often from outside immediate area
There is unregulated and unplanned fisheries development
Some policies encourage wetlands drainage and conversion to unsustainable uses
The vaguely defined ownership of wetlands under all land tenure systems is an issue
Some developers are undertaking unscrupulous activities

Uganda is a signatory to several international conventions and agreements relevant to wetland conservation
including the Conservation on Biodiversity, World Heritage Convention, Ramsar Convention, etc.

In 1986, Uganda declared a ban on large-scale drainage of wetlands. The National Wetlands Programme
(started in 1989) has since developed Guidelines for National Compliance Monitoring of Wetlands. It has
also developed General Guidelines for Wetlands Management, Fish Farming in Seasonal Wetlands, Sand and
Clay Mining in Wetlands, and Rehabilitation of Sand and Clay Mining Areas.

According to the 2002 NEMA State of the Environment Report for Uganda, the management of wetlands in
Uganda falls under several relevant policies and laws including the Constitution (1995), the National
Environment Statute (1995), Wetlands Policy (1995), Water Statute (1995), the Land Act (1998), and the
National Environment Regulations (2000). Uganda wetlands regulations drafted by NEMA came into force in
2000.

The Wetlands Inspection Division (WID) under the Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment is implementing
the Uganda National Wetlands Conservation and Management Programme – working in collaboration with
several agencies and institutions to assist the government in developing policies and guidelines for conservation
and sustainable management of the nation’s wetlands, and to acquire the technical capacity to do so. The WID
is the lead agency for wetlands, and reviews all EIA documents relating to developments in wetlands.

Conservation and management of wetlands is decentralised under the local governments. In 2001 all wetlands
activities were brought under the Wetland Sector Strategic Plan. The WID guides local governments in
planning and budgeting for wetlands based on this Plan. Routine monitoring of wetlands by the WID is done
during field trips, community meetings, or receiving information from local leaders on the status of their
wetlands. This information forms part of the district State of the Environment Reports.

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