Algebra Textbook

8TH
GRADE ALGEBRA:
at CMS 2016-2017
A Common Core State Standards Textbook
By Mr. Bright and Ms. Hittinger
Brain Image courtesy of Master Isolated Images at http://www.freedigitalphotos.net
©2016 Any part of this document may be freely modified, copied or distributed in any way as long as you
claim ownership of your modifications and continue to provide the resources without cost.
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Table of Contents
Unit 1: Functions Unit 5: Polynomials and Quadratics
1.1 Defining Functions 5.1 Polynomial Functions
1.2 Graphing Functions 5.2 Polynomial Operations
1.3 Rate of Change and Initial Values 5.3 Graphing Quadratics
1.4 Other Function Qualities 5.4 Factoring for Zeros
1.5 Contextualizing Function Qualities 5.5 Completing the Square for the Vertex
1.6 Sketching a Piecewise Function 5.6 Transforming Quadratics
Unit 2: Linear Functions Unit 6: Solving with Quadratics

2.1 Transforming Linear Functions 6.1 Solving Quadratic Equations
2.2 Contextualizing Linear Functions 6.2 The Quadratic Formula
2.3 Comparing Linear Functions 6.3 Creating and Comparing Quadratics
2.4 Solving Linear Equations 6.4 Solving Systems with Quadratics
2.5 Infinite and No Solutions 6.5 One-Variable Quadratic Inequalities
2.6 Inverse Linear Functions 6.6 Two-Variable Quadratic Inequalities
2.7 Linear Inequalities
Unit 7: Pythagorean Theorem

Unit 3: Systems of Linear Equations 7.1 Pythagorean Theorem and Converse
3.1 Solving Systems via Graphing 7.2 2D Applications
3.2 Solving Systems via Substitution 7.3 3D Applications
3.3 Solving Systems via Elimination 7.4 The Distance Formula
3.4 Solving Systems via Inspection
3.5 Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities
Unit 8: Piecewise Functions
8.1 Absolute Value Functions
Unit 4: Exponential Functions 8.2 Step Functions
4.0 Exponent Property Review 8.3 Other Piecewise Functions
4.1 Rational Exponents
4.2 Exponential Functions
4.3 Transforming Exponential Functions Unit 9: Descriptive Statistics
4.4 Solving Exponential Functions 9.1 Representing Univariate Data
4.5 Comparing Exponential Functions 9.2 Analyzing Univariate Data
9.3 Representing Bivariate Data
9.4 Analyzing Bivariate Data
9.5 Functions of Best Fit
9.6 Two-Way Tables
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How to Use the Book
The two primary purposes for this book are to be a resource for understanding and a single place for
homework assignments. As a resource, you should read the sections in the book that you have a hard time
understanding in class. This book won’t replace the instruction that you receive from your teacher, but it should
supplement that instruction. That means it should help you understand better if you actually read through the
examples and think about what is being said.
As a place for homework assignments, this book puts all the homework directly after the explanation of
each section. Since you can write in this book directly, you are welcome to do your homework right in this book if
you have room to show your work. You will probably end up using a separate sheet of paper to do homework on
concepts like solving equations, but most units you’ll have room to do the homework in this book.
Included as a homework assignment are unit pre-tests. These pre-tests should be completed at the start
of each unit so that your teacher can really zero in on what specific skills you still need help with and what skills you
already have mastered. After that you should work on correcting the pre-test which acts like a study guide for the
post-test (or end of the unit test). Use the pre-test to help you study.
Please take care of this book as the construction is basic in nature in order to keep the costs down and allow
you to write in it. This is your book and only yours. It will not be passed on to students next year. However, if you
lose this book, you will be asked to pay for a replacement. Please treat this book gently and with respect.
If along the way, you notice any errors, please let your teacher know so that the error can be corrected for
next year’s students. We need your help to make this book better and better. Thank you in advance and enjoy!
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Unit 1: Functions
1.1 Defining Functions
1.2 Graphing Functions
1.3 Rate of Change and Initial Values
1.4 Other Function Qualities
1.5 Contextualizing Function Qualities
1.6 Sketching a Piecewise Function
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Pre-Test Unit 1: Functions
No calculator necessary. Please do not use a calculator.
Determine if each of the following is a function or not. Explain how you know. (4 pts; 2 pts for answer,
2 pts for explanation)
1. 2.
2 1 0 1 2
4 1 0 1 4
3. Input: Type of an individual bird (robin, finch, etc.) 4.

Output: That bird’s exact weight
5. 1, 3, 9, 27, 81 … 6. Give an example of a function in words explaining the

input, output, domain, range and how you know it is a
function.
Give the domain and the range of the following functions. (4 pts; 2 pts for each)
7. 4 7 8. Input: Teenager’s identity

Output: Weekly allowance as of today
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Given the functions and evaluate the following. (4 pts; 2 pts for correct input,
2 pts for correct answer)
9. 3 10. 2
Graph the following functions by filling out the / chart using inputs ( values) that you think are appropriate.
(4 pts; 1 pt for appropriate values, 1 pt for correct table, 2 pts for graph following table)

11. 2 12. 1

Answer the following questions using the given function showing the value of an investment in ten thousands of
dollars ( ) based on the number of years from this year (). (4 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
13. What does the point on the graph represent?

14. Based on the graph, what is causing the value of the
investment to decrease and how do you know?
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Calculate/estimate the average rate of change and the initial value over the interval !, " for each function.
(4 pts; 2 pts for each)
15. 16. 3
17. A banker has been gaining $2,000 per year on an investment and expects to do the same the next few years.
The banker’s investment currently has a value of $18,000. Think of the function that shows how much money the
investment is worth based on how many years it has been since this year.
18.
4 2 0 2 4
7 4 1 2 5
For the following functions tell whether they are linear or non-linear, give the domain where they are increasing
and where they are decreasing, and then give the max or min of the function.
(4 pts; 1 pt for linear/non-linear, 2 pts for increasing/decreasing domain, 1 pt for max/min)

19. % 3 20. 3 5
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Use the following graph showing a function modeling the miles per gallon (&) a car gets in terms of its speed
(') to answer the questions. (4 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
21. What appears to be the best mileage this car will get and at
what speed does it occur?
Mileage in mpg
&
22. What are all the possible speeds this car can drive at?
23. What are all the possible mileages this car can get?
Speed in mph
'
Determine which graph matches the story and explain why. (5 pts; 2 pts for correct answer with no explanation)
24. I started to walk to class, but I realized I had forgotten my notebook, so I went back to my locker and then I
went quickly at a constant rate to class.
Sketch a graph modeling a function for the following situations. (5 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
25. A dog is sleeping when he hears the cat “meow” in the next room.
He quickly runs to the next room where he slowly walks around looking
for the cat. When he doesn’t find the cat, he sits down and goes back
to sleep. Sketch a graph of a function of the dog’s speed in terms of
time.
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1.1 Defining Functions
Functions govern many interactions in our society today. Whether buying a cup of coffee at the local coffee
shop or playing a video game, we are using a function in some fashion.
Definition of a Function
A function is a rule or relationship between two quantities, often referred to as the input and output, such
that for every input there is exactly one output. If we input a specific value into the function, we get a specific
output as an answer. We won’t get the possibility of two answers or else it wouldn’t be a function. The most
common example of a function is an equation such as:
2 + 3
In this case, is the input and is the output. If we substitute a value for , say = 3, then we will get an
answer for , namely = 9, as the output. Notice that every time we input = 3 you will get the output of = 9.
Since we always get only a single output for any value we input, this is a true function.
An example of an equation that is not a function would be = . Notice that if we input = 4, then =
2 could be the output or = −2 could be the output. Therefore this is not a true function unless we make the
function = √ where we take only the principal (or positive) square root.
Function Notation
Functions represented by equations have a different notation. We are used to an equation looking like this:
= 2 + 3. However, from this point forward function equations will be written as follows:
= 2 + 3
We would say that is a function of such that if you input , you will output 2 + 3. The advantage of
this notation is that we clearly know what our input and output are. For example, we might use the function ℎ) =
−16) + 48) to represent the height of ball thrown in the air over time. We would say that the height of the ball,
ℎ, is a function of the time since you have thrown it in the air, ).
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Evaluating Functions
Evaluating a function means to figure out what the output is when given a specific input. Let’s look at the
following function that shows the total cost at an amusement park, +, depending on the number of tickets bought,
), to ride the rides.
+) = 2) + 3
We can evaluate this function for ) = 5, or +5, by substituting into the equation as follows:
+5 = 25 + 3 = 10 + 3 = 13
So our output is +5 = 13 meaning the cost to buy 5 tickets is $13. Let’s evaluate the same function for
10 tickets by looking for +10.
+10 = 210 + 3 = 20 + 3 = 23
Our output this time is +10 = 23 meaning the cost to buy 10 tickets is $23.
Domain of a Function
The set of all possible inputs is called the domain of a function. For = 2 + 3 the domain is all real
numbers. Any number we want could be input into the function as . One way we can write this is in set notation
as follows:
,: −∞, ∞
This means that the domain of the function is any number between negative infinity and infinity. So we
can input any number we want for . However, in the context of the carnival as described above, it would only
make sense to think about the domain ,: [0, ∞ since we wouldn’t buy negative tickets.
Notice the bracket [ instead of the parentheses. The bracket means that it can equal that number. When
we use the parentheses, we mean it cannot actually equal the number. So if we can input zero and above (greater
than or equal to zero) we use the domain ,: [0, ∞, but if we can only input numbers strictly greater than zero, we
use the domain ,: 0, ∞.
Some functions have limited domains or ranges. For example, in the function = √ + 5 we can only
input ≥ −5 because we can’t take the square root of a negative. This means the domain would be written as
,: [−5, ∞.
00
Another example of a limited domain is the function = 1
which has a domain of any number except
0 (since we can’t divide by 0). We might write this out by saying the domain is ,: ≠ 0. Note that this is not in set
notation, but rather written as an inequality. There is nothing wrong with using the most efficient method to
communicate the domain.
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Range of a Function
Similar to the domain, all of the outputs we could possibly get are called the range. More precisely, the
range is the set of all possible outputs for a function. The range for the function = 2 3 is all real numbers.
This means the output, or value, could be any number and would write the range of this function as
4: ∞, ∞.
Consider the function 2. Notice that no matter what value we plug in for , we will always
output a number greater than or equal to 2. Therefore we would write this range as 4: !2, ∞.
It is often easier to see the domain and range from the graph of a function. Let’s consider a few examples.

2 3 √ 5
1
Domain: Any because Domain: The inputs Domain: 3 0 because

the graph continues must be greater than or the graph continues
forever both left and equal to 5 because
right. ,: ∞, ∞
forever to the left and
the graph continues right but never touches
forever to the right 0. ,: 3 0
starting at 5.
Range: Any output
because the graph
,: !5, ∞ Range: The graph
continues forever both continues forever up
up and down. Range: All outputs will and down but never
4: ∞, ∞ be greater than or has a height of 0.
equal to 0 because the 4: 3 0
graph continues
forever up from the
height of 0. 4: !0, ∞
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Is it a Function?
So how exactly can we tell if something is a function? The definition is that every input has only one output.
This means that not only equations can be functions, but graphs, tables, and words can be functions. For example
consider the following examples of potential functions.
Example 1 Example 2
Input: A person’s identity Input: A person’s age

Output: Their social security number Output: Their weekly income
In this first example, if we input someone’s identity, say your math teacher, will we output only one social
security number? Yes. One person never has two social security numbers. So example one is a true function. The
domain of the function would be any citizen of the USA (since social security is our thing) and the range would be
all the social security numbers.
In the second example, if we input someone’s age, say 33 years old, will we output only one weekly income?
No. One thirty-three year old could make $200 per week and another could make $1,000 per week. That is two
outputs for one input, so it is not a function. Since it’s not a function, we don’t have to worry about the domain
and range.
Sometimes it’s easier to see whether something is a function in graph form. Consider the following two
graphs and decide if they are functions or not.
Example 3 Example 4
Here we can use what is called the vertical line test. Since the inputs are the values, if for any value at
all we get multiple outputs (or values on the graph), then it is not a function. Take a pencil and lay it down
vertically (up and down) on the left side of Example 3. Now slowly push the pencil to the right. Is there any place
where the pencil touches the graph more than once? No. That means every input has only one output, so it is a
function. Any input looks fine and the graph is always higher than 4. Therefore the domain is ,: ∞, ∞ and
the range is approximately 4: 4, ∞ since it looks like it doesn’t quite touch the height of 4.
If you do the same thing on Example 4, the pencil will hit the graph in two places starting to the right of
7. One particular example is look at 3. In that case we have outputs of both 2 and 2. With
two outputs, the vertical line hitting twice, this cannot be a function.
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Lesson 1.1
Determine if each of the following is a function or not and explain how you know. If it is a function, give the
domain and range.
−2
1. 2.
1 0 1 2 4 3 0 3 4
4 1 0 1 4 53 54 55 54 53
3. 4.
5 4 1 4 11 4 2 0 2 4
0 1 2 3 4 4 8 0 8 4
5. 100 6. 2 5
7. = 8. = 2 1
9. 10.
11. 12.
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13. Explain how to determine whether or not an 14. Explain how to determine whether or not a
equation models a function. table models a function.
Determine if the following descriptions of relationships represent functions and explain why or why not. If it is
a function give a description of the domain and range.
15. Input: Time elapsed, Output: Distance run around the track.
16. Input: Store’s name, Output: Number of letters in the name.
17. Input: Person’s age, Output: Yearly salary.
18. Input: Amount of food eaten, Output: A dog’s weight.
19. Input: Person’s name/identity, Output: That person’s birthday.
20. Input: Person’s age, Output: Height.
21. Input: Name of a food, Output: Classification of that food (such as meat, dairy, grain, fruit, vegetable).
22. Input: Time studied for test, Output: Test score.
Determine if the following sequences represent functions and explain why they do or why they do not. If it is a
function give a description of the apparent domain and range.
23. 0,1,2,3,4,5 … 24. 0, 1 67 0, 1 67 2, 3, 4, 5 …
25. 0,1,0,1,0,1 … 26. 1,1,1,1,1,1 …
27. 0 67 1, 0 67 1, 0 67 1, 0 67 1, 0 67 1, 0 67 1 … 28. 0,1,1,2,3,5 …
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29. 1,2,4,8,16,32 … 30. 1,3,5,7,9,11 …
Evaluate the given functions at the given inputs.

' = '
8
= + = 9 −
31. −2 32. 10 33. −3 34. 0
35. ℎ−2 36. ℎ−8 37. ℎ4 38. ℎ0
39. :2 40. :−2 41. :4 42. :1
43. Function: Find the center of the circle 44. Function: Find the colors that make the input
Input: Input: Green
45. Function: Count the letters 46. Function: Decide if it’s morning or night
Input: Cookie Monster Input: Sun is in the east
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1.2 Graphing Functions
We can graph functions to get a visual representation of the relationship between two quantities. We graph
these on the coordinate plane, but we may not always use the variables and .
Input/Output Charts
To graph a function, we first need an input/output chart. This chart will give us the points we need to graph
on the coordinate plane. Let’s start by graphing the following function:
+) = 2) 3
For this function, notice that ) is the input, or independent variable, and + is the output, or dependent
variable. We’ll now make a simple chart with five spaces to fill out as follows:
Input )
Output +)
Sometimes input values will be given to us to plug in, other
times we will need to make up our own. In this case, we are not given
values for the input. Therefore, it is suggested to use the values from 2 to 2 to make sure we get a good picture
of the function. It is not always necessary to find five points, but the more points we have, the better graph we will
get.
Input ) −2 1 0 1 2 Now we evaluate the function for each input. Let’s look at the
Output +(t) work for +2.
+2 22 3 4 3 1
Input ) 2 1 0 1 2 Following this same process for each input value, we get the
Output +) 1 1 3 5 7 table at the right.
Now we plot each associated input and output as a point like this:
;<=>), 6>)=>) or ), +). Since ) is the dependent variable, that takes the
place of and +) will take the place of . Graph each point and connect the
points as we can see at the left.
In most cases the input/output chart only uses the variables as labels
instead of “input” and “output”. That would look like this:
) 2 1 0 1 2 Notice we plotted five points:

+) 1 1 3 5 7 2, 1, 1,1, 0,3, 1,5, and 2,7.
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Deciding on Appropriate Inputs
Since we are graphing by hand, it is easiest if we work with integer inputs and outputs. Some functions
have fractions, decimals, or even square roots that make our choice of inputs critical. For example, consider the

function ?@ = @.

@ −8 4 If we choose @ = 1 as an input, we’ll have to graph the point A1, B

0 4 8
?@ 2 1 0 1 2 which is not convenient by hand. Therefore, we should choose values for @ that

we can multiply by and get integer outputs for ?@ . Perhaps the

input/output chart given to the left would work best yielding the graph below
the chart.
Notice that choosing multiples of 4 for our inputs allowed integer

outputs.
0 1 4 9 Let’s look at the square root function √. Since we can’t take
0 1 2 3 the square root of negative numbers, we won’t use any negative inputs. Also,
since the number 2 does not have an integer square root, we’ll skip ahead to
the inputs that do have integer square roots. Therefore we might use an
input/output chart like the one to the left yielding the graph below the chart.
Notice that we only used four inputs instead of five since the next
input yielding an integer output would be 16 and that value would be
off the coordinate plane we have which only goes up to 10.
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Lesson 1.2
Graph the following functions by filling out the table using the given inputs ( values).
1. = − 7

2. C 2
2 1 0 1 2 6 3 0 3 6

3. √ 9 4. 2 1
9 8 5 0 7 2 1 0 1 2

5. D 2 6. √ 7
10 5 0 5 10 7 6 3 2 9

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Graph the following functions by filling out the table using the inputs ( values) that you think are appropriate.
7. = 2 8

8. 4
C

9. 4 10. √ 8

11. √ 7 12. 4

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13. Explain why it would be beneficial to use the inputs −2, −1, 0, 1, and 2 for the function = + 1.
C
14. Explain why it would be beneficial to use the inputs −8, −4, 0, 4, and 8 for the function = − 2.

15. Explain why it would be beneficial to use the inputs −9, −8, −5, 0, and 7 for the function = √ + 9.
16. Explain how you would choose 5 different inputs for the function = √ + 6. Explain why you feel these
are the best input values for this function.
17. For problems 2, 5, 8, 9, describe a pattern in the change in the values for each function.
18. For problems 2, 5, 8, 9, explain similarities and differences in the structure of the equations.
19. For problems 2, 5, 8, 9, explain similarities and differences in the graph of each function.
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1.3 Rate of Change and Initial Value
There are a couple of very important numerical (or quantitative) qualities of functions that we use. We like
to know where functions start (initial value) and how steep they go up or down from there (rate of change).
Rate of Change
The rate of change is a measure of how quickly something changes. If you think of the graph representation
of a function, the rate of change would be a measure of how steep the graph is. For many functions, we can’t yet
nail down the exact rate of change. (That takes a little calculus.) However, we can estimate the rate of change over
a given interval (or domain) no matter what form the function takes.
Graph form of a function

Let’s say we wanted to determine an average rate of change over the
interval [−3, 3" of the function to the left. At the leftmost input of 3 the
Average
rate of
change value of the function is approximately 2.5 while at the rightmost input of 3
the value of the function is approximately 7. To estimate our rate of change, we
can use the following formula:
+?<FG :G7);+?HH 7 2.5 4.5 3

+?<FG 67;I6<)?HH 3 3 6 4
This means that in our interval of !3, 3" the average rate of change is about three fourths. This means
that it goes up three for every four that moves right. Alternately you can think that the output goes up three-
fourths of a unit for every increase of one input. Looking at the graph, we see that the average rate of change for
this function does not accurately describe the functions behavior, but it does give a sense that the function is moving
up. What sort of rate of change would make you think the function was going down?
Let’s now determine the average rate of change over the interval [−3, 5"
Equation form of a function
for the function √ 4. To do this, we simply find 3 and 5 and
use the above formula, but make sure you know why that formula works.
5 3 3 1 2 1

5 3 8 8 4
Take a look at the graph at the right to see if you think it has an average
rate of change of one fourth over the interval !3, 5". What about on the interval
!5, 10"? What about on the interval !5, 100"? What do think will continue to
happen to the average rate of change?
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Table and word form of a function
Seeing how the equation and graph form of a function work, you should be able to figure out how we could
calculate the average rate of change given the table or word form of a function. However, let’s look at one example
of the table form and find the average rate of change over the interval [−2, 2".
2 1 0 1 2
5 3 1 1 3
Using the table you should get an average rate of change of 2. What
do you notice about that rate of change as compared to the graph to the right
which is a representation of the same function?
Initial Value
Not only do we want to know how a function behaves in terms of its rate of change, but we also want to
know where a function starts initially. That means what is the value of the function at the input of zero. We call
this the initial value. Let’s look at the graphs of each of the functions we have already examined. What is the value
of each function when the input is = 0?
Initial value of 2
Initial value of 1
Initial value of 2
Graphically it is easy to see the initial value because it is where the graph crosses the -axis. We sometimes
also refer to this point at the -intercept because of this. Finding the initial value is just as straight forward with
other function forms.
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Lesson 1.3
Calculate or approximate the average rate of change of the following functions over the interval [−9, 9" and
then again over the interval !, ". Finally, give the initial value.
1. = − 2 7 2. C 10 3. 2 7
C
4. 10 5. 3 2 6. 3
7. 8. 9.
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10. 11. 12.
13. 14. 15.
4 2 0 2 4 4 2 0 2 4 4 2 0 2 4
8 3 0 1 0 6 5 4 3 2 6 5 3 0 4
16. 17. 18.
2 1 0 1 2 2 1 0 1 2 2 1 0 1 2
4 1 0 1 4 3 4 5 6 7 5 4.5 4 3.5 3
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19. A lawyer charges $50 an hour plus a flat attorney’s fee of $250.
20. A man currently has $10,800 in an interest bearing account. Since the interest is simple and not compound,
he has been and will continue to make $100 per year in interest.
21. A Star Wars enthusiast has to be buy the same number of Star Wars toys each year as he already owns total.
So if he owns 30 currently, he would buy another 30 bringing his total up to 60. The following year he would have
to purchase 60 and so on. He currently has 16 Star Wars toys.
22. What did you notice about the average rate of change over both intervals for problems 5, 11, and 17? What
do you think is the reason why that happened?
23. What did you notice about problem number 4 and 16? Why did that happen? Graph both functions and then
try to determine why it would happen.
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1.4 Other Function Qualities
So far we have been describing graphs using quantitative information. That’s just a fancy way to say that
we’ve been using numbers. Specifically, we have described linear function graphs using the rate of change and
initial value. Both are numerical data, however, at times it is more beneficial to describe functions in a qualitative
manner. This means describing the qualities, non-numerical characteristics, of the function.
Definition of a Linear Function

Here are some examples of linear functions in equation, table, graph, and story form.
+) = 2) 3

JK K L L 5
K −2 1 L −2 1

) 2 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2
+) 1 1 3 5 7 JK 1 .5 0 .5 1 L 3 4 5 6 7
A carnival charges $3 to A company can make one A plant today has a height of
enter and $2 per ticket for sweater for every two 5 mm and grows one mm
riding rides. pounds of wool it has. each day.
What do you think makes these functions linear? Do you notice anything they have in common? Here are
some examples of non-linear functions. Can you define linear functions now?
ℎ) = −) − 2 4 +L 2M = C

) 0 1 2 3 4 L 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
) 0 5 12 21 32 +L 1 2 4 8 16 = 0 1 8 27 64
A rocket’s height after ) The number of cicadas Your dad pays you a number
seconds is given by the double each day after the of pennies equal to how many
above equation. initial day one hatches. flies you’ve killed cubed.
27
A linear function is a function that makes a straight line when graphed. Thus non-linear functions are any
functions that are not linear. Graphing may be the quickest way to tell if a function is linear or non-linear, but we
can also determine if a function is linear from its input/output table or equation.
This can be seen in the input/output table in that there is a constant difference in the dependent variable
values. In other words, when the input increases by one, the output will always increase or decrease by a constant
amount. We call this a constant difference. Let’s look at our three linear tables again.
) −2 1 0 1 2 K −2 1 0 1 2 L −2 1 0 1 2
+) 1 1 3 5 7 JK 1 .5 0 .5 1 L 3 4 5 6 7
+2 2 2 2 .5 .5 .5 .5 1 1 1 1
Notice that the first table has a constant difference of two, meaning that as ) increases by one, +)
increases by two every time. The second table has a constant difference of half, and the third table has a constant
difference of one.
Alternately, notice that all three equations have the independent variable only to the first power. Meaning
there is no exponent showing with the variable. That also means they are linear functions.

+) 2) 3 JK K L L 5
Check the non-linear functions given on the previous page and see that they are not a straight line when
graphed, have no constant difference, and have exponents in their equation.
In general, anything of the form & N is considered a linear function where O is the slope and
@ is called the -intercept. Notice that the has an unwritten exponent of one with it.
There are times when a linear function is not given in slope-intercept form. (That’s what we call =
O + @.) Sometimes a linear function is given in standard form which is P + Q = R . However, since the
exponent on the variable is still a one, we can get it in slope intercept form. For example, consider the following:
2 3 6
2 3 2 6 2
3 2 6
3 2 6

3 3
2
2
3
28
Qualitative Data: Increasing or Decreasing
Let’s start with the idea of an increasing or decreasing function. An increasing function roughly speaking is
one that is going up when you look at it from left to right. This means that a decreasing function is one that is going
down when you look at it from left to right. Let’s start by looking at linear functions.
Linear functions
Increasing Linear Functions
Decreasing Linear Functions
It is worth noting that in linear functions, whether it is increasing or decreasing is dependent on the slope
of the line. Notice that those with positive slopes are increasing and those with negative slopes are decreasing.
However, how would we classify the graph to the left? It is possible to have a
third option rather than just increasing or decreasing. It could be neither. The graph to
the left is called constant because it stays the same from left to right.
It would be natural to then ask about a vertical line, but remember that a vertical
line would not pass the vertical line test and therefore would not be a true function.
Non-linear functions
Linear functions are easy to identify as increasing, decreasing, or constant because
they are a straight line. Non-linear functions might be both increasing and decreasing at
different points on the graph. Consider the following graph of the function
= − + 8 10.
Looking at this graph from left to right, we see that the graph starts out increasing,
but then it starts decreasing. How should this function be classified?
29
Let’s see if we can isolate where the function is increasing and just look at that piece of the graph. Notice
that the graph is increasing until it reaches the point at 4. That means we can say that the function is increasing
on the domain ∞, 4. In other words, whenever is strictly less than 4, the graph is increasing.
We can similarly see where the graph is decreasing which is the domain 4, ∞. Notice that we don’t use
greater than or equal to bracket, just a parentheses because at the exact point 4 the graph is at the high point
and neither increasing or decreasing. We’ll get to what that point is called in just a moment.

To the left is the graph of the function C C 4 . Notice that it’s
increasing, then decreasing, then increasing again. So we would say it is increasing on
the domain ∞, 2 and 2, ∞. It is decreasing on the domain 2, 2.
Qualitative Data: Maximum and Minimum

Another way that we can qualitatively describe a function graph is by identifying any maximum or minimum
value that is achieved. For linear graphs this doesn’t make sense because the line will never have a maximum or
minimum height. We’ll look at non-linear functions only for a max or min.
We say there is a maximum at (input) when the function has a higher value
(output) than at any other input. Looking at our original non-linear example there is a
maximum of = 6. For this particular graph we can see that the maximum occurs
at 4, but we generally list the output, or value, for a maximum.
Max: 6
We can do the same thing for a minimum. We say there is a minimum at

(input) when the function has a lower value (output) than at any other input. In the
example to left we see that it has a minimum of = −8. It might also be worth
noting that the minimum occurs at 6, but we list the minimum by its value.
Min: 8
Sometimes we have what are called local maximums or minimums. For

example, in the graph to the left there is a local max of S 5 at 2 and a local
min of S 5 at 2. They are called local because they are not the max or min
for the whole graph, just the max or min in a small area.
Local max: S 5 Local min: S 5
30
Lesson 1.4
Determine whether the following functions are linear or non-linear and explain how you know.
1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 5 3 0 6. 4 5
7. = √ + 9 8. 31 2 9.
2 1 0 1 2
12 2 0 0 4
10. 11. 12.

2 1 0 1 2 5 0 5 10 15 2 3 6 11 18
13 10 7 4 1 1 3 5 7 9 0 1 2 3 4
31
13. Give two examples of a linear function in equation form.
14. Give two examples of a linear function in table form.

15. Sketch two examples of a linear function in graph form.
16. Give two examples of a non-linear function in equation form.
17. Give two examples of a non-linear function in table form.

18. Sketch two examples of a non-linear function in graph form.
32
For each linear graph tell whether it is increasing, decreasing, or constant.
19. 20. 21.
22. 23. 24.
25. 26. 27.
28. 29. 30.
33
For each non-linear graph tell the domain where it is increasing and decreasing and identify any maximum,
minimum, local maximum, or local minimum.
31. 32. 33.
34. 35. 36.
34
37. 38. 39.
40. 41. 42.
35
1.5 Contextualizing Function Qualities
Now that we know all the parts of functions, specifically non-linear functions, let’s put them in the context
of a problem. We want to make sure we understand what each piece of a function in the words.
The Common Cold

Most common cold viruses thrive in normal every day temperatures. It’s when those temperatures get cold
(like in a doctor’s office) or hot (like in boiling water) that the virus finally dies. Let’s pretend that if we were to
graph how many thousands of the common cold viruses can live in one thousand cubic feet @ based on the
temperature of that space ) we get something like this:
WXYZ [\]^' _X`^Ya\Xb \b cX^'abZ' N
What domain make sense in this context? The inputs that

make sense are temperatures between 50° U and 200° U.
Outside of those temperatures there are negative amounts
of virus, which doesn’t make sense.
What are all the possible population sizes? There could be

anywhere from zero to around 80,000 viruses living
depending on the temperature. This is the range.
What is the highest population? This is the maximum. The

highest point is around the 80,000 viruses.
What temperatures give the highest population? This is the

temperature where the maximum takes place. The highest
Temperature in Fahrenheit population occurs around 125° U . Notice this is just an
estimate that we get from the graph.
At what temperature range are the viruses growing bigger and bigger populations? This question is asking where
the function is increasing. This would happen from 50° U to 125° U.
At what temperature range are the virus populations growing smaller and smaller? This question is asking where
the function is decreasing. This would happen from 125° U to 200° U. Above 200° U the viruses all die, so we
don’t care beyond that.
thousand cubic foot zone is less than V, VVV. Why are doctor’s offices so cold? In order to keep the population
The chance of a the common cold spreading through airborne contact is much less when the population in a
of the common cold virus at acceptable levels, the doctor’s offices must be around 65° U or lower. That’s chilly!
36
Extremophile Bacteria
There is a certain type of bacteria called extremophiles that thrive in extreme temperatures. These bacteria
like really super cold or insanely hot conditions. Pretend that if we were to graph the function of the population in
millions of extremophile bacteria living in one thousand cubic feet @ at a given Fahrenheit temperature ), the
graph might look like this:
What domain would make sense in this context? The

temperatures between −80° U and 220° U are where
Extremophile Bacteria Population in Millions N
the bacteria live. Outside of those temperatures there

are less than zero bacteria, which doesn’t make sense.
We can’t have negative bacteria.
What are all the possible population sizes? There could

be anywhere from zero to around 260,000,000 bacteria
living depending on the temperature.
What is the highest population that extremophile

bacteria will have? These are the maximums. The
highest point looks be around the 260,000,000 mark at
both points.
What temperatures give the highest population? These
Temperature in Fahrenheit

are the temps where the maximums take place. The
high populations occur around −32° U and 172° U.
What is the lowest population we can get of extremophile bacteria within comfortable living temperatures? This
is basically asking for the local min which is about 50,000,000 at a temperature of around 70° U. Again these are
estimates from the graph.
At what temperature range are the bacteria growing bigger and bigger populations? This question is asking
where the function is increasing. This would happen in two place: from −80° U to 32° U is the first and from
70° U to 172° U.
At what temperature range are the bacteria growing smaller and smaller populations? This question is asking
where the function is decreasing. This would happen in two place: from −32° U to 70° U is the first and from
172° U to 220° U. Above 220° U the bacteria all die, so we don’t care beyond that.
37
Lesson 1.5
Use the following graph showing a function modeling the production cost per stembolt (d) a factory gets in
terms of the production rate of how many stembolts it produces per minute (]) to answer the questions.
1. If the possible inputs for this function are between one

Production Cost (dollars per stembolt) (d)
and nine, what does that mean in the context of this problem?
2. Within those inputs, what are all the different costs per
stembolt that the company could have?
3. At what production rate does the company get the

cheapest production cost?
4. What is the cheapest production cost?
5. Between what production rates does the company get

cheaper and cheaper production costs?
6. Between what production rates does the company get

higher and higher production costs?
Production Rate (stembolts per minute) (])
Use the following graph showing a function modeling the company’s weekly profit in thousands of dollars (`) in
terms of the number of weekly commercials it airs (d) to answer the questions.
7. What inputs make sense in the context of this problem?

_]X\ \b cX^'abZ' X eXYYa]' `
8. What are all the different profits that the company could
have?
9. How many weekly commercials gives the best profit for

the company?
10. What is the best profit the company can expect?
11. Between how many weekly commercials does the

company get better and better profits?
12. Between how many weekly commercials does the

company get worse and worse profits?
Number of Weekly Commercials (d)
38
Use the following graph showing a function modeling a man’s stock market investment value in thousands of
dollars ( ) in terms of his age (a) to answer the questions.
13. If the man began investing at 20 years old and retired at

Investment Value in Thousands of Dollars ( )
the age of 80 (at which point he sold all his stocks), what
inputs make sense in the context of this problem?
14. What are all the different investment values the man had
during the time he was investing?
15. At what age was his investment value the highest? How
high was it?
16. At what age was his investment value the lowest? How
low was it?
17. Between what ages was his investment growing in value?
18. Between what ages was his investment losing value?

Age (a)
19. Overall, since he started investing at 20 years old and retired at 80 years old, did he make or lose money?
How much?
20. What appears to be the earliest age he should have retired (after 80 years old) in order to have at least
broken even on his investments?
Use the following graph showing a function modeling the penguin population in millions (`) in terms of average
temperature of the Antarctic in degrees Fahrenheit () to answer the questions.
21. What inputs make sense in the context of this problem?

Penguin Population in Millions (`)
22. What are all the different populations that the penguins
could have?
23. What average temperature gives the highest penguin

population?
24. What is the highest population of the penguins?
25. Between what temperatures does the population grow?
26. Between what temperatures does the population shrink?
Average Temperature ()
39
1.6 Sketching a Piecewise Function
Now that we understand qualitative descriptions of graphs, we can use that information to sketch graphs
of a function or give a verbal description of an already sketched graph. For these graphs, we won’t have any numeric
reference points to go by. Instead we’ll just use Quadrant I of the coordinate plane and give approximate graphs
that represent the described situation.
The term piecewise means that the function may have different qualities at different intervals. For
example, the graph may start off constant, then increase and finally decrease. It could start increasing linearly and
then increase in a non-linear fashion. So we generally sketch the graph a piece at a time.
Matching Description and Graph

Distance versus time
We’ll begin by reading a description of a situation and then decide which graph best fits the data. Here is
our situation:
George started at his friend’s house and began walking home. After a few blocks, he realized he forget his
cell phone and hurried back to his friend’s house to pick it up. After grabbing his phone, he immediately
began running back home because he was afraid he was going to be late. Unfortunately he got stuck for a
little while trying to cross the busy street. After crossing the busy street, he decided to walk the rest of the
way home instead of running. Which graph shows George’s distance from home in terms of time?
dist dist dist
time time time

A. B. C.
In this case the choice may be obvious because only one of the three graphs starts at non-zero distance.
That means that graph A must be the correct graph for George. Notice how the line segments are steeper when he
goes back for his cell phone and heads back home again. That’s because he was running during that time so more
distance was being covered in less time. Also note the little flat line segment that shows us when George was
waiting at the busy street. There he traveled no distance because he was waiting.
40
Using the same above graphs, match this situation with its graph:
Joanne started running a marathon as fast as she could. During the first few minutes she gradually slowed
down until she stopped at about the half way point of the marathon. She had to take a long break sitting
on a bench because she had run too fast. She then ran at a slower constant speed until the end of the
marathon where she promptly collapsed. Which graph shows Joanne’s distance run in terms of time?
For this situation, we’re looking for a graph starting off very steep (to show the fast speed) but slowing
getting less steep (to show the slowing down). Then there should be a segment where the distance does not change
over time (representing a speed of zero). Afterwards we should see the distance getting bigger because Joanne
completes the marathon. This must be graph B.
What situation might graph C represent?
Speed versus time

Examining these same situations in terms of speed would offer us different graphs. Let’s look at George’s
situation first:
George started at his friend’s house and began walking home. After a few blocks, he realized he forget his
cell phone and hurried back to his friend’s house to pick it up. After grabbing his phone, he immediately
began running back home because he was afraid he was going to be late. Unfortunately he got stuck for a
little while trying to cross the busy street. After crossing the busy street, he decided to walk the rest of the
way home instead of running. Which graph shows George’s speed in terms of time?
speed speed
time time
D. E.
The function showing George’s speed in terms of time is represented by graph E. Notice that the speed
starts off greater than zero, increases, and then increases again before going down to zero (where he stopped at
the busy street) and finishing at a constant speed. More importantly notice the differences between this graph and
George’s graph showing distance as a function of time.
Now look at graph D. This graph represents Joanne’s situation except it shows her speed instead of
distance. Why is this true?
41
Speed or distance?
To get one last look at how different variables (speed and distance in this case) can drastically change the
graph of a function, consider the following situation:
A child climbed slowly up a slide, sat at the top for a little while, and then quickly slid down.
Which of the following graphs shows height off the ground (which is a distance) versus time and which
shows speed versus time?
F. G. H.
While graph G is tempting to choose as showing the height versus time because it looks like a slide, that is
incorrect. Graph F shows the height as a function of time. Notice how the child takes a lot of time (horizontal
distance) to get to the top of the slide and then takes far less time to have a height of zero.
Graph H is a graph of speed versus time. Let’s look at why this is true.
Zero speed. This is where High speed. This is where

the child is sitting at the the child is sliding down the
top of the slide. slide.
Constant slow speed. This

is where the child is
climbing up the slide.
Zero speed. This is where
the child reaches the
bottom of the slide.
42
Sketching the Graph
Now let’s try sketching a graph given a verbal description of a situation.
A cat is sitting on a pillow across the room watching the cicadas climb up the sliding glass door. The cat sits
perfectly still for several moments before quickly charging towards the sliding glass door where she slams
into it coming to halt. After pausing a moment to realize the cicadas were scared away, the cat slowly slinks
to the middle of the room to wait on the next cicada to show up. Sketch a graph modeling the function of
the cat’s speed in terms of time.
The first thing to do is identify our two variables we are comparing and determine which is the dependent
(going on the -axis) and which is the independent (going on the -axis). In this problem we are looking at speed
in terms of time. That means the speed is dependent on the time, and therefore speed is our dependent variable
which will go on the -axis. So we might begin our graph by labeling our axes like this:
speed
time
Notice we are only using Quadrant I because it doesn’t make sense in this context to talk about negative
time or speed.
Next we start at the beginning of the problem. What was the cat’s initial speed? It was sitting perfectly still
for several moments. That means for a good chunk of the time on our time, the speed will be zero. So we’ll use a
flat line at height zero starting at the origin to represent this like so:
speed
time
43
Now that we have the part of the graph representing the cat sitting still, we move to the next part of the
problem. The next thing the cat does is quickly charges at the sliding glass door. That means the speed is going to
be high, so we’ll need a line going up to a relatively high speed.
speed
time
However, we also need to consider how long the cat stayed at this speed. Since it was only across the room,
the cat probably did not spend a lot of time at a high speed. We’ll represent this by only having the speed stay
constantly high for a short amount in the direction (horizontally).
speed
time
Next the cat slams into the glass door bringing its speed to zero. It also paused a moment, meaning its
speed was zero just for a little bit.
speed
time
44
Finally the cat slowly walks back to its pillow (low speed) before sitting back down (zero speed) in the middle
of the room. So our final graph may look like this:
speed
time
Now let’s think about making a graph to represent a function of the cat’s distance from the sliding glass
door in terms of time. Why might it look something like this?
dist
time
45
Lesson 1.6
Match each description with its function graph showing speed in terms of time.
speed speed speed
time time time
A. B. C.
1. A squirrel chews on an acorn for a little while before hearing a car coming down the street. It then runs quickly
to the base of a nearby tree where it sits for a second listening again for the car. Still hearing the car, the squirrel
climbs up the tree quickly and sits very still on a high branch.
2. A possum is slowly walking through a backyard when a noise scares it causing it to hurry to a hiding place. It
waits at the hiding place for a little while to make sure it’s safe and then continues its slow walk through the
backyard.
3. A frog is waiting quietly in a pond for a fly. Noticing a dragonfly landing on the water nearby, the frog slowly
creeps its way to within striking distance. Once the frog is in range, it explodes into action quickly jumping
towards the dragonfly and latching onto with its tongue. The frog then settles down to enjoy its meal.
Match each description with its function graph showing height in terms of time.
height height height
time time time

D. E. F.
4. Sean starts to bike up a long steep hill. Half way up, he gets off his bike to walk the rest of the hill. When he
makes it to the top, he races down the other side until he makes it to the bottom.
5. Micah is racing down a flat road. He comes to a small hill and charges up as fast as he can. Coming down the
other side, Micah gains speed for the big hill ahead. Micah climbs the hill to the top, and hops off his bike to
stretch.
6. Jerika hops on her bike as she comes out of her garage which sits at the top of a large hill. She coasts down the
hill and starts pedaling as the road flattens. She realizes she forgot something, so she rides back up to her house.
46
Match each description with its function graph showing speed in terms of time.
speed speed speed
time time time

G. H. I.
7. Sean starts to bike up a long steep hill. Half way up, he gets off his bike to walk the rest of the hill. When he
makes it to the top, he races down the other side until he makes it to the bottom.
8. Micah is racing down a flat road. He comes to a small hill and charges up as fast as he can. Coming down the
other side, Micah gains speed for the big hill ahead. Micah climbs the hill to the top, and hops off his bike to
stretch.
9. Jerika hops on her bike as she comes out of her garage which sits at the top of a large hill. She coasts down the
hill and starts pedaling as the road flattens. She realizes she forgot something, so she turns around and rides back
up to her house.
Sketch a graph modeling a function for the following situations.
10. A runner starts off her day running at an average speed down her street.
At the end of a street is a slight hill going down so she runs even faster down
the hill. At the bottom of the hill she has to go back up to the level of her
street and has to slow way down. Sketch a graph of a function of the runner’s
speed in terms of time.
11. A runner starts off her day running at an average speed down her street.
At the end of a street is a big hill going down, so she runs very fast down the
hill. At the bottom of the hill she runs on flat ground at an average speed for a
while before going back up another hill where she slows way down. Sketch a
graph of a function of the runner’s height in terms of time.
47
12. A fish swims casually with her friends. All of a sudden, she hears a boat, so
she darts down toward the bottom of the ocean and hides motionlessly behind
the coral. She remains still until she hears the boat pass. When the coast is
clear, she goes back to swimming with her friends. Sketch a graph of a function
of the fish’s speed in terms of time.
13. My dad drove me to school this morning. We started off by pulling out of
the driveway and getting on the ramp for the interstate. It wasn’t long before
my dad saw a police car, so he slowed down. The police car pulled us over, so
we sat on the side of the road until the cop finished talking to my dad. Sketch
a graph of a function of the car’s speed in terms of time.
14. Rashid starts on the top of a snow-covered hill. He sleds down and coasts
on flat ground for a few feet. Tickled with excitement, Rashid runs up the hill
for another invigorating race. About half way up the hill, he recognizes a friend
of his has fallen off his sled. Rashid stops to help his friend and begins slowly
pulling his friend back up the hill. Tired, Rashid and his friend finally make it to
the top of the hill. Sketch a graph of a function of Rashid’s height in terms of
time.
15. Roller coaster cars start out by slowly going up a hill. When all of the cars
reach the top of the hill, the cars speed down the other side. Next, the cars are
pulled up another, but smaller, hill. Racing down the other side, the cars race
through a tunnel and come to a screeching halt where passengers are
unloaded. Sketch a graph of a function of the roller coaster cars’ speed in
terms of time.
48
16. A dog is sitting on his owner’s lap. When the owner throws the ball, the
dog sprints after the ball and catches it mid-air. The dog trots back and plops
back on the owner’s lap. The owner throws the ball again; tired, the dog jogs
over to the ball and lies down next to it. Sketch a graph of a function of the
dog’s speed in terms of time.
17. A function starts out increasing slowly then it increases faster and faster
before hitting a maximum spike about halfway through the graph. From the
spike it decreases quickly and then decreases slower and slower before finally
leveling out toward the end of the graph.
18. A function starts off very high and stays level for a little while. It then
drops quickly to about the halfway mark and stays level again for a little while.
It then drops very close to the bottom and stays level after that.
49
Review Unit 1: Functions
Determine if each of the following is a function or not. Explain how you know.
1. + = 100 2.
4 2 0 2 4
2 4 6 4 2
3. Input: Number of candy bars purchased 4. Input: Age of a person

Output: Amount of money spent Output: Number of hours spent playing video games
5. 6.
7. 6,3,0, 3, 6 … 8. 2, 4, 6 67 8, 8 67 16, 10 67 32 …
9. Give an example of a function in words explaining the input, output, domain, range and how you know it is a
function.
50
Give the domain and the range of the following functions.
10. = − 3 5 11. √ 6 3 12. Input: Number of students in

the class
Output: Number of birthdays
in the class
8
Given the functions = − 9 and = − + evaluate the following.
13. 3 14. 6
15. 3 16. 2
Graph the following functions by filling out the / chart using inputs ( values) that you think are appropriate.
(4 pts; 1 pt for appropriate values, 1 pts for correct table, 2 pts for graph following table)
17. = √ + 8 18. 5

51
Calculate/estimate the average rate of change and the initial value over the interval [−, " for each function.
19. 20. = C − 2
21. A homeowner made a down payment of $10,000 and pays $700 each month for his mortgage. Think of the
function that shows how much money has been spent on the house in terms of the number of months it has been
owned.
22. −2 1 0 1 2
1 2 4 8 16
For the following functions tell whether they are linear or non-linear, give the domain where they are increasing
and where they are decreasing, and then give the max or min of the function.
23. = − − 5 2 24. 5 3
52
Answer the following questions using the given function modeling the height () in feet of an angry bird that is
thrown in terms of time () in seconds to answer the questions.
25. What does the point on the graph represent?
26. Based on the graph, what is causing the height of the bird to
Height in feet

decrease, and how do you know?
27. What is the maximum height of the angry bird and when does
the bird reach its max height?
28. What inputs makes sense in this context?
29. During what times is the bird’s height increasing?

Time in seconds
30. What are all the different heights the bird reaches?
Determine which graph matches the story and explain why.
31. A young boy decided he was fed up with his parents and wanted to join the circus. After gathering his
belongings in a hobo-style bag on a stick, he started running away from home very fast. He continually slowed
down the longer he ran until he finally stopped about halfway to the circus when he realized he was being
irrational.
53
Sketch a graph modeling a function for the following situation.
32. A seed was planted in the early spring. A sprout appeared and
grew rapidly in the rainy spring. Growth nearly stopped during the dry
and hot summer. In the middle of the summer, a rabbit ate the plant.
Sketch a graph of a function of the plant’s height in terms of time.
54
Unit 2: Linear Functions
2.1 Linear Functions
2.2 Transforming Linear Functions
2.3 Comparing Linear Functions
2.4 Solving Linear Equations
2.5 Infinite and No Solutions
2.6 Inverse Functions
55
Pre-Test Unit 2: Linear Functions
Please do not use a calculator. No calculator necessary.
Define variables and create an equation to model each of the following situations. (4 pts; 2 pts for variable
definitions, 2 pts for correct equation)
1. You start the day with $22 in your pocket and then 2.
sell ears of corn for $4 each.
3. 4. 2, 1.5, 1, 0.5, 0, 0.5, 1 …

Time racing 0 2 4 6 8
in seconds
Distance 0 3 6 9 12
traveled in
meters
Create a graph representation of the following linear functions. (4 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
5. Watch batteries cost $2.50 for three batteries 6. ) 2) 5

but there was a $2 discount on the total order.
56
Describe the transformation that takes for each function as compared to the function = + 8.
(4 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
7. + 3 8. 3
Identify the rate of change and initial value in each function and then describe the rate of change and initial
value in context. (4 pts; 1 pt for each)
9. The function relating the cost in dollars of entering a carnival, +), to how many tickets you buy, ), is shown by
the following graph:
Rate of Change:__________
Total cost
ROC in Context:___________________________________________
Initial Value:_____________
IV in context:_____________________________________________
Number of tickets bought
10. The amount of money in dollars a farmer gets paid, =?, to leave land fallow for a season based on the acres
of land he or she owns, ?, is modeled by the following function: = = 300? 50.
Rate of Change: ___________ ROC in Context: ____________________________________________
Initial Value: ______________ IV in Context: ______________________________________________
Write and solve an equation for the following situations. (4 pts; 1 pts for correct equation, 2 pts for correct
simplification and inverse operations, 1 pt for answer)
11. A man buys four books from the store and a Preferred Reader discount card for $20. Later that day, he goes
back and buys five more books. He also got a $5 discount using his new card. If he spent a total of $87 at the
bookstore, how much did each book cost assuming every book cost the same amount?
12. A man bought 4 cups of coffee and left a $7 tip. A woman bought 8 cups of coffee and only left a $2 tip. If
they paid the same amount, how much was each cup of coffee?
57
Answer the following questions comparing linear functions. (4 pts; 2 pts for answer, 2 pts for explanation)
NASA is testing a series of new rockets to decide which one to use for the upcoming Moving to Mars Mission.
Here is the information about the power consumption (=) in kW of electricity in terms of time ()) in hours of
each rocket.
Rocket A: Power consumption is modeled by the equation = = 1.6)
)
Rocket B: Power consumption is modeled in the following table
2 4 6 8 10
= 5 8 11 14 17
Rocket C: Power consumption graph

Power in kW `
Time in Hours
Rocket D: Consumes approximately 14 kW in 10 hours plus an initial 3 kW at lift off
13. Which rocket uses the most power per hour and how do you know?
14. Which rocket uses the most power at lift off (initially) and how do you know?
Solve the following equations for the given variable. There may be a single solution, infinite solutions, or no
solutions. (4 pts; 2 pts for work, 2 pts for answer)

15. 7F 3F 10 3 43 16. 4 2 22
58
17. 6 9 7 4 12 18. 6@ 2 6@ 13

19. 6 9 4 12 20. 6@ 2 6@ 12
C C
Find the inverse function of the given function. (4 pts; 2 pts for work, 2 pts for answer)
C
21. = − + 4

Solve the following inequalities and graph the solutions on the number line. (4 pts; 2 pts for answer,
2 pts for graphing solution on number line)
C
22.
−2f4 23. 2 2 g 8
Graph the following inequalities on the coordinate plane. (4 pts; 2 pts for line placement and type,
2 pts for shading)

24. f − C + 4 25. / 3 7
59
2.1 Transforming Linear Functions
Before we begin looking at transforming linear functions, let’s take a moment to review how to graph linear
equations using slope-intercept form. This will help us because the easiest way to think of transformations is
graphically.
Slope-Intercept Form
Any linear equation can be written in the form = O + @ where O is the slope and @ is the -intercept.
Sometimes the equation we need to graph will already be in slope-intercept form, but if it’s not, we’ll need to
rearrange the equation to get it into slope-intercept form. Take a look at the following equations:
Example 1 Example 2
= 2 − 1 2 + = 7
This equation is already in slope-intercept form. This equation is not in slope-intercept form. We
Nothing needs to be done. need to subtract 2 from both sides to get the by
itself.
2 − 2 + = 7 − 2
= −2 + 7
Example 3
3 − 2 = 4
Example 4
−4 + 2 = 8
This example is also not in slope-intercept form.
We’ll first subtract 3, but then notice that we’ll be This is not in slope-intercept form. We’ll first need
left with a −2. Be careful because that negative to get rid of the −4 by adding 4 and then we’ll
sign is important. Next divide by −2 to get by have to get rid of the times by 2 by dividing by 2.
itself. That will get by itself.
3 − 3 − 2 = 4 − 3 −4 + 4 + 2 = 8 + 4
−2 = −3 + 4 2 = 4 + 8
−2 −3 + 4 2 4 + 8
= =
−2 −2 2 2
3 = 2 + 4
= −2
2
So, step one in graphing is to get the equation in slope-intercept form.
60
The -Intercept and the Slope
Once you have an equation in slope-intercept form, start by graphing the -intercept on the coordinate
plane. From the -intercept, move the rise and run of the slope to plot another point. Finally, draw the line that
connects the two points. Let’s use our previous equations to graph step-by-step.
Example 1
= 2 1
The -intercept is −1, so we plot a point at 1 on the -axis to start.
-intercept of −1
Next we know the slope is 2 which means a rise of 2 and a run of 1.

So we’ll move up two and right one to plot the next point.
Up two and right one

from the -intercept
Finally, connect the dots with a line.
61
Example 2 Example 3 Example 4
C
= −2 7 = − 2 2 4
Down two,
right one
-intercept
-intercept
-intercept
Up two,
right one
Up three,
right two
Transformations
Now let’s flip back to function notation to talk about transformations. So consider the basic form =
O + @ of a linear function. For any function , not just linear, there are four ways that we can transform it.
We can add something to the input or the output, or we can multiply something by the input or the output. Let’s
take each one individually.
In function notation, this looks like + h. (Notice that h can be negative which would mean that we
Adding to the output
are in essence subtracting.) What this notation means is that we go ahead and calculate the value of the function
as normal and then add to it. So let’s take a look at = 2 1 and transform it by looking at F 5.
What would happen?
5 2 1 5 2 4
Now the -intercept is now 4 instead of 1 which means that the function has moved up 5 units. So by
adding five to the output, we simply moved the function up five.
Original: 2 1 Transformed: 5 2 4
i is
translated up 5
Thus, if we subtracted three from the output, 3, that would move the function down three units.
62
In function notation, this looks like + h. (Notice that h can be negative which would mean that we
Adding to the input
are in essence subtracting.) What this notation means is that we first add to our input then use that value to
calculate the value of the function as normal. So let’s take a look at = 2 1 and transform it by looking at
5. What would happen?
5 2 5 1 2 10 1 2 9
It looks like this translated (moved) the function up by ten, which is true. However, there is better way to
think about this. Notice that an input of 0 in 5 now looks like an input of 5 in . In other words, what
was an input of five is now an input of zero. So a better way to think about this is that it translated the function five
units to the left.
+ i is
translated left 5
So if we had 2, it would translate left two. If we had 4, it would translate right four. One
way to think about it is to think about what value would make the input zero. In 2, the value of 2
would make the input zero. Negative two in the direction on a graph is left two.
63
In function notation, this looks like h ∗ . We first calculate the function value with the regular input
Multiplying by the output
and then we multiply it by some value. Let’s imagine that h = 3. This means that the output of the transformed
function will be three times as big as the original function. We basically have stretched the graph away from the -
axis. Consider the function 2 1 and the transformation 3 ∗ 32 1 6 3.
Original: 2 1 Transformed: 3 ∗ 6 3
∗ is
stretched three
times as far away
from the -axis
New -intercept
Notice that the -intercept stayed in place, but the -intercept changed. Why would that happen? Since
the value of the function at the -intercept is zero, zero times anything is still zero. So that point doesn’t move.
What would happen if h were a fraction between zero and one? What would happen if h were negative?
In function notation, this looks like h ∗ . We multiply the input by some value and then use that to
Multiplying by the input
calculate the value of the transformed function. Let’s imagine that h = 2. This means that what was an input of
one is now acting like an input of two, so the output previously associated with the input of two is now associated
with the input of one. What was an input of five is now acting like an input of ten, so the output previously
associated with the input of five is now associated with the input of five. We basically have stretched the graph
closer to the -axis this time. Consider the function 2 1 and the transformation 2 22 1
4 2.
is
stretched twice as
close to the -axis
Same -intercept
Notice that the -intercept stayed in place, but the -intercept changed. Why would that happen? Since
the input at the -intercept is zero, zero times anything is still zero. So that point doesn’t move. What would
happen if h were a fraction between zero and one? What would happen if h were negative?
64
In summary, we have talked about translating functions up or down, translating functions left or right, and
stretching functions away from (or closer to) the axes. Here is a recap of each scenario:
Translate up/down d units Translate left/right d units

+ d + d
If + is positive, the function shifts up. If + is positive, the function shifts left.
If + is negative, the function shifts down. If + is negative, the function shifts right.
Stretches d times farther from -axis Stretches d times closer to -axis

d d
If + > 1, the function goes farther from -axis. If + > 1, the function goes closer to -axis.
If 0 f + f 1, the function goes closer to -axis. If 0 f + f 1, the function goes farther from -axis.
If + is negative, the function reflects across -axis. If + is negative, the function reflects across -axis.
65
Lesson 2.1
Graph the following linear equations using slope-intercept form.
1. = 2 1

2. 3 4 3. 5
C

4. 7 5. 3 2 6. C 5
C
7. D 2 8. 1 9. 4
66
10. 2 2 11. 3 4 12. 4 5
13. 4 2 6 14. 6 3 9 15. 3 6
16. 2 3 12 17. 4 2 8 18. 2 3 9
67
Use the given functions to describe the listed transformations. Then write the equation of the transformed
function.
= 3 − 2 F = −2 + 4 ℎ = 5
19. 2 20. 2 ∗ () 21. () − 2

22. ( + 2) 23. F(−) 24.
∗ F()

25. F() + 5 26. F( − 5) 27. ( )
28. −3 ∗ F() 29. ℎ() − 4 30. ℎ( + 6)
31. ℎ(2) 32. 2 ∗ ℎ() 33. () − 3
68
2.2 Contextualizing Linear Functions
Last unit we defined a linear function in several different ways:
• A function whose graph is a straight line,

• A function whose rate of change is constant, or
• A function whose equation is of the form O + @ where O represents the slope and @
represents the y-intercept.
We’ll now begin exploring the difference aspects of a linear function and how each piece affects the
function as a whole.
Input (Independent Variable) and Output (Dependent Variable)

Since a function is a rule that assigns to each input exactly one output, it is crucial to identify and understand
what the input and output are in the multiple forms of a function. Let’s look at the following linear functions written
in different forms.
The number of grapes A dairy farmer can The cost (+) for joining a gym
(F) depends on the produce 25 gallons of milk includes a start-up fee plus dues
number of branches (@) Ffrom 3 cows +. every month (O).
off the main vine and is
25
represented by this F +
3
equation:
F 100@ + 4
Cost in $ (d)
+ 10O + 20
In example 1, what is the input? What do we start with? What
comes first? The branches of the vine. Once we have branches, those
branches then produce grapes. So the input, the thing we start with, is the
independent variable @. Months (&)
The independent variable is the variable that could be anything (at least anything within the domain). We
could have any number of branches we want and the branches produce, or output, the grapes. That means that F
is the dependent variable. The number of grapes depends on the number of branches.
In example 2, what is the input and what is the output? A farmer puts cows in his barn and gets out milk.
The cows are the input meaning that + is the independent variable. The milk is the output meaning that F is the
dependent variable.
In example 3, what is the input and what is the output? What do we really want to know? The final cost.
However, to find the cost we first have to know how many months you are going to be a member. That means that
69
the number of months is the input, or independent variable. Once we input the number months into the rule (which
happens to be times 15 and then plus 20), we output the cost, which is the dependent variable.
In the standard equation form of a linear function, O @, what is the input and output? Since we’re
talking about and on the coordinate plane, those are my input and output, but which is which? Generally
speaking, but not always, the output is the variable by itself in any equation. In particular, in our generic form linear
function, the variable is the output. That makes the input. If we plug in (input) an value then we get out
(output) a value.
Slope or Rate of Change

Let’s look at our examples again.
25
3
equation:
Cost in $ (d)
F 100@ + 4
In example one, the rate of change is given in the equation as the

slope, or O in the equation O + @. Note that the slope is 100 which + 10O + 20
00
means that the rate of change is also 100, or
in fraction form. This means
that 100 grapes grow for every one branch.
Months (&)
Perhaps it is easiest to see the rate of change (or slope) in the second
example. How does the amount of milk change for the farmer? He gets 25 more gallons of milk for every 3 more
D
cows he has, so we would write that rate of change as .
C
In the third example, we’ll need to find the slope by counting the rise and run. This is easiest to do from
the -intercept, the point where the line crosses the -axis. Notice that the line crosses the -axis at 20. The next
nice point is at 1, 30. To get to that point from the -intercept, you have to go up ten and right one. That means
the slope, or rate of change, is 10. This means that the gym charges 10 dollars for every one month of membership.
70
-Intercept or Initial Value
Let’s look at our examples one last time.
25
3
equation:
F 100@ + 4
Cost in $ (d)
In example one, the initial is given in the equation as the -intercept, + 10O + 20
or @ value in O + @. Note that the initial value is 4. This means that
only 4 grapes grow off the main vine no matter how many branches come off
the main vine.
Months (&)
The second example may be confusing because it’s hard to see an
initial value. An initial value would mean the amount of milk that the farmer starts with. Well, without any cows
he wouldn’t have any milk, so the initial value is 0. That’s why there is no other number mentioned.
We previously found the -intercept for the third example to be 20. That means that no matter how many
months you pay for membership to the gym, there will always be an additional $20 fee to pay. The problem context
describes it as a start-up fee. So if you pay for 3 months membership, you’ll pay the $20 fee on top of the price per
month. If you pay for 85 months of membership, you’ll still pay the same $20 fee on top of the price per month.
The Equation of the Line

Once you know all the pieces, it’s simply a matter of putting them in the right order. Since every linear
function can be written in the form of O + @, put the equation in that form. Remember that is the
dependent variable (output), is the independent variable (input), O is the rate of change (slope), and @ is the
initial value (-intercept).
D
For Example 2, we know that gallons of milk (F) depends on the cows (+), the rate of change is C
, and
D
the initial value is 0. Therefore, the equation is: F +.
C
For Example 3, we know that the cost (+) depends on the number of months you sign-up for membership
at the gym (O), the rate of change is 10, and the initial value is 20. Therefore, the equation is: + 10O 20.
71
Lesson 2.2
Identify the rate of change, initial value, independent variable, and dependent variable. Then describe what
the rate of change and initial value mean in the context of each situation. Finally, write the equation of the
linear function.
1. A 2.5 foot rocket’s distance traveled in meters L based on time in seconds ) is modeled by the following
function: L 5) 2.
Contextual Description of Contextual Description of
Dependent Variable:________
Rate of Change Initial Value
Independent Variable:______
Rate of Change:____________
Initial Value:_______________
EQ of Line:________________
2. The cost for 6 people to travel in a taxi in New York + based on the number of miles driven O is shown by
Contextual Contextual
Description of Description of
Independent Variable:______ Rate of Change Initial Value
Cost in $ (d)
Rate of Change:___________
Initial Value:______________
EQ of Line:________________
Miles driven (&)
3. Planet Wiener receives $2.25 for every hotdog sold. They spend $105 for 25 packages of hot dogs and 10
packages of buns. Think of the linear function that demonstrates the profit = based on the number of hotdogs
sold .
Dependent Variable:________ Contextual Description of Contextual Description of

EQ of Line:________________
72
4. The weight (in pounds) of a 20′ x 10” x 12” aquarium tank K based on the number of gallons of water inside
F is modeled by the following function: K 8.5F 20.
EQ of Line:________________
5. The amount of profit of the lemonade stand on 120 W Main Street = based on the number of glasses of
lemonade sold F is modeled by the following graph:
Dependent Variable:________ Description of Description of
Profit (`)
EQ of Line:________________
# of glasses sold (n)
6. A candle starts at a height of 5 inches and diameter of 3 inches and burns 1 inch every 2 hours. Think of the
linear function that demonstrates the height of the candle in terms of the time it has been burning ).
Dependent Variable:________ Contextual Description of Contextual Description of

EQ of Line:________________
73
7. The cost (+) to stay in a 4 star hotel each night < is modeled by the following function: + 104< 15
Dependent Variable:__________
Independent Variable:________ Rate of Change Initial Value
Rate of Change:_____________
Initial Value:________________
EQ of Line:__________________
8. The cost + to attend a sports clinic 37 miles away based on the number of days attended L is modeled by
Dependent Variable:_________ Description of Description of
Independent Variable:_______
Cost (d)
EQ of Line:_________________
Days (Z)
9. A dog kennel charges $40 for each night the dog stays in the kennel. Each day includes a 2 hour play time and
1 hour etiquette training. The kennel also charges a $10 bathing fee for a bath before the dog returns home.
Think of the linear function that demonstrates the cost of putting a dog in the kennel + in terms of the number
of nights <.
Dependent Variable:_________ Contextual Description of Contextual Description of

EQ of Line:_________________
74
10. The number of gallons of gas in your 15 gallon gas tank F based on the number of miles traveled O is

modeled y the following function: F D O 12.
Independent Variable:________
Rate of Change:______________
Initial Value:_________________
EQ of Line:__________________
11. The number of pizzas ordered for 8th grade night = based on the number of students J is shown by the
following graph:
Dependent Variable:_________ Contextual Contextual

Number of pizzas (`)
EQ of Line:_________________
Number of students (')
12. It costs $5.50 to mail a large package to New Zealand. The post office will weigh your package and charge
you an extra $0.30 per pound. The delivery takes 2 weeks. Think of the linear function that demonstrates the
cost to mail a large package to New Zealand + based on the number pounds it weighs =.

EQ of Line:_________________
75
13. An author wrote an 876-page book. The amount of profit = based on the number books sold @ is
modeled by the following function: = 7@ 1050.
EQ of Line:__________________
14. The average grade earned on the Unit 3 test F based on the number of hours of studying is modeled by
Dependent Variable:_________ Description of Description of
Grade earned (n)
EQ of Line:______________ ___
Hours of studying ()
15. Kiley invited 32 people to her 13th birthday party at the bowling alley. She hopes most people can come! It
costs $40 to reserve the bowling alley. It will cost an additional $2 per friend to bowl. Think of the linear function
that demonstrates the cost of the birthday party + in terms of the number of friends who attend and bowl .

EQ of Line:_________________
76
16. You started a mowing business so you could buy a 2015 Chevy Camaro when you turn 16. The amount of
money O in your bank account based on the number of yards you mow is modeled by the following
function: O 30.
Dependent Variable:_________
EQ of Line:_________________
17. When an oven is set at 350o, the internal temperature ) of a chicken breast after every minute O it’s in
the oven is modeled by the following graph:
Dependent Variable:__________ Description of Description of
Temperature ()
EQ of Line:______________ ___
Minutes (&)
18. Walter’s Water Adventures charges $34 to enter. This fee helps pay for maintenance and lifeguards. They
always have 3 lifeguards at each slide plus 2 watching the wave pool. Think of the linear function that
demonstrates the number of lifeguards on duty H based on the number of slides open J on a given day.

EQ of Line:_________________
77
2.3A Comparing Linear Equations
In this section we’ll still be using the slope-intercept form of linear function equations. To be able to
accurately compare functions, we may need to get the functions into the same representations, solve various
representations of the functions, find the rates of change in each representation, and find the initial values in each
representation.
Defining the Variables and Writing Equations

We want to make sure we can correctly identify the initial value in each situation so that we define our
variables correctly. The key to equations is finding the lowest terms proportion ratio or slope.
Example 1: A company gained value at the rate of $200,000 per day after its IPO (initial public offering) of one
million dollars.
What is actually being compared here? The hint is in the word “rate” which compares the value in dollars
and the number of days after the company’s opening to the public stock market. That means we could define the
variables and equation as follows:
: :?H>G 6 +6O=?< ;< L6HH?7J
L L?J J;<+G )ℎG pqr
: 200,000L + 1,000,000
Note that in this case the company was initially worth one million dollars. That’s why the one million is the
initial value in this equation.
Example 2: To be a member at a gym you must pay a one-time $25 entry fee plus $10 per month.
Again, think of the slope or rate of change in this problem. How does the rate change? It changes by $10
per month. The entry fee does not change. That’s not part of the change. What changes is how much you pay
when compared to the number of months you sign up for at the gym. That means we are comparing you amount
you pay and the number of months. We define our variables and write the equation based on that as follows:
+ = +6J) 6 FO OGO@G7Jℎ;=
O = <>O@G7 6 O6<)ℎJ 67 OGO@G7Jℎ;=
+ = 10O + 25
The $25 fee was the initial value because that is what you pay initially. That cost does not change over the
number of months.
78
Solving Equations
Let’s solve some linear function problems that have initial values using equations. Consider the gym
membership situation from above. We could ask how much it would cost to be a member for one year. That would
mean that O 12 since one year is twelve months. We’ll substitute and solve as follows:
+ = 10O + 25
+ = 1012 + 25
+ = 120 + 25
+ = 145
This means that the cost for one year would be $145 total. We could also solve this problem if we knew
the cost and not the number of months. For example, how many months of membership could you buy if you had
$365? That would mean that + = 365, so we’ll substitute and solve as follows:
+ = 10O + 25
365 = 10O + 25
365 − 25 = 10O + 25 − 25
365 − 25 = 10O + 25 − 25
340 = 10O
340 10O
=
10 10
340 10O
=
10 10
34 = O
So we could buy 34 months of membership with $365.
Finding the Initial Value (-intercept) or Rate of Change (Slope)

Pretend that a company gained value by $100 per day and after 7 days was worth $850. What was the
initial value of the company? Let’s start by defining the variables and writing an equation as best as we can. We
know we are comparing the value of the company and the number of days. So we might do this:
: = :?H>G 6 +6O=?< ;< L6HH?7J
L = L?J J;<+G )ℎG pqr
: = 100L + @
Notice that we don’t know the initial value because that’s what the question asked us to find. Therefore
we’ll just leave the variable @ in the equation as a place holder for our initial value. However, we do know that after
79
7 days, or when L = 7, the company was worth $850, or : = 850. Let’s substitute those values in and solve for
the initial value, or @.
: = 100L + @
850 = 1007 + @
850 = 700 + @
850 − 700 = 700 + @ − 700
850 − 700 = 700 + @ − 700
150 = @
Therefore the initial value of the company was $150.
Similarly we could solve for the slope, or rate of change, in a problem. Consider an appliance salesman who
gets paid $50 every day plus some unknown amount for every appliance they sell that day. Let’s say the appliance
salesman made $475 after selling 17 appliances. How much does he get paid per appliance? Again, we’ll define
our variables and write the equation first.
= = )6)?H =?
? = <>O@G7 6 ?==H;?<+GJ J6HL
= = O? + 50
Notice that the $50 every day is an initial value for the pay each day. That never changes. We also left the
O in the equation because we don’t know the rate he gets per appliance. So let’s substitute what know, which is
that when ? = 17 then = = 475, and solve for O.
= = O? + 50
475 = O ∗ 17 + 50
475 = 17O + 50
475 − 50 = 17O + 50 − 50
475 − 50 = 17O + 50 − 50
425 = 17O
425 17O
=
17 17
425 17O
=
17 17
O = 25
This means that the salesman gets paid $25 per appliance that he sells.
80
Comparing Linear Functions using Equations
Now we have two values to compare in equations, the rate of change and the initial value. Let’s say that a
restaurant wants to buy paper plates in bulk so they want to join a wholesale store (like Sam’s Club). There are
three stores they could join:
Store 1: Charges a membership fee of $100 and charges $25 per bulk package of paper plates.
Let’s start by defining variables and writing equations for each store.
+ )6)?H +6J)
= <>O@G7 6 @>Hh =?+h?FGJ 6 =?=G7 =H?)GJ =>7+ℎ?JGL
Store 1: + 25= + 100 Store 2: + 30= + 50 Store 3: + 20= + 200
Now it would be difficult to ask which store is cheapest because that depends on how many packages of
paper plates you buy. However, we can ask which store has the cheapest rate for packages of paper plates. Which
one does? Yes, Store 3 with the price of $20 per package.
Which store has the highest membership fee? That would be Store 3 as well since it charges $200.
Which store would give the overall cheapest price if the restaurant needed to buy two packages of paper
plates? What if it were five packages? What if it were ten packages? Substitute each of those values in for = and
solve for +.
Two packages
Store 1: + 25(2) + 100 Store 2: + 302 + 50 Store 3: + 202 + 200
+ 150 + = 110 + = 240
In this case Store 2 is the best store to buy from.
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Five packages
Store 1: + 25(5) + 100 Store 2: + 305 + 50 Store 3: + 205 + 200
+ = 225 + = 200 + = 300
In this case Store 2 is the cheapest.
Twenty packages
Store 1: + 25(20 + 100 Store 2: + 3020 + 50 Store 3: + 2020 + 200
+ 600 + = 650 + = 600
In this case there is a tie for the cheapest store between Store 1 and Store 3. You should be able to
extrapolate (think ahead) and see that if the restaurant needs to buy more than twenty packages of paper plates in
bulk, Store 3 will always be cheaper. Can you explain why?
82
Lesson 2.3A
Use the given equation to solve the questions.
1. If a roller coaster starts 12 meters above the ground and climbs 2 meters every second J, the roller coaster’s
height ℎ would be based on the equation ℎ = 2J + 12. How long would it take to reach the top of the hill
that is 80 meters above the ground?
2. If it is going to cost you $525 dollars to start a lawn care business with your friend, but you will earn an average
sC
of $73 for every 4 yards , your profit = is based on the equation = = − 525. How much profit
would you make if you were scheduled to mow 48 yards the first summer?
3. The CMS dance team is hosting a car wash fundraiser and charging $3 per car. If the dance team washed a
total of 14 cars +, how much money O did the team make if you followed the equation O = 3+?
4. If you spent $10.35 total ) purchasing songs online for $1.15 each, how many songs did you buy J if you
followed the equation ) = 1.15J?
5. Your running pace is 1 mile every 8 minutes. If you ran a distance L of 5.5 miles, how many minutes O

were you running if you followed the equation L = t O?
6. If CMS orders 25 cartons of milk O plus 1 for every 3 students J eating lunch, the number of cartons of

milk they order is based on the equation O = J + 25. How many cartons of milk should they order if there
C
are 399 students eating lunch today?
83
Define variables and create an equation to solve the following questions.
7. At the Charleston Bowling Lanes, it costs $2 to rent shoes plus $1.50 per game of bowling. How many games
would you be able to bowl for $11?
8. You have already read 173 pages in the first book of the Twilight series. If you read about 65 pages every 2
nights, how long will it take you to finish the book that is 498 pages long?
9. To make the perfect pizza, there should be 4 pieces of pepperoni for every 3 slices of mushrooms. If you put
24 pieces of pepperoni, how many mushroom slices should you use?
10. The recipe for iced coffee at Starbucks suggests 2 parts milk for every 3 parts coffee. If a venti (the largest
size) requires 12 ounces of coffee, how many ounces of milk should be added?
$85. If you will have to pay a total of $2125 for the car, how long will it take you to pay it off?
11. Your parents put a down payment on your car, but they are requiring you to pay the monthly payment of
12. The local humane society receives $45 for every dog they give up for adoption. If they spent $920 on
supplies, how much profit will they make if they have 24 dogs to give up for adoption?
13. John has the sequence 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 … What is the 15th term in the sequence?
14. Joe has the sequence 9, 7, 5, 3, 1, −1 … What is the 10th term in the sequence?
15. Jill has the sequence 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6 … What is the 20th term in the sequence?
16. Jane has the sequence −5, −4.25, −3.5, −2.75, −2, −1.25 … What is the 10th term in the sequence?
84
Answer the following questions comparing linear function equations and descriptions.
Dr. Kal is studying how age and gender affect calorie expenditure. Here is the information about the number of
calories burned (+) based on the number of miles (O) walked in a day.
Burns 1390 calories plus 1040 calories from walking Burns 1305 calories plus 220 calories from walking 2
Paul (25) Ishmael (58)
10 miles miles
Jerika (31) Pamela (62)

Calorie expenditure is based on the equation
+ 98O + 1225 O + 1189
Calorie expenditure is based on the equation
0D
+

17. Who burns the most calories per mile, and how do you know?
18. Who burns the least calories per mile, and how do you know?
19. Who burns the most calories without walking, and how do you know?
20. How far would each person have to walk (to the nearest hundredth) to burn 2000 calories?
21. If each person walks 2 miles, who burns the most calories for that day?
22. If each person walks 10 miles, who burns the most calories for that day?
Answer the following questions comparing linear function equations and descriptions.
You are deciding which gas company to choose as you travel across the country on a long vacation with your
family. Here is the information about the cost (+) for gallons of gas (F) for each company.
Charges $81 for 20 gallons of gas

Gas Up Automart
Charges $4.01 for each gallon of gas
The Fuel Shop Full Tank

Cost is modeled by the equation + 4.03F Cost is modeled by the equation + 4.10F
23. Which company charges the most per gallon of gas? How do you know?
24. Which company charges the least per gallon of gas? How do you know?
25. How much would each company charge you for 12 gallons of gas? Which is the cheapest?
85
2.3B Comparing Graphs of Linear Functions
Graphing for comparison is similar to equations in that it is all about the rate of change and initial value.
Graphing Linear Functions with Initial Values

If a linear function is given to us as an equation, we simply graph it using an / chart like we did previously.
Example 1: Adam was given a 3 meter head start and runs at 2 m/s which is the equation L 2) 3.
Notice in this case we don’t have an and as the variable, but we know that the variable L is equivalent
to the variable since it is the dependent variable or output and the variable ) is equivalent to the variable since
it is the independent variable or input. Thus we can graph as follows:
) 0 1 2 3
L 3 5 7 9
Distance in Meters (Z)
Time in Seconds ()
Example 2: A company uses 2 bottles of ink to print 3 t-shirts and the machine uses one bottle to warm up.
Let’s start by defining the variables and writing an equation:
@ @6))HGJ 6 ;<h >JGL
J J;7)J =7;<)GL
Bottles of Ink (N)

@ CJ 1
Now graph with an / chart as follows:
J 0 3 6
@ 1 3 5
Shirts (')
86
Solving Problems with Graphs
If we are given a graph, we can solve problems without the equation. Consider the following graph and
answer the question, “How far did the toy car travel after 8 seconds?”
To solve using the graph, simply go to 8 seconds and move up to the line.
How far did the car travel? It looks like the toy car has traveled 8 meters at
that point.
Similarly we could ask a question such as, “How long did it take the toy car
to travel 5 meters?” Go up to five meters and move over to the line. Looking
straight down from that point we see that it took the toy car 4 seconds.
Time in Seconds ()
Getting Equations from Graphs with Initial Values

We can still get equations from graphs with initial values, but it will take the extra step of looking for the -
intercept on the graph.
First, find the slope using two points from the graph. Notice that on this
graph we have a point on the line at (2,5 and 4,6. Those are not the only two
nice integer value points on this line, but we only need two. Since the slope can
run
uvwx
rise be thought of as uyz , we simply look for how far the line rises and runs between
those two points.
-intercept It goes from 5 meters to 6 meters, so that is a rise of 1. It goes from 2

seconds to 4 seconds which means a run of 2. Therefore the rise over the run is

Time in Seconds ()
. This is our slope, rate of change, or lowest terms proportion ratio (whatever

we want to call it).
We are still missing the -intercept, or initial value, but we can clearly see it on the graph. The line crosses

the -axis at 4, so our initial value is 4. Now we can write the equation: L ) 4. What if we didn’t have the
whole graph, but only those two points to work with? Let’s zoom in and find out.
We still have our two points and therefore can find the slope, but we can’t
see the initial value. However, since we know the slope and a point on the line,
we can substitute those values in to find the initial value.
(9, )
L O) @ 62@
Solve for
initial value Write the
(, i) Substitute equation

L ) @ the slope 622@2

6 4 @ 4@ L ) 4
Substitute
one point
87
Comparing Functions with Graphs
We may need to compare graphs to other graphs or compare graphs to equations. Just as with equations,
one of the main comparison points is the slope of the graph. For example, looking at the following graph, we could
ask which toy race car is faster.
To compare these race cars, we need to know their speeds. The speed is a
Car A measure of distance over time, which is the slope or steepness of each line. So
let’s find the slope for each race car. After finding the rise and run for each car,
we should come to the following values:
Car B
C
Car C Car A: O/J Car B: O/J Car C: 1 O/J Car D: O/J
{
Based on this information, we see that Car D is the fastest car. We also know
Car D that Car A is the slowest. The curious thing is that Car A, even though it is the
slowest, stays above most of the lines for the majority of the graph. This is
Time in Seconds () because of the initial value for each car.
The initial value effectively is a head start for each of the cars. Notice the following initial values:
Car A: 8 O Car B: 4 O Car C: 1 O Car D: 0 O
The reason the slowest car is ahead in the race for most of the graph is because of its tremendous head
start. It received a whopping 8 meter head start!
We could also ask lots of other interesting questions now. For example, if the race were only 5 seconds
long, which car would travel the farthest? Go to 5 seconds on the graph and move up. Which car is highest? Car A
(again, due to the head start).
If the race were 10 meters long, which car would get to the finish line first? Go up to 10 meters and look
over. Which car do you hit first? Car D finishes somewhere between 6 and 7 seconds.
If the race were 10 meters long, what order would the cars finish in? Go up to 10 meters and look over.
Car D finishes first and then Car C, but we’re not sure when Car A and B finish. It turns out that Car A and B would
tie for last place at 12 seconds. Can you prove it?
88
Lesson 2.3B
Use the given graph to solve the linear questions.
1. How much will it cost for ten months of internet 2. How much would it cost for four apples?
service?
Cost in Dollars
Cost in Dollars
Apples
Months
3. How many cups of butter should you use if you 4. How many days will it take to get to page 200 in
use 1 cup of sugar? the book?
Cups of Sugar
Pages Read
Cups of Butter Days
5. How much money will you have saved after 6 6. How many miles can you travel if you have four
months? gallons of gas left in your tank?
Money in Savings
Miles Traveled
Months Gallons of Gas
89
Create an equation for the following linear graphs.
7. Number of pints of paint (=) needed for a certain 8. Number of elves (G) for Santa’s helpers (ℎ)
number of square feet (J)
Pints of Paint (`)
Elves(|)
Santa’s Helpers ()
Square Feet (')
9. Number of saxophones (J) compared to the 10. Cost (+) of an order depending on the number
number of flutes () in an orchestra of shirts (J) purchased
Cost in Dollars (d)

Saxophones (')
Flutes () Shirts Purchased (')
11. A tree’s height (ℎ) based on the number of 12. Number of beats (@) per minute (O) in a hip-
years () since being transplanted hop song
Height in feet ()
Beats (N)
Years ()
Minutes (&)
90
Answer the following questions comparing linear function equations, graphs and descriptions.
Various golf ball manufacturers offer deals for packs of golf balls. Here is the information about the total cost (+)
for golf balls (F) including shipping costs.
Callaway Nike
Charges a fee of $10 for shipping and $5 for 3 golf D
Cost is modeled by the equation + F + 5
balls
Titleist Top-Flight
Cost (d)
Cost (d)
Golf Balls (n) Golf Balls (n)
13. Which manufacturer has the cheapest cost per golf ball, and how do you know?
14. Which manufacturer has the cheapest shipping fee, and how do you know?
15. How many golf balls could you buy at each company for $20? Which manufacturer would give you the most
golf balls for that amount of money?
16. How many golf balls could you buy at each company for $200? Which manufacturer would give you the most
golf balls for that amount of money?
17. Which manufacturer would be the cheapest if you wanted to buy 6 golf balls?
18. Which manufacturer would be the cheapest if you wanted to buy 30 golf balls?
91
Answer the following questions comparing linear function equations, graphs and descriptions.
Scientists are studying how location affects the speed of a bottlenose dolphin. Here is the information about the
distance (L) in kilometers a dolphin traveled in terms of time ()) in hours.
Dolphin in Gulf of Mexico Dolphin in Mediterranean Sea
CD
Swims 11 kilometers in 2 hours Distance is modeled by the equation L )
Dolphin in Indian Ocean Dolphin in North Atlantic Ocean
Distance (Z)
Distance (Z)
Time () Time ()
19. Which location has the fastest dolphin?
20. Which location has the slowest dolphin?
21. How far could each dolphin travel in 4 hours? Which location has the dolphin that went the farthest?
22. How long would it take each dolphin to swim 100 kilometers? Which location has the dolphin that finished in
the shortest amount of time?
92
2.3C Tables of Linear Functions
The final concept we’ll cover this unit is the table form of linear functions that have initial values. This
means that they will follow the form O + @ where O is the rate of change (slope) and @ is the initial value (-
intercept).
Filling Out a Table from Equations and Graphs with Initial Values
Perhaps the simplest thing that we can do is fill out a table based on an equation or a graph. Since the table
is designed to look at specific input/output pairings, we may need to pick appropriate inputs just like we did when
graphing functions. Let’s fill out the tables for the following examples.
Example 1: L 5) − 3
) 0 2 4
L 2 12
For this table, note that some of the values have been given for us. If we are given an input () in this case),
then simply input that into the equation to find the output. For example, we have ) = 0 as an input, so substitute
in as follows: L = 50 − 3. Multiplying five by zero and then subtracting three gives us L = −3.
) 0 2 4
L −3 2 12
If we are given an output (L in this case), substitute that into the equation and solve for the input. For
example, note that we are given L = 2 as an output. Substitute into the equation and solve as follows:
L = 5) − 3
2 = 5) − 3
Adding three to both sides and then dividing by five gives us that ) = 1.
) 0 1 2 4
L −3 2 12
It also works to look for patterns. For example, we see that the L values are going up by fives, so the next
gap for L should be 7, then the 12 is given to us, and the last should be 17. We similarly know that the missing )
value is 3. So our final table filled out (with our solutions in red) should look like this:
) 0 1 2 3 4
L −3 2 7 12 17
93
Example 2:
In this example, we aren’t given axis labels, so we’ll use the standard and
variables. Here’s the table we want to fill out:
2 6 10
9 11
For the values (the input), we can guess from the pattern that we’re
counting by twos. Can you think of a reason for this based on the graph?
2 4 6 8 10
9 11
Now that we have all the inputs, let’s get the outputs ( values). At an input of 2, the output on the graph
is 8. At an input of 6, follow the graph up to see that the output is 10. However, the input of 10 is off the graph.
What will we do? Look for a pattern! Notice that the values are going up by 1 for every 2 in the direction.
Following this pattern, we know that the last output should be 12.
2 4 6 8 10
8 9 10 11 12
Writing the Equation of a Table with an Initial Value

To get a fuller picture of a function, we may want to look at the equation of the function. To get the slope,
we need the rise (the change in the output) and the run (the change in the input). Examine the following table to
see if you can identify the slope.
p< } 2 4 6 8 10
r>) I 2 7 12 17 22
Check the difference between each of the adjacent outputs (outputs that are next to each other) for the
rise. Check the difference between each of the adjacent inputs for the run.
2 2 2 2 Run
p< } 2 4 6 8 10
r>) I 2 7 12 17 22
5 5 5 5 Rise
D
Now we see that the rise is five and the run is two. That means that our slope is and our equation is
D
I } @ so far, but we still need the initial value.
94
To find the initial value in this table, we need to find what the output is when the input is zero. We can
either extend the table backwards following the pattern or solve the equation. Let’s first extend the table
backwards. Since the run is 2, to move backwards we’ll go 2 for the input. Since the rise is 5, to move
backwards on the table, we’ll go 5 for the output. That will look like this:
Run
−2 +2
p< } 0 2 4 6 8 10
r>) I 3 2 7 12 17 22
−5 +5
Work Rise
backwards
This shows us that the output at input zero (or initial value) is 3. Now we can finish our equation meaning
that I 5} 3.
There may be times when it would take too long to count backwards on the table. For those times, just use
the slope and a single input/output pair. Substitute all those values into the generic linear form O @ and
D
solve for @. For example, we know the slope is and the output is I 2 for an input of } 2. Plug all those values
(using the proper variables as input and output) in as follows:
I O} @
5
2 2 @
2
2 5@
Subtracting five from both sides of the equation shows us that @ 3 just like we found earlier.
95
Solving Table Problems with Initial Values
Sometimes the answer is right there in the table, and other times we’ll have to do some digging to find the
answer. Consider the following table that shows the total cost (+) when buying hairless wildebeests (K) after
paying the registration fee with the federal government to own exotic pets. How much was the registration fee?
To answer this question we’ll want to first figure out how much each hairless wildebeest costs by finding the rate
of change (or slope). Find the rise and run like normal.
K 12 14 16 18 20
+ $1900 $2200 $2500 $2800 $3100
Did you find that the rise was $300 for a run of 2 wildebeests? This reduces to $150 per wildebeest. Now
we could extend the table all the way back to zero wildebeests to find the registration fee (which is the initial value),
but it’s probably easier to plug everything we know into an equation as follows:
+ = OK + @
We know it’s $150 per wildebeest, that that is our O value. We also have an input of K = 12 giving us an
output of + = $1900. Now we’ll substitute and solve:
1900 = 15012 + @
1900 = 1800 + @
From here we can see that @ = $100 by subtracting 1800 from both sides of the equation. That means
that the initial value, or registration fee in this case, was $100.
Comparing Tables with Initial Values

To compare linear functions in table form, we need their slope and initial values. Consider the following
three tables each representing stores that sell fire-breathing beetle wings and decide which store sells beetle wings
(K) for the cheapest price (=). Other store charges an entry fee as well.
Hogwarts Diagon Ally Your Mom’s Shop
K 2 4 6 8 10 K 1 2 3 4 5 K 3 6 9 12 15
= $18 $21 $24 $27 $30 = $7 $9 $11 $13 $15 = $13 $16 $19 $22 $25
Finding the rise and run for each store gives us that Hogwarts charges $1.50 per beetle wing, Diagon Ally
charges $2 per beetle wing, and Your Mom’s Shop charges $1 per beetle wing.
By either extending the table backward or using the equation method you should find that Hogwarts
charges an entry fee of $15, Diagon Ally charges $5, and Your Mom’s Shop charges $10 for entry.
If you had to buy 20 beetle wings, which store would be cheapest? Find the equations or extend the tables
to see that the Hogwarts total price would be $45, it would be $45 at Diagon Ally, and would only be $30 at Your
Mom’s Shop.
96
Lesson 2.3C
Create an equation for the following tables.
1. The total cost (+) for miles (O) traveled in a taxi. 2. The money earned O in a number of weeks K.
O 2 4 6 8 10 K 2 4 6 8 10
+ $4.50 $6 $7.50 $9 $10.50 O $10 $20 $30 $40 $50
3. The distance traveled (L) in time in hours (ℎ). 4. The amount of profit (=) of a stand selling lemon
shake-ups (H).
ℎ 2 3 4 5 6
L 14 21 28 35 42 H 250 300 350 400 450
= $50 $200 $350 $500 $650
5. The total weight of an aquarium (?) holding

gallons (F) of water. 6. The number of dogs (L) to herd cattle (+).
F 100 110 120 130 140 + 9 15 21 27 33

? 930 1015 1100 1185 1270 L 3 5 7 9 11
Use the given tables to solve the linear questions.
7. How much would it cost (+) for 15 gallons of gas 8. How many minutes (O) would it take for a pot of
F? water to reach a temperature ()) of 210℉?
F 4 6 8 10 12 O 1 2 3 4 5
+ $14 $21 $28 $35 $42 ) 85 110 135 160 185
9. How much would it cost (+) to buy 13 shirts J 10. How many songs (J) could your purchase for
at Kohl’s? $45 (+)?
J 2 4 6 8 10 J 4 6 8 10 12
+ $10 $30 $50 $70 $90 + $6 $9 $12 $15 $18
11. How many cups of cheese (+) would you need 12. How much profit (=) would Harry’s Hot Dogs
for an 32-inch pizza (=)? make if they sold 400 hot dogs ℎ in a month?
= 8 12 16 20 24 ℎ 200 225 250 275 300

+ 2 3 4 5 6 = 100 150 200 250 300
97
Answer the following questions comparing linear function equations, graphs, tables and descriptions.
Your neighborhood friends have decided to have a running race down the street. Here is the information about the
distance (L) (including a head start in some cases) in terms of time ()) in seconds.
Mitchell Kyra
Runs 5 meters in 2 seconds and has a 10 meter head %
Distance is modeled by the equation L ) + 3
start
Gloria Hashim
) 20 22 24 26 28
L 77 84 91 98 105
Distance (Z)
Time ()
13. Which runner has the fastest pace, and how do you know?
14. Which runner has the biggest head start, and how do you know?
15. How far could each runner go in 4 seconds? Who would go the farthest?
16. How far could each runner go in 10 seconds? Who would go the farthest?
17. Who would win the race if the race was 15 meters long?
18. Who would win the race if the race was 50 meters long?
98
Answer the following questions comparing linear function equations, graphs, tables and descriptions.
Your family is deciding which activity to participate in while on your vacation in San Diego. Here is the information
about the cost (+) for admission for all of your family members ().
City Tour San Diego Zoo
sD
Charges $30 per family member Cost is modeled by the equation +
SeaWorld Kayaking
2 4 6 8 10
+ 65 130 195 260 325
Cost (d)
Family Members ()
19. Which activity is the cheapest per family member, and how do you know?
20. Which activity is the most expensive per family member, and how do you know?
21. How many people could you bring to each activity if you budgeted $400? Which activity allows you to bring
the most people for that amount of money?
22. How much would it cost at each activity to bring a family of 4? Which activity is the cheapest for that many
people?
99
2.4 Solving Linear Equations
When we are solving equations, we are attempting to isolate the variable in order to determine what
specific value that variable has in the given equation. We do this using inverse operations. Sometime we refer to
this as “undoing” the operations that have happened to the variable. Let’s review the basics of solving one- and
two-step equations.
Solving Basic Equations

Let’s start with an example problem. The variable is being added by 3. To “undo” the addition by 3, we
+3=8
subtract 3 from both sides.
-3 -3
=5
We do the same thing with two-step equations except that there are two steps that need to be “undone”
using inverse operations. Also, remember that we “undo” those operations in reverse order. For example, in the
following problem is being multiplied by 2 and then subtracted by 4. Working in reverse order, we need to add 4
to both sides of the equation and then divide by 2.
2 − 4 10
+4 +4
2 14
=
2 2
=7
Combining Like Terms

Now that we remember how to solve these equations, we can solve more complex problems. Before we
begin inverse operations to solve a problem, we want to make the equation as simple as possible. This involves
performing any operations that we know how to do. For example, consider the following equation:
3 + 4 − 9 + 4 9
Do we know how to add 3 and 4? Then we do so and get 7. Do we know how to perform the operation
−9 + 4? Then we do so and get −5. Put that together and our new equation looks like this which we’ll leave as an
exercise to solve and verify the solution of 2 since we have down to a two-step equation:
7 − 5 9
Sometimes this step is called combining like terms because we added/subtracted like terms. Like terms are
those pieces of the equation are the same type of number. In our example, the 3 and 4 were both variables
while the −9 and +4 were both regular numbers. Therefore we combined them. If it’s helpful, we can mark like
terms in some way to show that they are alike. Consider this where the circles show one set of like terms and the
squares show another:
3 + 4 − 9 + 4 9
100
Solving with the Distributive Property
Another way to simplify a problem before applying inverse operations is to use the distributive property. It
is true that we can solve without using the distributive property, but often it is easier to use it.
Remember that the distributive property says ?(@ + +) ?@ + ?+ which means whenever you multiply a
number, ? in this case, by a set of parentheses, you multiply by everything in the parentheses. So to multiply the
parentheses by ? we actually multiply ? by @ and then ? by + before adding those. Note that subtraction would
work the same way so we get ?(@ − +) ?@ − ?+.
Let’s look at this example which we should verify has a solution of 6:
3( − 2) 12
3 ∗ − 3 ∗ 2 12
3 − 6 = 12
Add six to both sides of the equation and then divide by three to get the final answer.
There may also be times where we have to use the distributive property and then combine like terms. In
that case, we follow the order of operations and do our multiplication before combining like terms with addition.
Consider the following example which we should verify has a solution of = 3:
3 + 2 − 7 + 2 = 14
3 + 6 − 7 + 2 = 14
5 − 1 = 14
+1 +1
5 = 15
5 15
=
5 5
=3
Solving with Variables on Both Sides

Another concept that we will need to solve equations is knowing how to deal with equations where there
are variables on both sides of the equation. Since we only know how to solve equations where the variable is on
one side, we need to get the equations into that form. Let’s start with the following example:
4( − 2) + 2 3( − 1 − 11
Note that there are variables on both sides of the equation, but we also need to do some simplification. It
is almost always easiest to simplify first, so let’s do so.
4 − 8 + 2 = 3 − 3 − 11
6 − 8 = 3 − 14
101
Now there are still variables on both sides. We have the 6 on the left side and 3 on the other side. It
would be nice if the 3 were not on the right. So how do we get rid of it? We can subtract 3 from both sides of
the equation because we know that 3 − 3 = 0 which will eliminate the variable on the right side of the equation.
6 − 8 3 − 14
Observe:
−3 − 3
3 − 8 = −14
Now we have it down to a two-step equation which we know how to solve. We’ll leave it as an exercise to
verify the solution is = −2.
Let’s look at one more example of getting the variable on one side of the equation where the solution
should be = 7:
−2 − 6 = −4 + 8 Add 4 to both sides to eliminate

+4 + 4
the −4 on the right side.
2 − 6 = 8
102
Lesson 2.4
Solve each equation by using the distributive property, combining like terms, and eliminating the variable on one
side of the equation.
1. 2 + 3 + 4 5 + 10 2. 2= + 4= − 3 = 2= + 1
% C
3. 8h + 5 + 2h = 23 + h 4. 47 + 7 + 14 = 57 − 7 + 1 − 3

5. 2 + 3 = 2 − 3 + 2 + 6 6. 4 − 1 + 2 = 2 + 2
C D
7. −5 + 2 = 3 + 2 + − 3+ + 4 = + + 7 − 3

8.
9. 10? + 1 = 2? + 2 − 2 10. 5 − 3 + 7 = 3 − 1
103
11. 5L − 25 + 2L = 2L 12. 42) + 1 + ) = 3) + 2

} + 2} + 5 = −4} + 1 + 1 14. 41 − 2> = 2> + 2

13.
15. 5I − I + 3 = I + 3 + 1 16. 6 − 3 + 26 = 5 + 8

17. 6 + 1 = 4 A1 + B + 6 + 3 18. 9O − O + 3 = −2O + 1

19. − − 4 + 3 = 4 + 1 20. −2 + 5 + 6 = 4 + 2
104
Write an equation for each situation and then solve by using the distributive property, combining like terms,
and eliminating the variable on one side of the equation.
21. Tao is making a 7 feet high door. If the height is 1 foot more than twice its width, what is its width?
22. Terikka bought three bags of popcorn at the concession and a drink for $1.50. If she paid $3.75 total, how
much was each bag of popcorn?
23. Naphtali’s cell phone company charges $0.25 per text plus a $10 flat fee. Asher’s cell phone company
charges $0.10 per text plus a $25 flat fee. At how many texts are Naphtali and Asher paying exactly the same
amount?
24. Stanley bought five packs of Yu-Gi-Oh cards, $7 worth of bubble gum, and then eight more packs of Yu-Gi-Oh
cards. Simon bought four packs of Yu-Gi-Oh cards, $10 worth of Cheetos, $12 worth of Mt. Dew, and then six
more packs of Yu-Gi-Oh cards. If they paid the same amount, how much was each pack of Yu-Gi-Oh cards?
25. Toby sells his framed paintings for $20 each. Ishmael sells his paintings for $14 each and charges a flat fee of
$18 for framing. How many paintings need to be purchased for Toby and Ishmael to charge the same amount?
had Doritos on sale at $0.50 off per bag and bought four bags. Later that day, he found out that County Market
26. The original price of Doritos is the same at both Wal-Mart and County Market. Jon found out that Wal-Mart
had Doritos on sale at $1 off per bag and bought six bags. If he paid the same amount at both stores, what was
the original price of Doritos?
105
2.5 Infinite or No Solutions
So far we have looked at equations where there is exactly one solution, but it is also possible to have no
solutions or infinite solutions. No solution would mean that there is no answer to the equation. It is impossible for
the equation to be true no matter what value we assign to the variable. Infinite solutions would mean that any
value for the variable would make the equation true.
No Solution Equations
Let’s look at the following equation:
2 + 3 2 + 7
Note that we have variables on both sides of the equation. So we’ll subtract 2 from both sides to eliminate
the 2 on the right side of the equation. However, something odd happens.
2 + 3 2 + 7
−2 − 2
37
That can’t be right! We know that three doesn’t equal seven. It is a false statement to say 3 7, so we
know that there can be no solution. Does that make sense though? Well if we took twice a number and added
three, would it ever be the same as twice a number and adding seven?
Let’s look at another example equation:
3( + 4) 3 + 11
Note that we need to simplify and that there are variables on both sides of the equation. So we’ll first
multiply through the parentheses with the distributive property and then subtract 3 from both sides to eliminate
the 3 on the right side of the equation. 3 + 4 = 3 + 11
3 + 12 = 3 + 11
−3 − 3
12 = 11
We again get a false statement and therefore we know there are no solutions. Sometimes we use the
symbol Ø to represent no solutions. That symbol means “empty set” which means that the set of all answers is
empty. In other words, there is no answer. So if we want to use Ø to represent no solution, we may.
106
Infinite Solutions Equations
Let’s look at the following equation:
2 + 3 2 + 3
Note that we have variables on both sides of the equation. So we’ll subtract 2 from both sides to eliminate
the 2 on the right side of the equation. However, something different happens this time.
2 + 3 2 + 3
−2 − 2
33
When does three equal three? All the time! This means that it doesn’t matter what value we substitute
for , the equation will always be true. Go ahead and try plugging in a couple of your favorite numbers to verify
this is true.
Also note that twice a number plus three is equal to itself in our original equation. When is something equal
to itself? Always! So there are infinite solutions. Sometimes we use the symbol ∞, which means infinity, to
represent infinite solutions.
Let’s look at one more example with simplification necessary.

−2( + 3) −2 − 6
−2 − 6 −2 − 6
+2 + 2
−6 −6
We again get a statement that is always true and therefore we know there are infinite solutions.
Creating Multi-Step One Solution Equations

Now that we understand how to solve the different types of equations, we should be able to create them.
To create a one solution equation, we can honestly create an equation using any number we want as long as we
don’t have the same amount of variables on both sides of the equation. For example, this equation would have a
single solution because the variables will not “disappear” from both sides of the equation as we simplify:
+ 2 + 3 + 4 5 + 6 + 7 + 8
What is the solution for that equation?
3 + 7 11 + 15
−3 −3
7 = 8 + 15
−15 −15
−8 = 8
÷8 ÷8
−1 =
107
Creating Multi-Step No Solution Equations
To create a no solution equation, we can need to create a mathematical statement that is always false. To
do this, we need the variables on both sides of the equation to cancel each other out and have the remaining values
to not be equal. Take this simple equation as an example.
+1=+2
− −
1=2
Since one does not equal two, we know we have an equation with no solution. However, we want multi-
step equations, so we’ll need to make it a bit more complex. Let’s look at this example:
+ 2 + 1 = 3 + 2 + 3
3 + 1 = 3 + 5
−3 −3
1=5
Notice that we combined like terms first and then eliminated the variable from one side. When that
happened, the variable on the other side was eliminated as well, giving us a false result. There the key to creating
equations with no solutions is to have the coefficients (number in front of the variable) match and the constants
(regular numbers after that) not match.
Creating Multi-Step Infinite Solutions Equations

If we needed to create a false math statement for no solutions, what type of math statement do we need
to create one with infinite solutions? Yes, we need one that will be always true. Consider the following example:
+ 2 + 3 + 3 3( + 2)
3 + 6 3 + 6
−3 −3
66
Again, the coefficients matched after we combined like terms and used the distributive property, but in this
case the constants also matched. This gives us the true statement that six does equal six. Therefore there are
infinite solutions. Let’s look at one more example.
4( + 1 = 4 + 4
4 + 4 = 4 + 4
We should be able to stop here as we notice that the two sides are exactly the same. Four times a
number plus four is always equal to four times that number plus four. Therefore there are infinite solutions.
108
Lesson 2.5
Solve the following equations. Some equations will have a single answer, others will have no solution, and still
others will have infinite solutions.
1. 2 + 2 + 2 4 + 2 2. 3( − 1 = 2 + 9 3. 2 + 8 = 2 + 4
4. 2 − + 7 = + 3 + 4 5. −2 + 1 = −2 + 5 6. 4 + 2 + 2 = 3 − 7

7. 2 + 2 + 3 = 2 + 1 + 1 8. 4 − 1 = − 8 9. + 2 + 7 = 3 − 7

10. 3 − + 4 = 42 − 1 11. 42 + 1 = 5 + 3 + 9 12. 10 + = 5D + 2
2
C D C
13. 8 + 2 = 2 + 16 14. 3 + + 4 = 4 − + 6 = 3 + 9

15.
109
1
2 − 4 + 2 = 13 17. 12 + 2 − = 9 + 6 18. 4 + 1 = 22 + 3
2
16.

19. 4 + 3 − 4 = 8 A + 1B 20. + 5 + 4 = 32 − 1 21. 5 + 2 − 3 = 2 + 5
22. 3 + 1 = 3 − 1 + 4 23. 4 + 2 − 5 = 7 − 1 24. −2 + 1 = 2 − 1
25. 2 + 5 = 2 + 5 26. 23 + 3 = 32 + 2 27. 2 + 1 − 4 = −2 − 3
28. 4 + 1 = 42 − 29. 3 + 7 + 1 = 25 + 1 30. 6 + 1 + 5 = 13 − 2 + 6
110
Create multi-step equations with the given number of solutions.
31. A single solution 32. Infinite solutions 33. No solution
34. Infinite solutions 35. No solution 36. A single solution
37. No solution 38. A single solution 39. Infinite solutions
40. A single solution 41. Infinite solutions 42. No solution
111
2.6 Inverse Linear Functions
An inverse function is a function that undoes what a previous function does. One way to show this using
function notation is to compose two function. We would say that F() is the inverse of () if F() . This
means that if we first input into () and then input that value into F(), we should get back as output our
original input.
A Specific Example
Let’s look at the function () 3 − 6. If we input , we get (). Now if we take (), what do we
have to do to that function to get back our input? For linear functions, we can simply solve for the input to get
our inverse function.
In this case, it may be easier to use the notation 3 − 6. Now we want our output to be the in this
equation and the whole equation to be the input. Therefore we can simply flip the and places and solve.
3 − 6
+ 6 3 − 6 + 6
+ 6 3
+ 6 3

3 3
1
+2=
3

This shows us that our inverse function should be F = C + 2. Now let’s prove that F = .
1
F = F3 − 6 = 3 − 6 + 2
3
F = − 2 + 2 =
Qualities of Inverse Functions

Let’s look for some patterns in the tables of the functions () 3 − 6 and our newly found inverse

function F() C + 2. What do you notice?

() 3 − 6 F() C + 2
−2 −1 0 1 2 −12 −9 −6 −3 0
−12 −9 −6 −3 0 F −2 −1 0 1 2
table of values. We see that the inputs for are the outputs for F and the opposite.
An inverse function is the function where the inputs and outputs are switched, so that shows up in the
112
images (reflections) of each other across the line = .
Let’s see what this means graphically by comparing the graphs. Notice that two functions are mirror
Line of reflection =
()
n
This will have implications when we discuss finding the inverse function to other types of functions
besides linear.
113
Lesson 2.6
Find the inverse function for each of the following.

1. () + 3 2. () − C + 4 3. () 2 + 3

4. () −3 5. () −3 + 5 6. () 2 − 6

7. () − 5 8. () − C − 2 9. () 2 − 7
10. () 2 11. () −3 − 6 12. () + 4
114
Decide if the given functions are inverse functions or not. Explain why or why not.

13. () 2 + 1 14. = − + 4 15. = −4

F = −2 − 1 F = 2 − 4 F = −

C
16. = −2 − 3 17. = − 6 18. = 2
C
F = − − F = +6 F = −
C
Answer the following questions about the function () .

19. Is F() C the inverse function? Why or why not?
20. Is F() −3 the inverse function? Why or why not?
21. Could () have an inverse function? Why or why not?
115
There are two ways we can examine linear inequalities. We can solve an inequalities if there is only one
variable graphing the solution set on a number line, or if given two variables we can graph the solution set on the
coordinate plane.
One Variable Inequalities

Solving one variable inequalities is just like solving equations. We use inverse operations. However, there
is something odd that happens in particular cases. Let’s take a look at a couple of examples.
2 − 17 f −9
2 − 17 + 17 f −9 + 17
2 f 8
2 8
f
2 2
f4
According to our work, any number less than four should be a solution. Check this by plugging in a simple
value less than four, say zero, to see if this is actually true.
20 − 17 = −17 f −9
That statement is true. Therefore we can be confident that we have the correct solution. Now we graph
the solution set f 4 on a number line remembering that less than has an open circle and less than or equal to has
a closed circle.
f4
This is just a visual way to see that any number less than four is a solution to our inequality.
116
Now let’s just slightly modify the original problem by making the coefficient negative and see what
happens.
−2 − 17 f −9
−2 − 17 + 17 f −9 + 17
−2 f 8
−2 8
f
−2 −2
f −4
According to our work here, any value less than negative four should be a correct solution. Let’s check
the value of −5 to see if it works.
−2−5 − 17 = −7 f −9
This statement is not true. Negative five did not work as a solution. What went wrong? It has to do with
the negative coefficient on . Let’s solve that last step in another way.
−2 f 8
−2 + 2 f 8 + 2
0 f 2 + 8
0 − 8 f 2 + 8 − 8
−8 f 2
−8 2
f
2 2
−4 f
This looks like the same solution, but let’s turn it around how we normally see it. If negative four is less
than , then is greater than negative four, or > −4. This is the opposite sign that we got originally. Let’s check
to see if this works by picking a number greater than negative four, say zero, and plug it in to see if it makes a true
statement.
−20 − 17 = −17 f −9
This is a true statement. So our original work had the sign turned around. It looks like inverse operations
didn’t work. However, we make sure that we have the sign the right way by making sure that we change the
inequality sign anytime that we multiply or divide by a negative number.
117
Two Variable Inequalities
Solutions to two variable inequalities is best represented on a coordinate plane. We can put the inequality
in slope-intercept form, graph the associated line, and then graph the solution set. Let’s work through an example
problem to see the notation and results. We’ll start by putting our inequality in slope-intercept form.
4 2 g 6
4 4 2 g 6 4
2 g 4 6
2 4 6
g
2 2
g 2 3
Now we’ll pretend like that is an equals sign instead of an inequality sign and graph that line as follows:
Since we’re dealing less than OR EQUAL TO, we’ll use a solid line. If it
were just less than, we would use a dotted line to show that any point on the
line would not be a solution.
Now think about what each variable means in our inequality. The is
represented vertically, so our inequality really says the height is less than or
equal to the line. So pick any point on the line and go below it. That will be the
area of the coordinate plane that we want to shade.
Graphically, this means that if you pick any point below that line and
substitute the and values into the equality, it will make a true statement.
The final graph looks like the one below.
Pick any point in the shaded area to double check. One easy point to
use is the origin, 0,0. Let’s plug in 0 and 0 in the original inequality.
40 20 0 g 6
This is a true statement, so we have the correct solution set shaded.
118
Lesson 2.7
Solve the following inequalities and graph the solution on a number line.

1.

+3<7 2. − C + 4 ≤ 8
3. 2 + 1 ≥ 11 4. − − 2 > −2

5. − D f 2 6. 4 − 11 ≤ −3

7. 2 + 3 ≥ −13 8. − − 2 > −5
119
Write and solve an inequality for each problem. Graph your solution on the number line.
marching uniforms. They spent $3,500 advertising their fundraiser and make $1.75 per box sold. How many boxes
9. Your middle school band is having a fundraiser selling boxes of Krispy Kreme donuts in order to purchase new
do they need to sell in order to at least break even?
10. The gymnasium can legally hold 1,250 people. During graduation, they set up rows of 15 chairs and have 50
chairs set aside for the faculty. How many rows could they put up in the gym?
11. Every study session at home should be around 20 minutes long. You know that you will spend class time
studying totaling 2 hours exactly. How many study sessions at home should you have if you want to spend at least
5 hours studying?
12. For every 10 box tops, the school library gets $1 to buy new books for you to read. The school spends $200 on
$1,200 of new books?

prizes for the box top competition. How many box tops need to be brought in if the library wants to purchase
120
Graph the solution set to each two variable inequality on the coordinate plane provided.
13. < 2 1

14. g 4

15. k 2 1 16. / C 4
C
17. g 3 7 18. k 2

121
19. 2 f 4 20. 3 2 g 4

21. k 1 22. C C / 1
C
23. 3 2 g 8 24. 2 k 6

122
Review Unit 2: Linear Functions
Please do not use a calculator. No calculator necessary.
Define variables and create an equation to model each of the following situations.
1. You start the day with $22 in your pocket and then 2. You have $4000 in your bank account, and
sell ears of corn for $4 each. you pay $450 for every 12 months of cell
phone service.
3. 4.
Cost in Dollars
Gallons of Gas
5. 6.
Number of 2 4 6 8 10
shirts
purchased Number of 5 6 7 8 9
Amount of $36 $57 $78 $99 $120 songs
money downloaded
spent Cost $5.75 $6.90 $8.05 $9.20 $10.35
7. 4, 1.5, 1, 3.5, 6, 8.5 … 8. 11, 7, 3, 1, 5, 9 …
123
Create a graph representation of the following linear functions.
9. There are 2 teachers for every 10 students 10. You owe your parents $10 for the dish you
on the field trip. broke. You earn $2 every 3 weeks in
allowance.
C
11. ) ) 2 12. ) 3)
Describe the transformation that takes for each function as compared to the function () + 8.
13. () + 3 14. 3
15. 3 ∗ 16. 3
124
Identify the rate of change and initial value in each function, describe the rate of change and initial value in
context, and then give the equation of the line if necessary.
17. The function relating the cost of framing (+) to how many inches of frame around a picture (;) is shown by
Dependent Variable: ________
Independent Variable: ______ Rate of Change Initial Value
Total cost
Rate of Change: ___________
Initial Value: ______________
EQ of Line:________________
Inches of frame
18. The amount of money in dollars a mailman gets paid (=) to deliver mail to houses (ℎ) is modeled by the
following function: = 4 125.
Dependent Variable: __________ Contextual Description of Contextual Description of

Independent Variable: _________
Rate of Change: ______________
Initial Value: _________________
19. Imagine you’re spending winter break visiting your relatives in New York. It costs $1200 for the plane ticket
and $300 per night for the hotel. Think of the function that demonstrates the cost + based on the number of
nights < you spend.
Dependent Variable: _________
Independent Variable: ________
Rate of Change: _____________
Initial Value: ________________
EQ of Line: _________________
125
Write and solve an equation for the following situations.
20. Assuming each car has 4 tires, how many cars can you service if you have 120 tires?
21. It costs $36 to enter a carnival plus $2 for each ticket to play games. How many games can you play if you
have $50 to spend?

22. A recipe for lasagna calls for cup cheese for every layer plus 1 cup of cheese on top. How many cups of

cheese would you need if you wanted to make 4 layers?
Answer the questions on the following page comparing proportional function equations and descriptions.
Carla’s Cookies is looking for a new machine to make their cookies. Here is the information about the amount of
cookies made (+) in terms of time ()) in minutes and power consumption (=) in watts of electricity in terms of time
()) in minutes for the machines.
Machine A: Cookies made is modeled by the equation + 23)

Power consumption is modeled by the equation = 3.5) 4
Machine B: Cookies made is modeled in the following table

) 10 20 30 40 50
+ 200 400 600 800 1000
Power consumption is modeled in the following table

) 10 20 30 40 50
= 16 27 38 49 60
Machine C: Cookies graph Power consumption graph

Power in watts (`)
Cookies Made (d)
Time in minutes () Time in minutes ()
Machine D: Makes approximately 690 cookies in 30 minutes
Consumes approximately 90 watts in 30 minutes plus an initial 3 watts to power up the machine.
126
23. Which machine makes cookies the fastest and how do you know?
24. Which machine makes cookies the slowest and how do you know?
25. Which machine uses the most power per minute and how do you know?
26. Which machine uses the least power per minute and how do you know?
27. Which machine uses the least power to turn on (initially) and how do you know?
28. Which machine would use the least total power if it ran for 30 minutes?
29. Which machine would use the least total power if it ran for 10 minutes?
Solve the following equations for the given variable. There may be a single solution, infinite solutions, or no
solutions.
D
30. 2 + − 8 + 2 3 31. 3(O + 4) − 2O 9

32. 3(2 + 5) − 6 4 + 10 33. 2@ + 2 = C @ + 6
34. 5F + 6 − 2 = 4F + 4 + F 35. 4 + 9 − = 3 + 3
36. 5 − + 2 = 4 + 8 37. 2 + 4 − 5 = 10
127
Find the inverse function of the given function.

38. () D − 8 39. 3 6
Solve the following inequalities and graph the solutions on the number line.

40. +5f4 41. 3 2 g 10

Graph the following inequalities on the coordinate plane.

42. < − 3 43. / 4 1
128
Quarter 1 Review
1. Explain how you determine if an equation, table, or situation represents a function or not.
2. Explain in your own words what domain and range mean.
3. Give the domain and range of the following function:

() −( + 4 5
4. Give the domain on which the graph above is increasing and decreasing.
5. Evaluate ℎ(−4 for the function ) ) 5

6. Complete the table for the following function: () C − 5

7. Explain how you would choose inputs for the function () √ − 6.
8. Determine the initial value and average rate of change over the interval !2, 2" of the function
C
F 5.
129
9. Determine if the following work for finding the average rate of change on the interval !−2, 2" is accurate
or not. If there is a mistake, explain what the mistake is and how to fix it.
P(−2, 8; Q(2, 4

R.O.C. t
−4

12
1

3
10. Determine the maximum or minimum of the following function:
11. Explain how to determine if an equation represents a linear function. Explain how to determine if a graph
represents a linear function. Explain how to determine if a table represents a linear function.
12. Determine the best gas mileage this car can get. Determine which speed gives you the best gas mileage.
Miles per Gallon (&`n)
Miles per Hour (&`)
130
13. Draw a graph comparing distance from home to time that matches the story. Then draw a different graph
comparing speed and time that matches the same story.
A boy started at home and slowly walked toward his friend’s house. After a while, he ran as fast as he
could. Once at his friend’s house, he stayed there for the rest of the day.
14. A woman bought five buckets of chicken from the store. Later she bought five more buckets of chicken,
but this time she had a coupon for $5 off. She spent a total of $95. If you wanted to know how much was
each bucket of chicken was, write an equation to represent this situation.
15. Describe the transformation 2 ∗ F would cause when applied to the linear function gx.
16. Describe the difference between the following transformations caused by the constant c to the linear
function : + and +
17. Determine the rate of change and initial value of the following linear function that shows the number of
feet a rocket travels in terms of time.
Feet traveled (f)
Time ()
18. Use the graph above to describe the context of the rate of change and initial value.
131
19. Write and solve an equation for the following situation: Menards is running a sale for $2.50 off each bag
of fertilizer. Matt bought 6 bags at the sale price and also used a coupon for $5 off a $25 purchase. If his
total was $55, determine the original price of the bags of fertilizer.
20. Determine if the given equation accurately represents the situation below. If not, write an accurate
equation and explain why you made the changes you made.
At Walgreens, 20 oz Gatorade bottles usually cost $1.19; however, since Marley is a preferred customer,
she receives a certain amount off each bottle. If she purchased 5 bottles for $4.70. how much was
discounted off each bottle?
discount
51.19 4.70
21. Describe in your own words what the inverse of a function is. Describe the process for finding the inverse
of a function.
22. Which rocket has the slowest speed where L is distance in feet and ) is time in seconds?
Rocket A Rocket B
260 feet in 10 seconds L 25)
Rocket C
) 2 4 6 8 10
L 40 80 120 160 200
Rocket D
Z

23. Solve C (9 3 11.
24. Solve 3I 4 3I 4.
25. Solve 4? 1 5? 5 ?.
132
26. Find and explain the mistake(s) in the work below. Then describe how to fix the mistake and find the
correct solution.
2@ 3 5@ 3@ 4.
2@ 3 2@ 4
−2@ 2@
34
No solution
27. Solve 2 2 5 / 15 and graph the solution on a number line.
correct solution.
2 4 2 f 10
2 2 f 10
2 4 f 10
2 f 14
f 7

29. Graph the inequality g 4
30. Find and explain the mistake(s) in the work below. Then describe how to fix the mistake and graph the
correct solution.
k 3 2
133
Unit 3: Systems of Equations
3.1 Solving Systems Graphically
3.2 Solving Systems via Substitution
3.3 Solving Systems via Elimination
3.3.1 Reference: System Word Problems
3.4 Solving Systems via Inspection
134
Pre-Test Unit 3: Systems
Please do not use a calculator except where noted in the directions.
Estimate the solution to the system of equations using the graph provided. Give your answer in the form of a
point. (2 pts; 1 pt for the -value and -value within ½ unit, 1 pt for listing as point in order)
1. 3 2 2. 2 3

5 4

Estimate the solution to the system of equations by graphing each equation on the graph provided. Give your
answer in the form of a point. (6 pts; 2 pts for each correctly graphed equation, 1 pt for each correct coordinate
of the apparent solution to within ½ unit)
3. 3 4. 3 3

3 1 2
135
Solve the following systems of equations using any method. There could be one solution, infinite solutions, or
no solution. (8 pts; 2 pts for correct application of solution method, 2 pts for correct value of first variable, 2 pts
for correct substitution of that value and inverse operations, 2 pts for correct value of second variable; no credit
without work or explanation when solving by inspection)

5. 1 6.
+ 2 = 3
4 − 3 = −7 2 − = 3
2 + 3 = 1 4 + 2 = 8
2 + 3 = −7 2 + = 4
7. 8.
3 = 6 − 3 −6 + 4 = −8
4 − = −9 4 − 3 = 2
9. 10.
136
Write and solve equations for the following situations. (10 pts; 1 pt for each correct equation, 2 pts for correct
use of solution method, 2 pts for correct value of first variable, 2 pts for correct substitution and inverse operation
work for second variable, 2 pts for correct value of second variable) YOU MAY USE A CALCULATOR FOR THESE!
11. Candy worth $1.05 a pound was mixed with candy worth $1.35 a pound to produce a mixture worth $1.17 a
pound. How many pounds of each kind of candy were used to make 30 pounds of the mixture?
12. The perimeter of a rectangle is 56 +O. The length of the rectangle is 2 +O more than the width. Find the
dimensions of the rectangle.
Solve the systems of inequalities by graphing on the coordinate plane. (8 pts; 2 pts for correctly graphing each
associated line of the inequality, 2 pts for correct shading on each inequality)
13. 3 2 / 2 14. 2 3 k 3
2 f 4 3 / 6
137
3.1 Solving Systems Graphically
Now that we know how to solve complicated equations, we move on to solving what are called systems of
equations. A system of equations is when we have multiple equations with multiple variables and we are looking
for values that the variables represent so that all of the equations are true at the same time.
We will mainly be dealing with two variables and two equations, but you can solve most systems of
equations as long as you have the same number of equations as variables. As a quick example, consider the
following system:
+ 5
− 1
It doesn’t take too much work to verify the solution of this system is = 3 and = 2. Notice that those
values for and make both equations true at the same time.
3+2=5
3−2=1
The question remains, how do we get that solution?
Solving with Graphs

If we have our equations set up using the and variables, we can graph both equations. Let’s see how
this helps us. To start with, let’s graph the first equation + 5. Remember that we can do this in a couple of
ways. We could simply make an / chart and plot the points. Alternately, we could get the equation in slope-
intercept form and then graph.
Let’s start with an / chart. Remember that in an / chart we pick values and substitute those into
the equation to find values. Confirm on your own that this / chart is correct for + = 5:
-2 -1 0 1 2
7 6 5 4 3
Now we can plot those points on a coordinate plane and connect them to get our graph.
If we don’t like the / chart method, we can turn the equation into slope-intercept form by isolating the
variable on the left side like so:
+ =5
−+ =5− Subtract from both sides
= 5 + (−) Subtract means add a negative
= − + 5 Commutative property
138
Either way, we’ll get a graph that looks like this:
Now we graph the second equation, − = 1, in the same way. It turns into = − 1 and gives us an
overall graph like the following:
What do you notice about those two lines? They intersect. At what point do they intersect? The
intersection is at the point (3,2) which means that = 3 and = 2. What does this tell us about solving systems
of equations using graphs?
Yes, the point of intersection is the solution to the system because that point is the only point on both lines
(assuming we’re dealing with only linear equations for now). In fact, we sometimes write the solution to a system
of equations as a point. So the solution to this system is (3,2).
Let’s try another example. What is the solution to the following system of equations?
4 + 2 = 6
− + 2 = −4
We’ll leave it as an exercise to verify that the following equations are the same system just written in slope-
intercept form:
= −2 + 3
1
= −2
2
Now graph those equations to see where they intersect.

139
It looks like the graphs intersect at the point (2,-1) which we can verify by substituting into the original
equations as follows:
4 + 2 = 6 → 4(2) + 2(−1) = 6
− + 2 = −4 → −(2) + 2(−1) = −4
That means we have the correct solution.
Estimating Using a Graph

So far our solutions have been integer values, but that won’t always be the case. We can still use the
graphing method to get a decent estimate even if it’s not a very nice solution. For example, consider the following
equations and graphs.
1
= +2
3
= −3 + 6
Note that the coordinate where the lines intersect is a little more than 1 and the coordinate of

intersection is little more than 2. We might estimate this solution as (1 , 2 C) or the decimal equivalent. The actual
solution is (1.2, 2.4) for this system, but we’ll discover how to find the exact solution later.
140
Lesson 3.1
Graph the following systems of equations and estimate the solution from the graph.
1. =+1 2. = 2 + 8
C
=− +6 =+6

3. = −2 + 3 4. = 2 + 3

= −4 =4

5. 3 = + 9 6. 4 + 2 = 6
2 = −4 − 8 −6 + 2 = 6
141
7. 3 = 6 8. − + 3 = −18
2 = − + 12 + 2 = −4
9. = − 10. + =6
=+2 =
11. 4 + 3 = 24 12. + =2

2 − 3 = −6 2 − = 10
142
13. − 2 = 2 14. = −4
3 + = 6 = −3 − 4
15. =+3 16. + 5 5

3 6 3 2 8
17. 1 18. 4 2 10
1 2 4 4
143
3.2 Solving Systems with Substitution
While graphing is useful for an estimate, the main way that we can solve a system to get an exact answer
is algebraically. There are a few useful methods to do this, and we will begin with the substitution method. The
general idea with this method is to isolate a single variable in one equation and substitute that into the other
equation.
Isolating a Variable
Consider the following system of equations.
3 + 1
3 + 2 = 4
It is always best to check if one variable has a coefficient of one and isolate that variable. Remember that
a coefficient is a number multiplied by a variable. That means that a coefficient of one will mean that the variable
doesn’t have a number in front of it because the one is understood to be there, and we don’t write it. In this case,
notice that the in the first equation has a coefficient of one. It would probably be easiest to isolate that variable.
Let’s do so.
3 + − 3 = 1 − 3
= 1 − 3
Substitution
Now that we know what is equal to in the first equation, we can substitute that expression for in the
second equation. Be careful to not plug back into the first equation or else we’ll end up with infinite solutions every
time. Since we want a solution that is true in both equations, we must use both equations.
3 + 2 4
3 + 2(1 − 3 = 4
3 + 2 − 6 = 4
−3 + 2 = 4
Now that we have it down to a simple two-step equation, we can solve like normal and get the following:
−3 + 2 − 2 = 4 − 2
−3 2
=
−3 −3
2
=−
3
144
Finding the Second Variable Value
Now that we know what equals, we can substitute that back into either of the original equations to find
what the coordinate is at the point of intersection of the two lines. It is also a good idea to plug in this value
into both equations to make sure they give the same value. We’ll start with the first equation.
3 + = 1
2
3 − + = 1
3
−2 + = 1
−2 + 2 + = 1 + 2
=3
Double Check

This means that the solution should be the point (− C , 3), but we found that value using the first
equation. We need to make sure this point is on the second line as well, so let’s substitute the values into that
equation.
3 + 2 = 4
2
3 − + 2(3) = 4
3
−2 + 6 = 4
That statement is true and therefore the point is on the second line as well. So our solution is the point

(− C , 3) for this system. Just for some extra confidence, examine the following graph of the system of equations
and notice that the point we found is indeed the point of intersection.
145
Coefficients Other Than One
It may be the case that we have all coefficients with values other than one. We can still use substitution,
but we’ll have to be a bit more careful isolating one variable at the beginning. Let’s consider the following system
of equations.
2 + 4 8
3 + 2 7
In this case, it might be easier to solve the first equation for because the coefficient for and the 8 will
easily divide by 2. So let’s isolate the in the first equation as follows:
2 + 4 − 4 8 − 4
2 8 − 4

2 2
4 − 2
Now substitute that value into the second equation as follows:
3 + 2 7
3(4 − 2) + 2 7
12 − 6 + 2 = 7
12 − 4 = 7
12 − 12 − 4 = 7 − 12
−4 = −5
−4 −5
=
−4 −4
5
=
4
146
Now that we have the coordinate, we can plug in to find the value.
2 + 4 = 8
5
2 + 4 = 8
4
2 + 5 = 8
2 + 5 − 5 = 8 − 5
2 = 3
2 3
=
2 2
3
=
2
C D
So our solution is A , B. We’ll leave it as an exercise to double check using the second equation.

Infinite and No Solutions

It is still possible to get infinite solutions or no solution for a system of equations. After the substitution
step, if we get down to a number equals a number statement that is always true, there are infinite solutions. If we
get down to a number equals a number statement that is false, there are no solutions. This is really the application
of what we learned earlier in this unit about solving equations with one variable and getting infinite or no solutions.
147
Lesson 3.2
Solve the following systems using the substitution method.
2 + 8 12 + =7
− 2 = 0 2 + = 5
1. 2.

3. =5 4. = − + 1
2 − = 9 2 + 3 = 6
2 + = −16 4 = 8
− 2 = −28 2 + 5 = 11
5. 6.
+ =2 + 2 = 4
−2 + 4 = −19 3 − 4 = −3
7. 8.
2 + = 4 + =2
2 = −4 + 8 + =5
9. 10.
148
= 3 = 2 + 3
3 + 3 = 4 = 4 − 1
11. 12.

13. − 3 = 0 14. 2 − C = −9

C
+ =2 −3 + = 15
=2 4 = 3 + 3
2 + = 4 =2
15. 16.
C
= 2 − 2 = −1

17. 18.
=−1 3 = + 4
+ 2 = 0 2 = −6
3 + 4 = 4 + 2 = −1
19. 20.
149
− 4 = 1 − 2 = 3
2 − 8 = 2 4 − 8 = 12
21. 22.
=0 = 2 − 3
3 − 6 = 12 = 2 + 4
23. 24.

25. 2 − 3 = −24 26. C
− 2 = 12

+ = −5 = −2 − 2

+ =6 + 2 = 7
2 = −2 + 2 2 − 8 = 8
27. 28.
2 = 6 − 14 = − + 3
3 − = 7 2 + 2 = 4
29. 30.
150
Write and solve a system of equations using any method (graphing, elimination, or substitution) for each of the
following situations.
31. Leonard sells small watermelons for $7 each and large watermelons for $10 each. One day the number of
small watermelons he sold was fifteen more than the number of large watermelons, and he made a total of $394.
How many small and how many large watermelons did he sell?
32. The perimeter of a rectangle is 28 cm. The length of the rectangle is 2 cm more than twice the width. Find
the dimensions of the rectangle.
33. The sum of Julian’s and Kira’s age is 58. Kira is fourteen less than twice as old as Julian. What are their ages?
34. A 3% solution of sulfuric acid was mixed with an 18% solution of sulfuric acid to produce an 8% solution.
How much 3% solution and how much 18% solution were used to produce 15 L of 8% solution?
35. Supplementary angles are two angles whose measures have the sum of 180 degrees. Angles X and Y are
supplementary, and the measure of angle X is 24 degrees greater than the measure of angle Y. Find the measures
of angles X and Y.
151
36. At the end of the 2000 baseball season, the New York Yankees and the Cincinnati Reds had won a total of 31
World Series. The Yankees had won 5.2 times as many World Series as the Reds. How many World Series did
each team win?
37. Peanuts worth $2.25 a pound were mixed with cashews worth $3.25 a pound to produce a mixture worth
$2.65 a pound. How many pounds of each kind of nuts were used to produce 35 pounds of the mixture?
38. Ernesto spent a total of $64 for a pair of jeans and a shirt. The jeans cost $6 more than the shirt. What was
the cost of the jeans?
39. The perimeter of a rectangular garden is 68 feet. The length of the garden is 4 more than twice the width.
What are the dimensions of the garden?
40. The Future Teachers of America Club at Paint Branch High School is making a healthy trail mix to sell to
Sunflower seeds cost $4.00 per pound, and raisins cost $1.50 per pound. If the group has $34.00 to spend on the
students during lunch. The mix will have three times the number of pounds of raisins as sunflower seeds.
raisins and sunflower seeds, how many pounds of each should they buy?
152
3.3 Solving Systems with Elimination
Sometimes it is easier to eliminate a variable entirely from a system of equations rather than use the
substitution method. We do this by adding opposite coefficients together to get zero of one variable.
Subtracting to Eliminate
We first need to decide which variable is easiest to eliminate. Consider the following system of equations.
3 + 1
3 + 2 = 4
Notice that in this case the coefficients for are the same. This means that they will be easily eliminated.
If we subtract 3 from both sides of the first equation, we will eliminate the variable from the left side but will still
have are the right side. However, if we instead subtracted 3 + 2 from the left side we could subtract 4 from
the right side because we know that 3 + 2 is exactly equal to 4 thanks to the second equation. (Remember that
if we’re going to solve a system of equations, we’ll have to use both equations somehow, which is what we just
did.)
This is sort of like repossession in a way. If you don’t have the money to pay the bank, they can repossess
your property up to an equivalent value of what you owe. In the same way, if we don’t want to take away 3 +
2 from the right side, we can take away something equivalent which is 4 in this case. Let’s take a look.
3 + = 1
−3 + 2 − 4
0 − 1 = −3
Notice that it almost looks like we subtracted the second equation from the first. What we actually did was
subtract expressions that are equal from both sides to keep the first equation balanced. Now we can solve since
we have zero ’s left.
−1 = −3
−1 −3
=
−1 −1
=3
153
Now that we know what equals, we can substitute that back into either equation to find the value of
the solution point.
3 + = 1
3 + 3 = 1
3 + 3 − 3 = 1 − 3
3 = −2
3 −2
=
3 3
2
=−
3

So we get the solution A− C , 3B which can verify is in the second equation by substituting both values in to
make sure it is a true mathematical statement.
Adding to Eliminate
Adding to eliminate a variable will work the same way. In this case we should find one variable with the
opposite coefficient of the same variable in the other equation. For example, consider this system of equations:
3 + 2 4
− 2 4
Notice that the first equation has 2 as the coefficient for and the second equation has a -2 as the
coefficient. That means we should be able to add ( − 2) to both sides of the first equation. However, remember
that we don’t want to end up with more of the variable on the right side, so we will add something equivalent to
it. In this case that will be 4.
3 + 2 4
+( − 2) +4
We get 0 which means that the
4 = 8
variable is eliminated
4 8

4 4
2
We’ll leave it as an exercise to show that from here we can get −1 which means that our solution to
this system of equations is the point 2, −1.
154
When the Coefficients Don’t Match
The elimination method works fine when the coefficients match or are opposites, but what about when it
is just a messy system of equations like this?
2 + 3 −1
4 + 5 = −1
Solving this system by the substitution method would mean dealing with fractions and the coefficients don’t
match so it looks like the elimination method won’t work either. However, is there a way we can get the coefficients
to match?
Notice that in the first equation we have a 2 and in the second we have a 4. Wouldn’t it be nice if the
first equation had a 4 instead of the 2? Is there any way we can make that happen? If we multiply both sides of
the first equation by 2, we will maintain equality and have 4 to match the second equation. Let’s do so.
22 + 3 = 2−1
4 + 6 = −2
Now that we have matching coefficients we can use the elimination method to continue to solve by
subtracting 4 + 6 from the left side of our new equation and subtracting -2 from the right side since that is
equal to 4 + 6.
4 + 6 −2
−(4 + 5) − (−1
0 + 1 = −1
= −1
From here we can again substitute = −1 into either original equation to find that = 1 which gives us
the solution of 1, −1.
Infinite and No Solutions

It is still possible to get infinite solutions or no solution for a system of equations. If both variables get
eliminated and we get down to a number equals a number statement that is always true, there are infinite solutions.
If we get down to a number equals a number statement that is false, there are no solutions.
155
Lesson 3.3
Solve the following systems using the elimination method.
+ =1 2 + 3 = 7
− =5 −2 + = 5
1. 2.

3. 3 + = 6 4.
+ 3 = 1
3 − 2 = 9 3 + 3 = 6
+ = −3 4 + = −9
− =1 4 + 2 = −10
5. 6.

+ 2 = −10 −2 + = 10
D
7. 8.
2 + 2 = −10 4 + = −8
−4 = 4 =1
4 − 3 = −10 6 − 5 = 11
9. 10.
156
− 2 = 5 3 + = 5
3 − 2 = 9 2 + = 10
11. 12.
C
13. =5 14. 3 + = 6
2 − 3 = 16 3 − 2 = −1
15. 4 − 3 = 12 16. −5 + 3 = 6

C
+ 2 = 12 − =4
3 = 6 3 + = 2
4 − = −2 6 + 3 = 5
17. 18.
+ =4 + =2
2 + 2 = 8 2 + 2 = 8
19. 20.
157
+ 3 = 12 2 + 3 = 10
2 − 3 = 12 5 + 7 = 24
21. 22.
5 + 4 = −3 5 − 4 = −8
10 − 2 = −3 3 + 8 = 3
23. 24.

25. 4 − 7 = 10 26.
− 3 = −4
3 + 2 = −7 4 = 8
3 − 4 = −10 4 + 3 = 19
5 + 8 = −2 3 − 4 = 8
27. 28.
C
29. 4 + = 17 30. 3 + 4 = −25
6 + 5 = 20 2 = −6
158
Write and solve a system of equations using any method (graphing, elimination, or substitution) for each of the
following situations.
31. The sum of two numbers is 82 and their difference is 26. Find each of the numbers.
32. Kathryn buys 8 cups of coffee and 2 bagels one day and pays $31. Harry buys 3 cups of coffee and 3 bagels
the same day and pays $17.25. How much is each cup of coffee and each bagel?
33. Farmer Deanna looks out her window and counts a total of 64 legs on a total of 20 animals. If she has only
sheep and chickens, how many of each does she have? (Hint: Sheep have 4 legs each and chickens 2 legs each.)
34. Tyler and Pearl went on a 20-kilometer bike ride that lasted 3 hours. Because there were so many steep hills
on the bike ride, they had to walk for most of the trip. Their walking speed was 4 kilometers per hour. Their riding
speed was 12 kilometers per hour. How much time did they spend walking?
35. A used book store also started selling used CDs and videos. In the first week, the store sold 40 used CDs and
videos at $4.00 per CD and $6.00 per video. The sales for both CDs and videos totaled $180.00. How many CDs
and videos did the store sell in the first week?
159
36. A metal alloy is 25% copper. Another metal alloy is 50% copper. How much of each alloy should be used to
make 1000 grams of a metal alloy that is 45% copper?
37. Dried apricots worth $3.25 a pound were mixed with dried prunes worth $4.75 a pound to produce a mixture
of dried fruit worth $3.79 a pound. How much of each kind of fruit was used to produce 25 pounds of mixture?
38. One number added to twice another number is 23. Four times the first number added to twice the other
number is 38. What are the numbers?
39. The owners of the River View Restaurant have hired enough servers to handle 17 tables of customers, and
the fire marshal has approved the restaurant for a limit of 56 customers. How many two-seat and how many
four-seat tables should the owners purchase?
40. The Rodriguez family and the Wong family went to a brunch buffet. The restaurant charges one price for
$40.50. The Wong family has three adults and one child, and their bill was $38.00. Determine the price of the
adults and another price for children. The Rodriguez family has two adults and three children, and their bill was
buffet for an adult and the price for a child.
160
3.1 – 3.3 Solving Systems Word Problems
A word problem with systems of equations will mean that we need to write our own equations for the
problems before beginning the solving process. We’ll work through a few common examples of system word
problems writing the equations together, but leaving the actual solving as an exercise. A note of caution: some
problems may be able to be solved using the guess and check strategy, but no credit will be given without work.
Since we have been given some specific methods to solve systems, we will be expected to use one of those methods.
Money Systems
Frodo bought 7 packs of Yu-Gi-Oh cards and 3 packs of gum and paid $29.19.
Bilbo bought 4 packs of Yu-Gi-Oh cards and 1 pack of gum and paid $15.98.
How much is each pack of Yu-Gi-Oh cards and each pack of gum?
The most important thing to do is to define our variables. In this case we want the cost of each thing, so
we’ll let be the cost of a pack of Yu-Gi-Oh cards and let F be the cost of a pack of gum. Since we get the total cost
by multiplying the number of things we buy by their price, we can write the following equation for Frodo.
7 + 3F 29.19
In other words, 7 times the cost of each Yu-Gi-Oh pack plus 3 times the cost of pack of gum gives us the
total costs of $29.19. In the same way we can write an equation for Bilbo.
4 + F = 15.98
In this case, substitution or elimination may work best since we would need an extremely zoomed in graph
to be accurate to the nearest hundredth. Either way, we get the solution of = $3.75 and F = $0.98. Notice that
it doesn’t necessarily make sense to write this solution as a point because we’re not using and .
Age Systems
Jean-Luc’s age plus William’s age is equal to 95. Jean-Luc is 11 years older than
William. How old are Jean-Luc and William?
In this case, we’ll define our variables to let equal Jean-Luc’s age and K equal William’s age. Now we can
write an equation to show their total age.
+ K = 98
Since the problem states Jean-Luc is, we know we’ll start the second equation with . Now since he is 11
years older than William, that would be William’s age plus 11. Therefore we get our second equation like so:
K + 11
In this case, substitution may work best since we already have isolated in the second equation.
Substituting that back into the first equation will show us that K = 42 which means that = 53. So Jean-Luc is 53
years old and William is 42 years old.
161
“How Many” Systems
An amusement park charges $15 for a child and $25 for an adult. If one day the
park made $37,250 and had 2,000 people attend, how many children and how
many adults attended the park that day?
We’re looking for the number of adults and children so let’s have ? be the number of adults and + be the
number of children. With that in mind, let’s start with the total attendance since that is the easier equation. The
number of the children plus the number of adults is the total number of people attending.
+ + ? = 2000
The second equation will have to do with the money aspect of the park. Again, we find the total amount of
money made by multiplying the price of admission times the number of people of that age group for both age
groups. Then we’ll add them up. That gives us this equation:
15+ + 25? = 37250
In this case, either substitution or elimination will work nicely. For substitution solve the first equation for
either variable. For elimination multiply the first equation by either coefficient from the second equation and then
subtract. Either way, we find the solution is + = 1275 and ? = 725. This means that there were 1275 children and
725 adults attending the amusement park that day.
Finding Two Numbers Systems

The sum of two numbers is 214. The first number is 18 more than three times
the second number. What are the two numbers.
We need to carefully define our variables first. We’ll let be the first number and let J be the second
number. We know that sum means add, so our first equation is:
+ J = 214
The second equation will start with = since it says “the first number is” and then we’ll have three times
the second number plus 18 (because it’s “more than”).
= 3J + 18
Substitution may be the suggested method here since we have isolated already. We should find the
solution of J = 49 and = 165.
162
Rectangle Systems
A rectangle has a perimeter of 42 cm and the length is 5 less than the width.
What are the length and width of the rectangle?
We’ll let H be the length the rectangle and K be the width of the rectangle. We can handle the perimeter
in two ways. We know the formula for the perimeter of a rectangle is = = 2H + 2K, so we can use that. However,
it may be easier to realize that we can divide that equation by 2 on both sides to find the fact that the sum of the
length and width is half the perimeter. Let’s use that fact for our first equation.
H + K 21
Since the length is 5 less than the width, we get the following for our second equation:
H =K−5
Again, it appears that substitution will work nicely since we have H isolated already. We will get the solution
of K = 13 +O and H = 8 +O. Don’t forget the units!
163
3.4 Solving Systems by Inspection
What makes a system of linear equations have a single solution, no solutions, or infinite solutions? One of
the first representations we looked at for systems was the graphical representation. What is true about the
following systems of linear equations that have either infinite or no solution?
One solution No solutions Infinite solutions

= 2 + 1 = 2 + 1 = 2 + 1
= −3 + 1 = 2 − 7 2 1
Notice that the systems with no solutions and infinite solutions both have the same slope. In other words,
the lines are parallel. If those parallel lines have different -intercepts, then there are no solutions to the system.
If those parallel lines are in fact the same exact line (same slope and same -intercept), then there are infinite
solutions. The lines are sitting right on top of each other. Therefore if we could quickly determine whether two
lines have the same slope, we could know if it will have infinite or no solutions.
Standard Form
If the two equations are given in slope-intercept form, then we can readily see the slope and -intercept.
Same slope and different intercept would mean no solution. Same slope and same intercept would mean infinite
solutions. However, not all equations are given in slope-intercept form. Another common form of a linear equation
is called standard form, which is: P + Q = R.
Consider the following system of equations given in standard form. We can’t readily see the slope or -
intercept since they are both in standard form.
2 + = 5
4 2 10
So how can we find the slope? We could solve each equation for , but this method is called inspection.
We’re looking for a quicker way. Let’s get the second equation in slope-intercept form and see if we can find any
patterns of where the slope comes from.
164
4 2 10
4 2 4 10 4
2 4 10
2 4 10

2 2
2 5
Notice that we got the slope from dividing the coefficients of the variables. Specifically, if we started with
the standard form equation P Q R, we took P divided by Q. In other words, we can simply look at the
ratio of the coefficients in each equation. If they are the same, then the lines will have the same slope meaning it
will definitely either have no solutions or infinite solutions. Look at the original system again:
2 5
4 2 10

Notice that the ratio of the coefficients, , for both equations is equal: 2. That means there

are either no solutions or infinite solutions. The -intercept will tell us which one, but remember that if the two
equations are the exact same, there will be infinite solutions. Otherwise it will be no solutions.
If we divided the second equation by 2 on both sides we would get the first equation. Since the two
equations would be the same, any point on the line represented by the first equation would be on the line of the
second equation. That means we know there are infinite solutions and didn’t have to do any work at all.
Now consider the following system. How many solutions are there?
3 − 2 = 5
2 3 5
C
Check the ratios of the coefficients. Notice that 3 C which means that the lines are not parallel. That
tells us there is one solution, and we should use graphing, substitution, or elimination to find the solution.
Solution Steps
In essence, we follow these steps if the equations are not in slope-intercept form:
1) Make sure both equations are in standard form and check if the ratio of the coefficients are equal
a. If the ratios are not equal, there is a single solution, and you need to solve.
b. If the ratios are equal, then check if you can make the equations exactly the same.
i. If the equations can be made the same, there are infinite solutions.
ii. If the equations cannot be made the same, there are no solutions.
165
Lesson 3.4
Decide if the following systems of equations have a single solution, no solutions, or infinite solutions. If it has a
solution, solve the system.
+ =1 2 + 3 = 7
+ =5 4 + 5 = 13
1. 2.

3.

+ 3 = 1 4. + C = −10
+ 6 = 2 3 + = 30
2 = 6 + =2
3 + = 12 3 + 3 = 6
5. 6.
+ 5 = 9 2 = 5
+ 5 = 6 4 = 15
7. 8.
C
9. + D = 2 10. 3 + = 10
= −2 + 3 − 10 = −3
3 + = 5 6 + 4 = 10
= −3 + 5 3 − 10 = −7
11. 12.
2 + = 4 5 − 4 = 3
− 5 = −2 5 = 4 − 3
13. 14.

7 + 5 = 3 − =0
C
15. 16.
5 − 3 = −7 2 = 3
4 = 4 =2
2 + 2 = 4 2 + = 4
17. 18.
+ 4 = 2 10 = 10 − 2
2 + 4 = 10 5 + = 5
19. 20.
166
Write a system of equations for each situation and solve using inspection.
21. The sum of two numbers is 100. Twice the first number plus twice the second number is 200. What are
the numbers?
22. The perimeter of a rectangle is 40 in. Twice the length of the rectangle is 20 minus twice the width. What
are the length and width?
23. Coffee worth $2.95 a pound was mixed with coffee worth $3.50 a pound to produce a blend worth $3.30
a pound. How much of each kind of coffee was used to produce 44 pounds of blended coffee?
24. Jeri has a total of 40 pets with a total of 160 legs. If she owns only cats and dogs, how many of each does
she have?
25. Pam’s age plus Tom’s age is 65. Twice Pam’s age is equal to 130 minus twice Tom’s age. How old are they?
26. The sum of two numbers is 50. Three times the first number minus three times the second number is 30.
What are the numbers?
27. The perimeter of a rectangle is 30 cm. Four times the length of the rectangle is equal to 120 minus four
times the width. What are the length and width?
28. A customer bought six cups of coffee and four bagels and paid $10. Another customer bought three cups
of coffee and two bagels and paid $15. How much are each cup of coffee and each bagel?
29. A family went to Six Flags and bought two adult tickets and five child tickets and paid $160. A second family
bought two adult tickets and eight child tickets and paid $220. How much is each adult ticket and each
child ticket?
30. Jorge bought two T-shirts and four hoodies for the CMS Student Council for $80. Xavier bought one T-shirt
and two hoodies for $40. How much is each T-shirt and each hoodie?
167
When solving a system of linear inequalities, the best representation of the solution is graphical. Let’s look
at an example problem and review what we already know about linear inequalities in order to decide how to deal
with systems of inequalities.
f 2 + 1
1
/− −4
2
First recall that for a linear inequality in two variables, the best thing to do is graph it on the coordinate
plane. Also remember that a strictly less than or greater than has a dotted line and an “or equal to” uses a solid
line when graphing the associated linear equation. So let’s start by graphing both of these inequalities.
Notice that there is a section of the graph that is double shaded.

Since both of our inequalities must be true at the same time, this is the
solution area. We can check this by substituting the coordinates of a
point found in that solution area into both inequalities and making sure
both statements are true. For example, the origin (0,0) is in the
solution area (the double shaded portion).
0 f 2(0) + 1
1
0 / − (0) − 4
2
It is not difficult to see that both of these statements are true thus
justifying our solution area.
To check another way, pick a point that is in a solution area to a single inequality but not the other, like the
point (−4,0) or (0, −6).
(−4,0) cannot be a solution to the system (0, −6) cannot be a solution to the system
0 f 2(−4) + 1 is not true −6 f 2(0) + 1 is true

0 / − (−4) − 4 is true −6 / − (0) − 4 is not true
To wrap up, the graph represents our solution to a system of linear inequalities with the double shaded
area containing all the points that make both inequalities true simultaneously.
168
Lesson 3.5
Solve the given systems of inequalities by graphing on the coordinate plane.
1. f 3 − 2 2. k
k − + 1 k 2 − 2

3. g −C + 4 4. f −
k −2 + 1 g 3 + 2
C
5. g − 2 6. / 3 − 4

/ − +3 / 4 + 3
C
169
7. 2 + f −2 8. + k0
4 + 2 k 10 + 2 k 4
9. −2 + 3 g 6 10. − f0

−4 + 3 k −9 − + 2 g −2
11. 6 − 3 g −9 12. + 2 / −4
2 − 5 / 10 3 2 / 4
170
Review Unit 3: Systems
Estimate the solution to the system of equations using the graph provided. Give your answer in the form of a
point.
1. = −3 + 2 2. = 2 − 5

2 4
C
answer in the form of a point.
3. = 3 − 7 4. 2 7

C 3 3
171
answer in the form of a point.

5. −2 + 2 = 4 6. + C = 2
+ = −8 − + = −10
Solve the following systems of equations using any method. There could be one solution, infinite solutions, or
no solution.
7. 3 + 3 = 9 8. − 2 = 8

+ =3 − + 2 = −11
9. =5 10. 6 2 8
4 3 4
11. 1 12. 3 5

2 2 4 6 2 10
172
Write and solve equations for the following situations. YOU MAY USE A CALCULATOR ON THESE!
13. Kera sells glasses of Koolaid for $1 each and lemon shakeups for $3 each. One day she sold 10 more lemon
shakeups than glasses of Koolaid, and she made a total of $190 selling. How many glasses of Koolaid and lemon
shakeups did she sell?
14. The perimeter of a rectangle is 14 cm. The length of the rectangle is 4 cm more than twice the width. Find
the dimensions of the rectangle.
15. A 12% brine solution was mixed with a 16% brine solution to produce a 15% brine solution. How much of
the 12% brine solution and how much of the 16% brine solution were used to produce 40 L of the 15% solution?
16. One customer purchased 2 lattes and 1 hot chocolate for $9. The next customer purchased 2 lattes and 3 hot
chocolates for $13. How much did each latte and each hot chocolate cost?
173
Solve the systems of inequalities by graphing on the coordinate plane.
17. 3 + k −2 18. + 3 k 0
6 + 2 f 8 − 2 k 4
19. −2 − 3 g −6 20. − 3 f 0

4 + 3 k 9 − + 2 g −6
174
Unit 4: Exponential Functions
4.0 Exponent Property Review
4.3 Transforming Exponential Functions
4.4 Solving Exponential Functions
4.5 Comparing Exponential Functions
175
Pre-Test Unit 4: Exponential Functions
You may use a calculator on parts of the test.
Evaluate the following rational roots. NO CALCULATOR. (4 pts; 2 pts for correct process, 2 pts for correct answer)

1. 16 2. 125
Determine if the following statements are true or not. Justify your answer. NO CALCULATOR. (4 pts; 2 pts for
correct answer, 2 pts for justification)

= √ C = C

3. 4.
Determine the appropriate value to make the equation true. Justify your answer. NO CALCULATOR. (4 pts; no
partial credit)
?
5. I = √I D 6. 64 = 2 ?
Graph the following functions by filling out the tables. NO CALCULATOR. (4 pts; 2 pts for correct table, 2 pts for
graph correctly based on table)
1
7. () = 21C 8. () = AB − 7
1 2 3 4 5 2 1 0 1 2

176
Find the average rate of change over the interval !−, " for the following functions. YOU MAY USE A
CALCULATOR. (4 pts; no partial credit)
9. () = 21 − 7 10. 31
Describe the transformation that would take place given the parent function () = . Then draw a quick
sketch of the graph. YOU MAY USE A CALCULATOR. (4 pts; 2pts for correct description; 2pts for correct sketch)
11. (−) 12. ( + 3)
13. −2 ∗ () 14. () − 5
177
Create an equation for the following graph, table, or situation. YOU MAY USE A CALCULATOR. (4 pts; partial
credit at teacher discretion)
15. 16. A woman invests $10,000 at a compound interest rate of 2%.

0 1 2 3 4
6 5 3 1 9
Answer the following questions about the function `() = iVV(V. ) . YOU MAY USE A CALCULATOR.
(4 pts; no partial credit)
17. If the function =()) models the population of an endangered species after ) years, what is their current
population and growth rate? (2 pts each)
18. What would we expect their population to be in 10 years to the nearest whole number?
19. What was their approximate population 10 years ago to the nearest whole number?
20. Using graphing technology, approximately when will the population of the endangered species be only 250?
178
Charleston has a population of about 88, VVV people (not counting college students) and is growing at a rate of
about V. i%. Mattoon’s population change can be modeled by the following function &() = 8VVV(V. )
after years. Answer the following questions. YOU MAY USE A CALCULATOR. (4 pts; no credit without
explanation)
21. Which city has the higher growth rate and how do you know?
22. Which city has the higher initial value and how do you know?
23. Using graphing technology, approximately when will Charleston’s population drop to 6,000 people?
Solve the following system of equations. You may graph the functions if that will help. YOU MAY USE A
CALCULATOR. (4 pts; 2 pts for each solution when there are two solutions)
1
24. () = 21 − 5 25. AB 4
C
F 2 7 F
179
4.0 Exponent Property Review
First let’s start with a review of what exponents are. Recall that 3 means taking four 3’s and multiplying
them together. So we know that 3 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 81. You might also recall that in the number 3 , three is
called the base and four is called the exponent. Other reminds include that any number to the zero power is equal
to one (so 50 = 1) and any number is equal to itself to the first power (so 5 = 5).
Sometimes it is easier to leave a number written as an exponent. For example, it is much easier to write
5 instead of 95,367,431,640,625. Not only is sometimes simpler to write a number using exponents, but many
0
operations are easier when the numbers are written as exponents.
Multiplying Numbers with the Same Base

Let’s examine the problem 3 × 3 and write the answer as an exponent. Yes, we could multiply it out as
a standard form number, 81 × 81 = 6561, but let’s keep it in exponential form to see if it is any easier.
First, let’s expand the problem: 3 × 3 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 . Notice that the only

operation that is happening here is multiplication and that we are multiplying the same number. That means we
can say the following: 3 × 3 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 3t . In short we see that 3 × 3 = 3t . Do
you see a rule that we could generalize from this?
Let’s look at another example but this time with a variable.
s × = × × × × × × × × × × =
Can you find a rule that we can use when multiplying two exponent numbers with the same base? Yes, we
can add the exponents. In other words, I D × I { = I D{ = I would be a quicker way to show work for this
problem. Generalizing this, we have the rule that × = .
Will this work with numbers without the same base? Let’s find out by looking at 5 × 2C . Many people
think that 5 × 2C = 10D , but we know that 5 × 2C = 25 × 8 = 200 and that 10D = 100,000. So we see that
5 × 2C = 10D is not true. Therefore we know that we can only add the exponents when we have the same base.
In fact, if asked to simplify 4 × 7 we would either have to multiply it out as a regular number or else leave
it alone if we wanted it written using exponents.
Dividing Numbers with the Same Base

If multiplying numbers with the same base meant that we could add the exponents, what rule do you think
we will discover when dividing numbers with the same exponent? Let’s find out by looking at an example.
4s 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4

4D 4×4×4×4×4
180
Note that since only multiplication and division is happening, five of fours in the denominator will “cancel”
(they actually become one since four divided by four is one, we just call it “canceling”) with five of the fours in the
numerator. That means we get the following:
4s 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 4 × 4
= 4
4D 4×4×4×4×4 1
Let’s look at one more example using variables before generalizing a rule for dividing exponent numbers
with the same base.
}{ } × } × } × } × } × } } × } × } × }
= = = }
} }×} 1
It looks like our rule is similar to the multiplication of exponent numbers with the same base, but this time
1
we subtract the exponents. This gives us the general rule of 1 = . For now we will only deal with division
cases where the numerator exponent is larger than the denominator, but think ahead to what would happen if the
denominator’s exponent were larger. What do you think would happen?
A Power to a Power
We can also take exponents themselves to a power. For example, think of the problem (2C ) . Following
our order of operations, we know that we have to do the parentheses first which means we get (2C ) 8 64.
However, what if we wanted to leave our answer as a number to a power? Note the following:
(2C ) (2C )(2C ) (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) 2{
Again, can you see a rule here? Let’s look at an example with a variable to help again.
(F )C (F )(F )(F ) (F × F × F × F) × (F × F × F × F) × (F × F × F × F) F
For a power to a power when using the same base we get the rule that you can multiply the exponents.
This generalizes to ( ) .
181
Negative Exponents
We just learned that when we divide exponent numbers with the same base we can subtract the exponents.
We only examined problems where the numerator had a higher exponent than the denominator, but what would
happen if the denominator had the higher exponent? Let’s look.
5C 5×5×5
=
5 D 5×5×5×5×5
Notice that three of the fives will “cancel” (remember that they really become one because five divided by
five is one). That means we are left with the following:
1 1
=
5C 5×5×5
5×5×5×5×5 5×5 5
= =
5 D
However, by following our rule from last time we know that we can also subtract the exponents which gives
us:
5C
= 5
5D
D D
Since D = 5 and also D = D , by the transitive property we know that 5 = D . We can now generalize
this rule to say the following for any positive integer <:
1
z =
z
Negative Exponent as the Reciprocal

Another helpful way to think about negative exponents is as the reciprocal. Remember that the reciprocal
of an integer is one over that integer because a number times its reciprocal must equal one. So 4 means the
reciprocal of 4 which is or {. (Notice that 4 × 1 proving that we have the reciprocal.)

One last note is that except for scientific notation, we never leave negative exponents in a solution. We
also take the reciprocal so that our exponent is positive. Let’s look at a few more examples. Notice that we can
evaluate the integer powers, but the variables to a power we have to leave the exponent.

3C = C = s 2 = = { 10D = 0 = 00,000 13 = C¡ = C

} C = ¢ K s = £ F = ¤¡¡ = ¥¡ = ¥
182
Negative Exponent Operations
Now that we know negative exponents mean reciprocal, we can perform operations with negative
exponents just like we did with positive exponents. Consider the following example of the multiplication rule.
Notice that we still added the exponents, but just need to write our answer as a fraction if we have a negative
exponent left after multiplication.
1 1
=
5 25
(5C )(5D ) = 5C D = 5 =
4s 4D = 4s D = 4 = 16
Now let’s look at a division example. Remember that we found we can subtract the exponents as long as
we have the same base.
5
= 5 = 5 = 625
5
4 1 1
= 4 C = 4 = =
4 C 4 256
Finally we can see that the power to a power rule still works with negative exponents. We simply multiply
the exponents.
1 1
2C = 2{ = =
2 { 64
3 = 3 = 81
183
Lesson 4.0
4.0
Evaluate the following exponents operations giving your answer as a fraction where necessary.
¦ § ¦
1. 5C × 5 2. (12% 12s ¦
× 40
§
3. 4.
6. D
¨
7. 2C { × 2 s 8. 12 × 12
¨§¡
5.

© § §
11. 5C × 5% 12. 0 0
©
9. 10.
Determine if the following equations are true. Justify your answer.
1 § 1
13. 12 × 12s = 12t × 12C = 15. ) D = ) D
1 § 1
14.
{§ ×{ {§

16. 50 = 5D = 18. Os × Os = Os
{ {ª
17.

© § s§ C×C
19. ©
= h × h 0 20. s
= 7 × 7 21. C¡ª
= 3D
Determine the appropriate exponent to make the equation true.
« «?
22. 2D × 2 ? 2{ × 2C 23. 24. (3 )C (3 ) ?
«§ «
§ × ?
25. (5 ) (5C ) ? 26. 27. 9 × 9t (9 ? )C

?
¬ § { C§
28. ℎC × ℎD 29. 6t × 6t 30. (3s )
¬? { C ? ×C
184
We are familiar with the integer rules for exponents, but can those rules be extended to any rational
¡
exponent? For example, could we figure out what means? Let’s do some exploring.
Start with the Roots

Let’s start with something that we know such as (√) = . Now let’s rewrite that trying to write the
square root as an exponent. Since we don’t know what power a square root is, we’ll just use a variable for now.
This gives us the following:
(√) = ( ) =

Using the same rules as the exponents we know that 2? 1 which means that ? = . We have just proved
that the square root is really the rational exponent of half. Following the same procedure we can see that √ =

¡ ¡ ¡
, √ = , and more generally that √ = ® .
®
Any Rational Exponent

Now that we know that the denominator of an exponent represents what root we are taking, we can then
see what any rational exponent means. For example,
C
= ( C ) = C

Also note that due to the commutative property of multiplication, we could have also written this as follows:
C
= ( )C = ( √ )C
So we can see that the numerator of the exponent tells us the power of the number before (or after) we
¯
take the square root. In other words if we have ® where both O and < are integers, then we take to the Oth
power and then take the <th root. We could also take the <th root first and then raise it to the Oth power.
° ®
z = ( √ )° = √ °
®
185
Limitations on Rational Exponents
While this process of equivalence seems fairly straight forward, there are some factors to consider. For
example, any rational exponent with a denominator of two won’t work with negative numbers since there is no
square root of negative numbers. In fact this extends to any even root, so for this year we will assume that the
¯
statement ® = ( √ )° = √ ° is true for any non-negative value.
® ®
Evaluating Rational Exponents

Besides just writing out what a rational exponent means (writing an equivalent expression), we can also

just evaluate rational exponents. For example, we could evaluate 16 as follows:
C
16 = √16C = 2C = 8

Notice again that had we worked it out the other way, we would end up with the same solution.
C
16 = 16C = √4096 = 8

186
Lesson 4.1
Evaluate the following exponents operations giving your answer as a fraction where necessary.

1. 4 2. 4 3. 9 4. 9

7. 16 8. 16

5. 8 6. 27
¡
9. 81 10. 81 11. 81 12. 16
Determine if the following equations are true. Justify your answer.

14. 16 = √16 15. 160.sD = √16C

13. 5 = (√5)
¡¡ ¡
16. = √ { 17. = s 18. I = √I
¡¡

19. ? = √? 20. @ = √@C 21. + ¡¡ = √+ s
¡¡
Determine the appropriate exponent to make the equation true.
? ? ?
22. √2C 2 23. √ s 24. √7{ 7

25. 4 ? 4 26. ? 27. I ? I
¡ª
28. √6t 6 ? 29. √@ @ ? 30. √3s 3 ?

187
The majority of our exploration up to this point has centered around linear functions. Recall that linear
functions have a constant rate of change, or constant difference. Let’s look at a table of a linear function compared
to another table.
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
2 4 6 8 10 F 2 4 8 16 32
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +4 +8 +16
No constant
difference
Constant
difference
Constant ×2 ×2 ×2
growth factor
Notice that the table of is linear with a constant difference of 2. The function F does not have a
constant difference, but it does grow by a constant growth factor. We can tell it is a factor instead of a difference
because it is multiplied instead of added. We should be able to easily see that the equation of () is () = 2.
Looking at F(), since the constant growth factor is 2, we are multiplying by 2 each time we increase by
one. This means we have the equation F() 21 or two to the power. This is an exponential function. In fact,
any function that grows by a constant factor, meaning it is of the form () < 1 for some non-negative number
<, is called an exponential function.
Evaluation and Graphing of Exponentials

Evaluation of exponential functions works just like any other function. We simply substitute in the input
and find the output. For example, consider the following:
1
G() = 21 () ACB F() 21 ℎ() 31 − 2
C
G(2) 2 (3) ACB F(−3) 3C ℎ(−3) 3C − 2
{
G(2) 4 (3) s F(−3) C ℎ(−3) −1 s
188
Since we can evaluate these functions so readily, we can also easily graph each one as follows. Notice
that the domain in each case is any real number, but the ranges vary.
1
G() = 21 () = ACB
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
G() 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 9 3 1 0. 3± 0. 1±
4?<FG: 0, ∞ 4?<FG: 0, ∞
F 21 31 2
2 1 0 1 2 2 1 0 1 2
F 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 1. 8± 1. 6± 1 1 7
4?<FG: 0, ∞ 4?<FG: 2, ∞
Notice that using the standard inputs of the interval !2,2" gives some odd values. Since exponential
growth is so rapid, it quickly leads us to either very large or very small numbers.
189
Average Rate of Change and End Behavior
We already know how to find the average rate of change over an interval, but now let’s relate that to
something called “end behavior” of a function. End behavior is talking about what happens to a function as it goes
off to infinity to the right of the graph and negative infinity to the left of the graph. (That’s not the most academic
explanation, but it will suffice for 8th grade!)
Let’s look at the function () = 21 + 4. Its table and graph look like the following:
−2 −1 0 1 2
() 4.25 4.5 5 6 8
Average Rate of Change on !2, 1": 0.25
Average Rate of Change on !1,0": 0.5
Average Rate of Change on !0,1": 1
Notice that the average rate of change is continually increasing as we move further to the right on the
graph. We would say that the end behavior of this function on the right is that it is going to infinity. In other words,
it’s just going to keep going up and up.
Also we can see that the average rate of change is getting closer and closer to zero as we look further to
the left on the graph. We would say that the end behavior of this function on the left is that it is getting closer and
closer to the value of 4. It will keep getting closer and closer to 4 but never actually have the value of 4. We call
this an asymptote, and we might represent it on the graph by drawing a dotted line at a height of 4 as follows:
Since 21 can never actually equal zero (it will keep being a smaller and
smaller fraction), then 21 4 will never actually equal four. No matter
how negative an input is, say negative one trillion, we’ll still have a fraction plus
four.
190
Lesson 4.2
Evaluate the following using the given functions.
8
() = 9 n() = () = 9 ∗ AB
1. (−2) 2. (−1) 3. (0) 4. (1)
5. F(−1) 6. F(0) 7. F(1) 8. F(2)
9. (2) 10. (3) 11. (4) 12. (5
Graph the following exponential functions.
1
13. () = 21 14. () = 0.51 15. ACB

191
16. 21C 17. 21 3 18. 21 3

19. 21C 20. 21 21. 21

192
Find the average rate of change over the interval !−, ".
22. () = 21 23. () = 21 + 3 24. () = 21 − 3

() () ()
25. () = 21 26. () = 21 27. () = 21

() () ()
193
Find the average rate of change over the given intervals of the following function.
1 1 1
28. () = on !−4, −2" 29. () = on !−2,2" 30. () = on !2,4"

() () ()
31. () = 21 on !−4, −2" 32. () = 21 on !−2,2" 33. () = 21 on !2,4"

() () ()
194
4.3 Transforming Exponential Functions
In our discussion of linear functions we learned about four transformations in equation form. We found
that by adding a value either to the input or output of the original function we could translate the function left/right
or up/down. We also found that by multiplying either the input or output by a value we could push towards or
away from either axis. Here’s a brief review through the lens of linear functions.
( + +) () + +
( + d)
() () + d ()
Translate d units up.

Translate For linear functions,
d units left. this is changing the
-intercept by +.
(+) + ∗ ()
(d) () d ∗ () ()
Push d times as close Push d times as far

to the -axis. For from the -axis.
linear functions, this
is changing the slope
by a factor of +.
For linear equations which always have the form = O + @ this boils down to either a change in slope
(rate of change), a change in the -intercept (initial value), or a combination of both. Let’s look at how these same
equation transformations affect exponential functions.
195
Transforming Exponentials
For the next few graphs, we’ll use () = 21 as our parent function. The parent function is the pre-
image of our transformation. It’s what we are comparing the transformed function to.
( + 3) = 21C () + 3 = 21 + 3
() +
( + )
() ()
Translate
units up.
(3) = 2C1 3 ∗ () = 3 ∗ 21
() () ∗ () ()
Push times Push times

closer to the farther from
-axis. the -axis.
Notice that the same things occurred with the exponential as with linear functions. More specifically, we
could develop generic forms of an exponential equation transformation given that () = @ 1 . Specifically F() =
h ∗ @ 1 pushes () farther from the -axis h times, F() = @ ©1 pushes () closer to the -axis h times, F() =
@ 1© is a translation of () to the left h units, and F() = @ 1 + h is a translation of () up h units.
196
Example Exponential Transformations
Now whether we are given something in function notation only or the full equation, we should be able to
determine how the function will be transformed. For example, consider the following function notation
1
transformations using () = A B as the parent function.

( + 2) () − 2 (2) 3 ∗ ()
Translate 2 units left Translate 2 units down Stretch 2 times Stretch 3 times
closer to the -axis farther from the -axis
You may also be asked to write the equation of the transformed function. To do so, remember that the
input is in parentheses and goes where the is in the original equation.
1 1 1 1
( + 2) AB () − 2 AB − 2 (2) AB 3 ∗ () 3 ∗ AB
Now consider the following equation examples. They follow the generic form of an exponential that we
just discovered. Let’s again use the same parent function.
1 1 1 1
F() A B F() AB + 3 F() AB F() 3 ∗ AB

Translate 4 units right Translate 3 units up Stretch 2 times Stretch 3 times

closer to the -axis farther from the -axis
(since no translation) (since no translation)
You may also be asked to write these transformed equations in terms of (). Think of what changed from
the original function to do this.
1 1 1 1
A B = ( − 4) AB + 3 () + 3 A B (2) 3 ∗ AB 3 ∗ ()
To verify any transformation, it may be useful to graph the functions.
197
Lesson 4.3
Describe the transform that occurs using the given functions. Then write the new function’s equation and draw
a quick sketch of the graph. The parent function is already graphed for you.
8
() = n() = AB () = 8
1. ( − 2) 2. () + 3 3. (2)
4. 0.5 ∗ 5. F 4 6. F 2
7. F0.5 8. 2 ∗ F 9. 5
198
8
() = n() = A B

() = 8
10. ( + 0.5 11. 0.5 12. 2
13. 2 ∗ 14. F 0.5 15. F 0.5
16. F2 17. 2 ∗ F 18. 2 ∗
199
Describe the transform denoted by n() using the function as the parent function. Write n in
terms of and then do a quick sketch of the graph of n. The function is already graphed for you.
19. F() = 21 + 4 20. F() = 21 21. F() = 21 − 3
22. F 20.D1 23. F 21 24. F 21
25. F 0.5 ∗ 21 26. F 3 ∗ 21 27. F 1 ∗ 21
200
8
Describe the transform denoted by n() using the function AB as the parent function. Write n in
terms of and then do a quick sketch of the graph of n. The function is already graphed for you.
8 1 8 1 8 1
28. F() = A B + 4 29. F() = A B 30. F() = A B − 3

8 0.D1 8 1 8 1
31. F A B 32. F AB 33. F AB

8 1 8 1 8 1
34. F 0.5 ∗ AB 35. F 2 ∗ AB 36. F 1 ∗ AB
201
4.4 Solving Exponential Functions
Before we can solve exponential functions, we need to make sure we can create an equation for any given
form of an exponential function including a graph, description, or table.
Creating an Equation from a Graph or Table

For our purposes, we will only be looking for a single transformation at a
time. When given the graph of an exponential function, the first thing to look for
would be the asymptote which will tell us if the graph has been translated up or
down. For example, consider the graph to the left. It has an asymptote at a
height of 4. So our function must be of the form () = @ 1 + 4. The only
remaining question is what the @ value is.
To determine this, we look for the growth factor. Notice that we get the
below table of values. The growth rate is going up by half, then one, then two.
This is a growth factor of two yielding the equation of () = 21 + 4.
−1 0 1 2
() 4.5 5 6 8
If we were just given a table, we would create the equation the same way. Look for the asymptote, check
for any other translation or stretching, and find the growth factor. For example, consider the following table.
It appears that the asymptote of this table is at a height of zero

2 1 0 1 2
() 3 1 1 1 1 because moving to the right on the table keeps getting systematically

3 9 27 closer to zero. The growth factor is clearly , so the only question is
C
whether there is a horizontal translation.
1
If we look at the function () = ACB and plug in = 0, we get that () = 1. Notice that we do not get

the value () = C which we see in the table. Therefore there must be a horizontal translation that moved that
1
value of one to the left one. This means our final equation is () = ACB .
202
Creating an Equation from a Description
More often than not, if we need to solve an exponential equation we will first be given a description of a
real world situation for which an exponential function is an appropriate model. In fact, the most common model
used is what is known as the general growth formula. The general growth formula is:
q = P(1 + 7¦
For this formula, q represents the new amount of whatever we’re talking about after the growth occurs.
The P represents the original amount of whatever we’re talking about. The 7 represents the growth rate per time
unit expressed as a decimal, and ) represents the amount of time that the growth has occurred.
For example, we know the population of the planet is growing by about 1.2% per year and is currently
about 7 billion. That would give us the following equation (knowing that the population would be in billions).
q = 71 + 0.012¦
or
q = 71.012¦
Let’s say that you had $50,000 invested in a stock that had been losing 3% per month. That would give
us the following equation:
q = 50,0001 − 0.03¦
or
q = 50,0000.97¦
Solving Exponential Equations

Now that we know how to create exponential equations, we can solve them. In some cases we will simply
be evaluating the function, while in others we will actually have to solve. Let’s begin with some evaluation
examples. Using the world population information from above, what would we expect the population to be in ten
years? What was the population twenty years ago? In both of these cases we are substituting values in for ).
Ten years from now
q = 7(1.012¦ = 71.0120 S 7.9 @;HH;6<
Twenty years ago
q = 7(1.012¦ = 71.0120 S 5.5 @;HH;6<
203
If we are truly solving, at this point the best method is to estimate a solution on a graph. For example, we
might ask the question of when the population of the world will hit 10 billion people. We could guess and check
several values (10 years from now, 20 years from now, 25 years from now, etc.), but that could take a long time.
Instead let’s use some technology to quickly produce a graph for us as follows:
Notice that when the population is about ten billion people, it is about
thirty years from now. When would we hit nine billion people? In about twenty-
one years. When would we hit eleven billion people? In about thirty-seven
years. The graph provides us a quick way to solve the exponential equation
without having to use inverse operations to isolate the variable.
While we’re looking at this graph, let’s take a quick side trip to relate the
domain to the graph. The domain in this case is time itself, so the portion of the
domain shown by this graph is mainly the future, fifty years of the future to be
precise. Notice that we’re not inputting the actual year that it is, but we consider
this year to be the initial value and then work backwards or forwards from the current year as necessary.
Let’s change our view of this function to look at a domain more about the past and estimate when the world
population was about 5.5 billion. We know from our evaluation earlier that it should be around twenty years ago,
but see that the graph confirms this.
Here is the same graph with a different viewing window. When was the
population about 5.5 billion? It appears it was indeed around twenty years ago.
In this case, the negative values in the domain correspond to years in the past.
204
Lesson 4.4
Create an exponential function for the given graph, table, or description.
1. 2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
−2 −1 0 1 −1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
() 0.25 0.5 1 2 3 9 27 81 3.5 3 2 0
10. 11. 12.

2 1 0 1 1 0 1 2 1 0 1 2
3.25 3.5 4 5 5.5 5 4 2 2 1 0.5 0.25
205
13. Your parents offer to pay you exponentially to study for your Algebra test. They say that if you study for one
hour you’ll get $6, two hours gets you a total of $7, three hours $9, four hours $13, etc. What equation are they
using to come up with those values?
14. In the game Fruit Slicer you get more points if you can slice multiple fruits in a single swipe. If you only get one
fruit in a swipe you get 10 points, two fruits in a swipe gives you 50 points, three fruits gives you 250 points, four
fruits 1250 points, etc. What equation does Fruit Ninja use to assign point values?
15. In general the stock return has averaged about 10% growth per year since its beginning. This is true even
through the Great Depression! You have been investing in the stock market for a while, and your stock is currently
worth $100,000. What equation models this situation?
16. Viruses spread exponentially. In fact, if you start with just 1 person infected with the zombie virus, after one
day a total of 10 people would be zombies. After two days a total of 100 people would be zombies. After three
days a total of 1000 people would be zombies. What equation models this situation?
17. India’s current is approximately 1.2 billion, almost as big as China! If India’s population is growing at a rate of
2% per year, what equation would model their population growth?
18. There are approximately 25,000 polar bears worldwide. Some scientists estimate that the polar bear
population has been declining at a yearly reduction rate of 1%. What equation would model this situation?
Solve the following problems using the polar bear example above.
19. Approximately what will the population of polar bears be in 20 years?
20. Approximately what will the population of polar bears be in 50 years?
21. Approximately what was the polar bear population 20 years ago?
22. Approximately what was the polar bear population 50 years ago?
100,000 bears?
23. Using technology, graph the polar bear equation. Approximately when was the polar bear population about
than 10,000 bears?

24. Using technology, graph the polar bear equation. Approximately when will the polar bear population be less
206
Solve the following problems using the given investment information.
A man currently has stock worth a total of $5,000,000. It has been growing at an average rate of 10% per year.
25. What equation would model this situation?
26. If the man started investing 60 years ago and did not put any more money in, how much did he start with?
27. Assume the man was 20 years old when he put in that initial amount. Due to the miracles of technology this
80 year old man is still healthy and active enough to work. If he can work until he is 90 years old, how much will
his investment be worth then?
28. What domain would make sense for this problem? Why?
$1,000,000?
29. Using technology, graph the man’s investment equation. Approximately when was his investment worth about
investment would be worth greater than $8,000,000?

30. Using technology, graph the man’s investment equation. Approximately how old would the man be when his
207
4.5 Comparing Exponential Functions
So far we have talked in detail about both linear and exponential functions. In this section we’ll compare
exponential functions to other exponential functions and also compare exponential functions to linear functions.
At times this comparison can lead us to solving a system of equations involving these functions.
Comparing Exponentials
When comparing one exponential function to another, we might think about the possible transformations
or growth factors of those functions. For example, let’s compare two exponential functions on a graph as follows:
higher growth factor? While for a long time is above F, we can see that
Which function is growing at a faster rate? In other words, which has the
eventually F catches up to an surpasses . So in this case, F must

have a higher growth factor.
function has a growth factor of two while F has a growth factor of
In fact, we can calculate what that growth factor is for each function. The
three.
value is when 0, we see that has the higher initial value of 3.
Which function has the higher initial value? Remembering that the initial
We should also be able to compare functions in different representations in the same way. For example,
consider the following three exponential functions.
21 F
−2 −1 0 1
() 7 5 4 3.5
Of these three functions, which has the fastest growth rate? We can see that has a growth rate of
two. The table for is probably the next easiest because see that it is in fact shrinking meaning it can’t have the
highest growth rate. The graph shows us that F0 6, F(1) = −4, and F(2) = 2 meaning that it has a growth
rate of three. Therefore F() has the highest growth rate.
Notice that () has the highest initial value of four.
208
Comparing in Context
Let’s say that after graduation you begin to seek employment, and two companies offer you jobs at the
sign a lifetime contract to work for them for 50 years, they will put $10,000 in a bank account for your retirement
same salary. The only difference between the jobs is the retirement packages offered. Company A says that if you
that will grow at a rate of 10% yearly. Company B says they will open up a bank account for your retirement using
the following formula 4 20,0001.05¦ . To access the money, both companies say that you must work for them
for at least 15 years.
Here are some interesting questions to explore:
• Which company puts the greater amount in your bank account to begin with? Company B is putting in
$20,000 while Company A is only putting in $10,000.
• Which company gives the higher return rate on the initial investment? Company A offers a 10% return
while Company B only offers a 5% return.
If you plan to only work for 10 years, which company should you choose? For this problem we’ll evaluate
each function at the time 10 years from now. Let P) 10,000(1.1)¦ be Company A’s equation. We’ll
•
rewrite Company B’s equation in function notation as Q()) = 4 = 20,000(1.05¦ . Now see that P10 S
$25,937 and Q10 S $32,578. So Company B would be the better choice if you were only going to work
for the next ten years.
If you plan to work for the next 50 years, which company should you choose? Following the same pattern
we see that P50 S $1,173,908 and Q50 S $229,348. Company A is now by far the better choice.
•
• How long would it take for your retirement account to be worth $1,000,000 in each company? To solve this
retirement account will be worth a million somewhere around 48 years from now. Company B’s account
comparison, we’ll need to graph each function. Using the below graphs, we see that Company A’s
will take around 80 years to reach a million dollars.
Company A Company B
$ in Millions
$ in Millions
Years from Now Years from Now
209
• After how many years would the accounts have the same amount of money? For this problem we’ll need
before 20 years, so we’ll refine the viewing window to zoom in and look closer. From the second graph we
to see both graphs on the same coordinate plane as follows. The first shows us that it occurs somewhere
see that it close to 15 years from now when they will be the same. Notice that they will be both be worth
about 0.04 million dollars which is $40,000.
Initial View Zoomed In View
Retirement accounts
worth the same amount.
$ in Millions
$ in Millions
Years from Now Years from Now
Comparing by Solving Systems

Actually, what we just did was solving a system of equations. Since we’re dealing with exponential
functions, it will still be easiest to graph the systems and look for the point of intersection. Knowing how to graph,
we can now compare not only exponentials to themselves but also an exponential to a linear equation. For example,
we might be asked to find the solution to the following system of equations.
1 1
8
2
15
F 7
4
Notice there are two points of intersection: 4,8) and (0, −7. Will there always be two points of
intersection? Could there be one or no points of intersection? How?
210
Lesson 4.5
millions of dollars. For example, V. Vi million is really $i, VVV. Answer the following questions about those
Your financial advisor presents you with four plans for retirement as follows. All dollar amounts are given in
retirement plans.
-int: 0, 0.05

Plan A: Plan D:
Put in an initial investment of $0.025 million and get a

return rate of 5%.
1, 0.06)
1 year:
Plan B:
F) 0.011.15 ¦
2 years:
(2, 0.072
0 1 2 3 4
Plan C:
Money 0.02 0.022 0.0242 0.02662 0.029282

Years
1. List the retirement plans from the highest growth rate to the lowest growth rate.
2. List the retirement plans from the lowest initial investment to the highest initial investment.
3. How long will it take each retirement plan to be worth $1,000,000? (Hint: You will have to graph each plan.)
4. Fill out the following table evaluating each plan at specific points in time.
Retire after 20 Retire after 30 Retire after 40 Retire after 50

years years years years
Plan A
Plan B
Plan C
Plan D
5. Which plan do you think is the best? Why do think that? What aspect of the function makes it the best retirement
plan?
211
are not equal to each other in the future (only in the past), then put ∅ for no solution. (Hint: You will have to graph
6. Fill out the following table showing when each plan is worth the same as every other plan in the future. If they
each plan on the same coordinate plane.)
Plan A
Plan B Plan B
Plan C Plan C
Plan D
You are deciding between different amounts of student loans and your college presents you with four possible
in thousands of dollars. For example, V. i thousand is really $V, iVV. Answer the following questions about
plans each with different rates at which the loan is paid off. All dollar amounts for the remaining debt are given
those student loan plans.
-int: 0, 300)

Plan A: Plan D:
Take out $250 thousand and have a payoff rate of

10%. 1 year: (1, 240)
Plan B: 2 years: (2, 192)
F) 1000.85¦
0 1 2 3 4
Plan C:
150 135 121.5 109.35 98.415

Years
Money
7. List the student loan plans from the fastest payoff rate to the slowest payoff rate.
8. List the student loan plans from the lowest initial debt to the highest initial debt.
9. How long will it take each student loan plan to be paid down to $1,000? (Hint: Graph each plan or guess and
check years.)
212
10. Fill out the following table evaluating each plan at specific points in time.
Remaining debt Remaining debt Remaining debt Remaining debt

after 10 years after 15 years after 20 years after 25 years
Plan A
Plan B
Plan C
Plan D
11. Which plan do you think is the best? Why do think that?
are not equal to each other in the future (only in the past), then put ∅ for no solution. (Hint: You will have to graph
12. Fill out the following table showing when each plan is worth the same as every other plan in the future. If they
each plan on the same coordinate plane.)
Plan A
Plan B Plan B
Plan C Plan C
Plan D
Solve the following systems of equations.
1
13. 21 9 14. AB 9
F 2 3 F 2
C

213
21 31D 7
F 2 2 F 4 14
15. 16.
1D
17. ACB 7 18. 41 2
F 4 F 0 2

D
214
Review Unit 4: Exponential Functions
You may use a calculator on parts of this review.
Evaluate the following rational roots. NO CALCULATOR.
16 64 4
¡
1. 2. 3.
Determine if the following statements are true or not. Justify your answer. NO CALCULATOR.
F FC 9 √9D 16 √8

¡

4. 5. 6.
Determine the appropriate value to make the equation true. Justify your answer. NO CALCULATOR.
D 16 2 ? 27 √3

? ?
7. 8. 9.
Graph the following functions by filling out the tables. NO CALCULATOR.
21 21 3

4 3 2 1 0
10. 11.

215
1 1
A B AB 2

2 1 0 1 2
12. 13.

Find the average rate of change over the interval !, " for the following functions. YOU MAY USE A
CALCULATOR.
1C
14. AB 3 15. 31 2 16. 21C
Describe the transformation that would take place given the parent function . YOU MAY USE A
CALCULATOR.
3 ∗ 2 4

17. 18. 19.
20. 1 21. F 21 4 22. F 21C
216
Create an equation for the following graph, table, or situation. YOU MAY USE A CALCULATOR.
25. A man had $250,000

0 1 2 3 4
23. 24.
at an interest rate of 2%.
1 1 1 1 2
8 4 2
Answer the following questions about the function ` 8VV, VVV(V. i) . YOU MAY USE A CALCULATOR.
26. If the function =) models the amount of money owed to pay of a loan in ) years, what is the current loan
value and payment rate?
27. What would we expect their loan value to be in 10 years to the nearest dollar?
28. What was their approximate loan value 10 years ago to the nearest dollar?
The current cicada population is 8V, VVV and is growing at a rate of 8i%. The June bug population can be
modeled by the function `() = VVV(8. ) after ³ years. Answer the following questions. YOU MAY USE A
CALCULATOR.
29. Which population is currently the highest and how do you know?
30. Which population is growing at the fastest rate and how do you know?
31. Which population will eventually surpass the other and how do you know?
217
Solve the following system of equations. You may graph the functions if that will help. YOU MAY USE A
CALCULATOR.
21C 31 4

F 1 F 2 2

32. 33.

1
34. AB 1 35. 21 4
F 3 F 3
C
218
Semester 1 Review
You may use a calculator.
1. Explain how you determine if an equation, table, or situation represents a true function or not.
2. Explain in your own words what domain and range mean.
4 5

3. Give the domain and range of the following function:
4. Give the domain on which the graph above is increasing and decreasing.
5. Evaluate h4 for the function ) ) 5

6. Complete the table for the following function: 5

7. Explain how you would choose inputs for the function √ 6.
8. Determine the initial value and average rate of change over the interval !2, 2" of the function
F() = − 5.
C
9. Explain how to determine if an equation represents a linear function. Explain how to determine if a graph
represents a linear function. Explain how to determine if a table represents a linear function.
219
10. Draw a graph comparing distance from home to time that matches the story. Then draw a different graph
comparing speed and time that matches the same story.
A boy started at home and slowly walked toward his friend’s house. After a while, he ran as fast as he
could. Once at his friend’s house, he stayed there for the rest of the day.
11. Write and solve an equation for the following situation: Menards is running a sale for $2.50 off each bag
of fertilizer. Matt bought 6 bags at the sale price and also used a coupon for $5 off a $25 purchase. If his
total was $55, determine the original price of the bags of fertilizer.
12. Determine if the given equation accurately represents the situation below. If not, write an accurate
At Walgreens, 20 oz Gatorade bottles usually cost $1.19; however, since Marley is a preferred customer,
equation and explain why you made the changes you made.
she receives a certain amount off each bottle. If she purchased 5 bottles for $4.70. how much was
discount
discounted off each bottle?
51.19 4.70
13. Describe in your own words what the inverse of a function is. Describe the process for finding the inverse
of a function.
14. Find the inverse function of C 2

15. Which rocket has the slowest speed and which rocket has the biggest head start where L is distance in
feet and ) is time in seconds?
Rocket D
260 feet in 10 seconds with a 5 meter headstart

Rocket A Z
) 2 4 6 8 10
Rocket C
L 45 85 125 165 205
L 25) 10
Rocket B
220
16. Solve 9 3 11.

C
17. Solve 4? 1 5? 5 ?.
18. Solve 2 2 5 / 15 and graph the solution on a number line.
2 4 2 f 10
correct solution.
2 2 f 10
2 4 f 10
2 f 14
f 7
20. Graph the inequality g 4

4 2 6
21. Find the solution to the system of equations by graphing:
2 4
3 1
22. Solve using any method:
3 2 4
221
2 5
23. Solve using any method:
4 2 15
24. A 3% solution of acid was mixed with an 18% solution of acid to produce an 8% solution. How much 3%
solution and how much 18% solution were used to produce 15 L of 8% solution?
25. Cauliflower worth $2.25 a pound was mixed with asparagus worth $3.25 a pound to produce a mixture
worth $2.65 a pound. How many pounds of each vegetable were used to produce 35 pounds of the
mixture?
26. Farmer Gena looks out her window and counts a total of 64 legs on a total of 20 animals. If she has only
horses and chickens, how many of each does she have?
27. Graph the system of inequalities:

3 f 8
µ
2 g 4

28. Determine if the following statement is true or not: √
D
29. Determine if the following statement is true or not: D
30. Graph the function 21 1
222
31. Given the parent function 21 , describe the transformation that would take place: 2 ∗ 3
32. Given the parent function 21 , describe the transformation that would take place: 3 2
33. The population of the North Arctic penguin is currently 12,900 and decreasing at a rate of 8%. Write the
exponential function that models this situation.
34. Find the solution to the following system of equations:

() = 21 − 8
µ
F() = −3 + 2
35. The following graph shows the population of lemmings with the evolutionary trait of a parachute. What
was the population in 2006?
Lemmings w/ Parachutes (in thousands)
Years from 2000
223
Unit 5: Polynomials and Quadratics
5.1 Polynomial Functions
5.2 Polynomial Operations
5.3 Graphing Quadratics
5.4 Factoring for Zeros
5.5 Completing the Square for the Vertex
5.6 Transforming Quadratics
224
Pre-Test Unit 5: Polynomials and Quadratics
You may use a calculator on the whole test.
Identify whether the following are polynomials or not. If it is a polynomial, give its name by both degree and
number of terms. (4 pts; 2 pts for polynomial or not, 1 pt for each name)
1. C 4 2.
D
1
3. 2 1 4. √ 3
Perform the following polynomial operations. (4 pts; 2 pts if computation error only)
5. C 2 3 7 C 5 3 17 6. 5 C 4 5 2 C 7 3 12
7. 3 7 2 8. 3 2 1
Graph the following quadratics. (4 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
9. 2 16 24 10. 5 8
225
11. Min: 7, Zeros: 3 and 5 12. A cannon is launched from 4 ) behind you and lands
6 ) in front of you. It reaches a max height of 8 ).
Factor the following quadratic functions using the distributive property. Then list the zeros of the quadratic.
(4 pts.; 2 pts for factoring, 2 pts for zeros)
13. 6 9 14. 49
15. 7 16. 3 28
Find the vertex using any method except graphing. (4 pts.; 2 pts for method, 2 pts for vertex)
17. 6 2 18. 6 9
19. 4 14 20. 4 21
226
Sketch a graph using the vertex and zeros. (4 pts.; 2 pts for zeros, 2 pts for vertex)
21. 8 7
Describe the transformation from the parent function . (4 pts.; partial credit at teacher discretion)
22. F 8 5 23. F 4 2
Sketch the transformation from the original function . (4 pts.; partial credit at teacher discretion)
24. F 2 3 4 25. F 4 3
227
5.1 Polynomial Functions
We’ve discussed linear and exponential functions already. We saw that linear functions have a constant
rate of change while exponential functions may start off slow but quickly speed up. Now we’re going to examine
another category of functions known as polynomials.
Definitions
A polynomial in one variable is any function with a constant multiplied by a variable to a non-negative
(meaning it could be zero), whole number power or the sum or difference of those things. The constant multiplied
by the variable is still known as the coefficient. Let’s look at some examples of polynomials and non-polynomials.
Polynomials Non-Polynomials
2 D − 3 + 6 C − () √
This polynomial has non-negative exponents. This is not a polynomial because of the fraction
exponent for square root.
() 3 − 7
3
()
This polynomial has non-negative exponents including
the constant −7 because that is really −7 0.
This is not a polynomial because the variable is in the
() −5 denominator meaning a negative exponent.
This polynomial has non-negative exponents.
Notice that this means a linear function is () 21 + 7
officially a polynomial. This is not a polynomial because the variable
itself is the power meaning exponentials
are not polynomial functions.
We could also define a polynomial like this:
() ?z z + ?z z + ⋯ ? + ? + ?0
In this form we can see that each of the ? values are the coefficients (the subscript is just a notation
meaning the 1st coefficient, the 2nd coefficient, etc.) and that the last term is just a constant (?0 ). A term in a
polynomial is each piece separated by an add or subtract sign. For example, ?z z is a term and ? is another
term in this polynomial definition. The last thing to notice here is that there are a finite number of terms.
Polynomials can’t have infinite terms. There must be a highest exponent value in a polynomial.
228
Classification by Degree
That highest exponent value is very useful for us because we classify polynomials by their degree. The
C 2 is a 3rd degree polynomial because its highest power is the third power. The polynomial
degree of a polynomial is equal to the highest exponent in the polynomial. For example, the polynomial
() 2 s − 3 { + 11 is a 7th degree polynomial because its highest power is the seventh power. You might also
have noticed that we typically write polynomials in descending order of their exponents.
Certain degrees of polynomials have specific names. In fact, we already know one. A first degree
polynomial is called linear. For our purposes, we’ll probably only refer to specific names of the first three or four
degrees. Beyond that we would just call it by its degree number. Here’s a chart of the names.
Polynomial Example Degree Number Degree Name
9 0 Constant
+ 7
2 1 Linear
3
() −4 + 2 2 Quadratic
() C − + 3 3 Cubic
() 2 − 5 4 Quartic
() −4 D + 2 5 5th degree
() { 6 6th degree
… … …
() z < <th degree
Again, the fifth degree, sixth degree, etc. all have names, but we won’t be referring to them at this level.
229
Classification by Number of Terms
We also can give a polynomial a name based on the number of terms it has. Here’s a chart of the names
that we’ll be using.
Polynomial Example Number of Terms Term Name
s 1 Monomial
s 7 2 Binomial
() = −4 s + C − 2 3 Trinomial
() C − + − 1 4 Polynomial
… … …
Just like with degree names, a polynomial with four terms or above has a name, but we’ll only be referring
to the first few by name.
Give it a Name!
Now we can name the polynomials by both degree and number of terms. Typically the degree name is used
as an adjective and the number of terms name is the noun. For example:
Polynomial Example Name
C 7 Cubic Binomial
() = −2 C Cubic Monomial
() + 3 − 7 Quadratic Trinomial
() − 5 Quartic Binomial
() s + 7 − 1 7th Degree Trinomial
= D + 7 − 3 + 8 5th Degree Polynomial
230
Lesson 5.1
Decide whether or not the following functions are polynomials or not. If they are polynomials, name them both
by degree and the number of terms.
1. 1

2. = 3. = C + + 3
C
D
4. = √ − 1 5. = s 6. = −
s

7. = 31 8. = C1 9. = −2 − 8

10. = − 3 + 4 11. = 41 + 2 12. = √ + 3
13. = C − 1 14. = 5 15. = −3 C + 6
C
16. = − 1 17. = −7 C 18. = 1 1

19. = √ + 5 20. = 2 21. = C + s

22. = 2 23. = − −% 24. = C +
C
231
5.2 Polynomial Operations
At times we’ll need to perform operations with polynomials. At this level we’ll just be adding, subtracting,
or multiplying polynomials. Dividing polynomials will happen in future courses. Oh happy day. ☺
Adding/Subtracting Polynomials
Recall that addition means “combining like things” and that subtraction is really just “adding the opposite.”
These two definitions should carry us through these operations. If addition means “combining like things,” then
when we add polynomials we can only add the like terms. The quadratic terms are alike (they’re all to the second
power), so we can add all the quadratic terms. The cubic terms are alike (they’re all to the third power), so we can
add all the cubic terms. I could type sentences like that until I’m blue in the face, or we could just look some
examples. Let’s just look at some examples.
2 C − 4 + − 9) + ( − 7 − 4)
In this case, we might look for all the cubic terms first. Notice that there is no cubic term in the second
polynomial, so the 2 C will stay 2 C . Now let’s look for quadratic terms.
(2 C − 4 + − 9) + ( − 7 − 4)
We have a −4 and an to add. Since the coefficient on the is really the understood 1, we’ll end up
with −3 . In a similar fashion, we can combine the linear terms and the constant terms. So we might mark all the
terms that can be combined as follows to get our final sum.
2 C − 4 + − 9 + − 7 − 4
2 C − 3 − 6 − 13
Subtraction works exactly the same way. Just remember to distribute the subtraction sign through the
second polynomial. Since subtract means “add the opposite,” we have to take the opposite of every term in the
second polynomial.
4 C − 7 − 6 − 3 C − 4 − 7 − 8
C + 4 + 2
Notice that there was no quadratic term in the first polynomial, so we just subtracted the negative quadratic
from the second polynomial. This gave us the +4 term. Also note that the linear terms became zero (you might
think of “canceling”) because we had −7 − −7 which is really −7 + 7.
232
Multiplying Polynomials
Multiplying polynomials really boils down to the distributive property. Let’s step through an example of a
monomial times a polynomial, and then we’ll step it up a bit.
2 C ( − 3 + 4)
2 D − 6 + 8 C
Now let’s look at a binomial times a trinomial. In this case we can think of the binomial as a single entity
that we are distributing to every term of the trinomial as follows.
(2 − 1 + 3 − 4
2 − 1 + 32 − 1 − 42 − 1
Since we are still not completely simplified, we’ll need to distribute again as follows.
2 − 1 + 32 − 1 − 42 − 1
2 C − + 6 − 3 − 8 + 4
Finally, combine like terms to simplify.
2 C + 5 − 11 + 4
The question now becomes whether or not there is an easier way to do this multiplication than the double
distributive property. Notice that each term in the binomial 2 − 1 got multiplied by each term in the trinomial
+ 3 − 4. In other words, the 2 got multiplied by each term in the trinomial. Then the −1 got multiplied by
every term in the trinomial. This shows us that really the distributive property can be expanded to mean “each
term in the first parentheses times each term in the second parentheses.”
2 − 3 − 2 + 5 + 3
2 ∗ + 2 ∗ 5 + 2 ∗ 3 − 3 ∗ − 3 ∗ 5 − 3 ∗ 3 − 2 ∗ − 2 ∗ 5 − 2 ∗ 3
2 + 10 C + 6 − 3 C − 15 − 9 − 2 − 10 − 6
2 + 7 C − 11 − 19 − 6
233
A Closed System
Alright, let’s think about the integers. Now, you may be thinking, “Why are we switching topics to the
integers?” Just stick with me. We’ll get there.
So, the integers. One of the crazy things about the integers is that they form what is called a closed system
under the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication. A closed system means that if you add two
integers, you get an integer answer. If you subtract two integers, you get an integer answers. If you multiply two
integers, you get an integer answer. A closed system means if you perform operations, what you start with is what
you end up with.
You should probably be able to see why the integers aren’t closed under the operation of division. While
some integers divided by integers will give you integer answers (such as four divided by two), most give you a
rational answer (like five divided by two).
Rabbits also have a closed system under addition, subtraction, and multiplication. If you add rabbits and
rabbits, you get rabbits. If you subtract rabbits from rabbits, you get rabbits. If rabbits multiply, you get more
rabbits. That is a closed system.
Now take a guess as to whether or not polynomials are a closed system. If you add two polynomials, do
you get another polynomial? If you subtract two polynomials, do you get another polynomial? If you multiply two
polynomials, do you get another polynomial? Take a look at the examples on the previous page and you should see
that the polynomials are closed over addition, subtraction, and multiplication.
234
Lesson 5.2
Perform the following polynomial operations.
1. 1 + C + 2 + 8 2. 3 − 4 − + 3 + 5 3. 2 − 1 C + 4 + 3
4. + 3 − 5 − + 4 5. 4 C + 6 − 2 + 2 − 4 6. D − C + 4 − 4 C + 2
7. 2 C + 24 − 3 − 2 8. + 2 − 52 − 3 − 3 9. 6 − 1 + C + − + 1
10. − + 7 − D + 4 11. 2 C 4 − 2 − 1 12. 3 C − 4 − 2
13. 7 D + + 2 + + 3 D 14. 5 − 4 − 6 − 2 + 15. 6 − + 3 + 4
235
16. + 13 + 2 + 1 17. 5 + 3 + C + − 6 + 3 18. 2 D + C − 4 − − 4 C
19. 3 − 9 + 1 + − 2 20. 4 + 3 − 7 − 2 21. 5 + D + 2 D + C −
22. 4 − − + 3 + 4 23. 2 − 39 + 4 C + 2 D 24. 2 + C + 3 + 4
25. What degree of polynomial would you get if you added a 5th degree polynomial to a 3rd degree polynomial
and how do you know?
26. If you added a trinomial to a binomial, how many terms could the sum have?
27. If you add or subtract two polynomials, why do you always get another polynomial?
28. If you multiply two polynomials, why do you always get another polynomial?
236
5.3 Graphing Quadratics
It may almost seem comical to have a whole new section on how to graph quadratic functions. After all,
we’re familiar with graphing functions in general, and there’s nothing really new about the process of graphing for
coordinate plane. In other words, make an / chart. However, there are new parts of the quadratic graph itself
quadratics. Determine some appropriate inputs to use, get the outputs, and graph those input/output pairs on the
that we want to look at.
The standard form of a quadratic function is ? @ +. Notice that with that squared term we
Graphing Quadratics
won’t want to pick very large inputs otherwise we’ll end up off a typical 10 to 10 coordinate plane. Typically
speaking, we recommend using the inputs of 2 to 2. Let’s start with the simplest quadratic of .
2 1 0 1 2
4 1 0 1 4
Notice the “U” shape of the quadratic to the right. This is called a
parabola and is the shape of any quadratic function and why it is important to
choose good inputs. Many times you will only get half the picture if you’re not
careful with the inputs you choose.
For example, consider the function F 6. If we make an

input/output chart using the same inputs, it will look like this:
2 1 0 1 2
8 5 0 7 16
That would only give us the picture to the right:
At this point it looks like it’s just a slight curve rather than a “U” shape.
To get the full picture, we want to keep trying inputs until we get the quadratic
shape. Something like this should suffice:
5 4 3 2 1
5 8 9 8 5
Now we have the full picture. I knew to go further to the left based on
the direction of the curve we had seen so far. It looked like to the left it was
beginning to flatten out making what we had the right half of the “U” shape.
Moral of the story: Pick good inputs.
237
Good Inputs: Outputting the Vertex and Zeros
How do we know if we have good inputs? Well, ideally we like to know
where the vertex is. The vertex is the point at which the maximum or minimum
of the parabola is.
are the points where the parabola crosses the -axis. These are also known as
It’s also useful to know where the zeros are if there are any. The zeros
the -intercepts. Check out the three graphs below to see the different ways
Vertex
we could have (or not have) zeros in a parabola.
One Zero:
Two The Vertex
Zeros
No Zeros: Never
crosses axis
easily. Say for example we know the graph is a parabola and that the vertex is at 4, −8) and zeros at = 2 and
Notice that if we knew where the vertex and zeros were, we could do a quick sketch of the graph fairly
= 6. Now we can sketch the parabola as follows:
238
Lesson 5.3
Graph the following quadratics. When given, fill out the / charts with appropriate values.
1. 2 4 2. 6 8 3. 6 2

4. 2 6 2 5. 2 8 6. 7 3

7. 6 8. 3 6 3 9. 3 6

239
10. 2 8 12 11. 2 3 12. 9 5

13. 1 3 14. 10 24 15. 2 5 1

16. 4 17. 4 7 18. 4 1

240
19. 3 7 20. 6 14 21. 3 5 2

22. Zeroes: 3, = 9 23. Zeroes: = −2, = 2 24. Zeroes: = −5, = −1

Max: = 4 Min: = −8 Max: = 4
25. Zeroes: = −2, = 3 26. Zeroes: = 4, = 6 27. Zeroes: = 0, = 5

Max: 6 Min: 1 Min: 9
241
28. A cannon ball is launched from the ground 5 29. An angry bird is launched 7 feet behind you,
reaches a maximum height of 5 feet, and lands
of 8 feet and lands 3 feet in front of you. 1 foot behind you.
feet behind you. It reaches a maximum height
30. Tarzan starts on a tree branch 3 yards behind

where his rope is attached and swings 6 yards 4 feet from a creek. You swing to the other side and
31. You are holding on to a rope on the edge of a cliff
land 4 feet away on the other side. Your toes barely hit
the water 6 feet below the cliffs.
below the tree line to another tree (same height)
3 yards beyond where his rope is attached.
32. You throw a rock that lands 6 feet in front

height of 3 yards. Unfortunately, it was an air ball and
33. You shoot a basketball that reaches a maximum
that is slightly more than 4 feet off the ground landed 4 yards in front of you.
of you. It barely missed the bottom of a piñata
242
5.4 Factoring for Zeros
If the zeros and vertex are so important when graphing parabolas, how do we find them? Let’s start with
finding the zeros because if we can find the zeros, we can find the vertex. (The vertex is halfway between the zeros!)
We’ll just need to be able to tell when there are zeros and when there are not.
Quadratics in standard form are sometimes easily factorable. Actually, only about 11% of quadratics with
integer coefficients can be factored, so we’ll eventually need a better method to find zeros. However, for now, let’s
explore factoring to do the job. Factoring is really the distributive property. Let’s review what you know about the
distributive property with a monomial and a binomial.
The distributive property can be stated as ?@ + ?@ ?+ or when you multiply a monomial by a
The Distributive Property
binomial, you take the monomial times both terms in the binomial. So we get familiar equivalences such as:
7( + 2) 7 + 14
3 − 2 = 3 − 6
1 5
− 5 C − 2 = − +
2 2
Just like we think of the distributive property as distributing the ? to everything in the parentheses, factoring
is rewriting an expression by pulling out the common factor ?. You might think of it as the distributive property in
reverse because we’re turning it around to say ?@ + ?+ = ?@ + +. See? Pull out the ?.
That let us perform factoring in the past that looked like the following:
2 − 4 = 2 − 2
C − 4 = − 4
However, the distributive property works just as well with two binomials. For example, we can multiply the
following binomials by first distributing the first set of the parentheses and then distributing the remaining
monomials through the second set of parentheses. It’s like double distributing.
First distribute the first binomial Next distribute through the second binomial
Finally combine like terms
+ 3 − 1 = + 3 − 1 + 3 = + 3 − − 3 = + 2 − 3
+ 3 − 1 = + 2 − 3
Now, you should be thinking, “If we can distribute to make a quadratic, we ought to be able to go
backwards.” If you weren’t thinking that, you are now. That’s exactly what we’re going to do.
243
First, let’s talk about why we would factor. The zeros are where the quadratic crosses the -axis, or where
Factoring for Zeros
the value of 0. If we had a quadratic like 3 10, it’s hard to immediately see for what
values the function is equal to zero. However, if you knew that 3 10 could be rewritten as the two
binomials 5 2, we should be able to see that 5 2 0 when 5 and 2. In fact,
check out the graph of our function to verify that the zeros really are at 5 and 2.
symmetrical, we know the vertex must have the coordinate 1.5 since it’s
Notice that the vertex is off the coordinate plane, but since a parabola is
half-way between the zeros.
So how do we turn 3 10 into 5 2? We factor. Let’s

start by thinking of how we could rewrite the original function. Since five and
two will multiply to make the minus ten at the end, I might choose to rewrite the
function as follows:
3 10 5 2 10
Notice that we can factor an out of the first two terms and a 2 out of the second two terms.
3 10 5 2 10 5 2 5
Now notice that there is a common factor of 5. Factor that out and we’ll have our fully factored
function.
3 10 5 2 10 5 2 5 5 2
An Easier Way?
do? First of all, let’s eliminate having to deal with too many numbers. If there is an ? value other than one in the
OK, let’s be honest. Walking through all of those steps every time would just be annoying. So what do we
standard form quadratic ? @ +, start by factoring out the ?. From there we’ll factor what is left over. For
example, in the following quadratic we’ll pull out the factor of 3 and then factor the remaining quadratic.
3 6 24 3 2 8
remaining + value, 8 in this case, that multiply to make 8 and add or subtract to make 2. Since we know that
Now we can concentrate on the simpler quadratic to factor. To do that, we’ll look for factors of the
4 and 2 multiply to make 8 and add to make 2, those two values are probably what we want in our binomial
parentheses. Let’s try it by writing out the binomials and multiplying to see if we get our original function back.
3 4 2 3 2 8 3 6 24
It worked! We have our factors which means we can now find our zeros. When will 3 6 24 0?
Whenever 3 4 2 0 which is at 4 and 2. If those are my zeros, I know that my vertex will be
at 1 or the point 1, −27. (Just input 1 to get the output 27.)
244
Lesson 5.4
Multiply the following binomials using the distributive property.
1. 1 + 1 2. − 2 3. + 2 + 2
4. 2 + 3 5. + 3 + 4 6. − 5 + 2
7. − + 3 8. 2 + 12 − 1 9. − 4 − 2
10. − 5 + 3 11. 3 + 2 − 1 12. 2 + 5 + 2
13. 2 + 1 14. = − 16 15. = + 5
16. = 2 − 4 17. = − − 3 + 10 18. = + 5 + 6
19. = − 9 20. = −2 − 3 − 1 21. = − 7
22. = − + 8 − 12 23. = + 4 + 4 24. = − 25
245
25. 2 + 5 − 3 26 () 3 − 2 − 8 27. () 4 + 4 − 3
28. () 5 − 18 − 8 29. = 8 + 6 − 27 30. = 3 + 2 − 5
31. = 5 − 5 − 30 32. = 4 − 48 + 144 33. = 7 − 28
34. = 20 + 30 − 20 35. = 9 + 3 − 12 36. = 4 − 22 + 24
Answer the following questions.
37. Using technology, graph the function 4 + 8 − 45. Are there zeros? Approximately at what values
are they?
38. Do you think the quadratic () 4 + 8 − 45 will factor with integers? Why or why not?
39. Using technology, graph the function () − 5. Are there zeros? Approximately at what values are
they?
40. Do you think the quadratic () − 5 will factor with integers? Why or why not?
41. What conclusions can you draw about the reliability of factoring?
246
5.5 Completing the Square for the Vertex
Having the zeros is great, but the other key piece of a quadratic function is the vertex. We can find the
vertex in a couple of ways, but one method we’ll explore here will be useful later when we solve quadratic functions
as well. Let’s start with the intuitive method for finding the vertex.
If we know that the zeroes of the function 2 15

Using the Zeros to Find the Vertex
are at 3 and 5, then we can find the vertex by going half-way
between the zeros. Half-way between 3 and 5 is 1, so
our vertex must be there. Next find 1 for the -value of the vertex.
1 1 21 15 1 2 15 16
So we see that the vertex is at the point 1, −16) which we got
from our zeros at = 3 and = −5. Let’s take a look at the graph to
confirm that this is true.
Zeros
Vertex
Vertex Form
While the previous method of finding the vertex is simple, completing the square has more applications and
will allow us to solve quadratics later on. Let’s start by exploring some quadratics written in a specific format.
Consider the following graphs and equations of functions. What do you notice about the equation and the vertex
of each function? Could you find the vertex just from the equation?
2 3 7 F 4 5 5 9
Vertex: 3, −7 Vertex: 4, −5 Vertex: 5, 9)
247
What did you notice? First, you may have noticed that these quadratics are not written in standard form.
Take F() for example. In standard form it would be:
F() = ( + 4) − 5
F 4 4 5
F 8 + 16 − 5
F 8 + 11
Taking a quick moment should convince you that F will not factor with integers to get the zeros, so we
have to find the vertex somehow without using the zeros. To do so, F was written in a different way, factored
in a different way, so that we could see the vertex easier.
Secondly, you may have noticed that the vertex is directly in the equation written in this new form.
F = + 4 5
-coordinate of vertex will make these -coordinate of vertex is listed

parentheses zero. This is similar to directly. This is similar to translation
translation left or right in previous functions. up or down in previous functions.
Vertex: 4, −5
In fact, this form of writing quadratics is called vertex form. Formally, vertex form looks like this:
= ? − ℎ + h
where the vertex is at , h
Now we can see why the vertex for the function 2 3 7 is at 3, −7 and the vertex for the
function 5 9 is at 5, 9). So how do we get a function in vertex form?
Completing the Square

To get a quadratic function in vertex form, we use the process known as completing the square. It’s called
instance of the in the parentheses being squared. We complete it by making a perfect square trinomial. Let’s
completing the square because we take a quadratic function written in standard form and write it with a single
walk through an example of the process.
Let’s start with our function F 8 + 11 and write it in vertex form. We already know it should
end up as F = + 4 − 5, so it’s just a matter of how to get it there. Start by looking at the and terms
in the quadratic. If the function were just F = + 8, how could we change the function so that it would
factor into two binomials that are the same?
Add and subtract the same amount so that the function
doesn’t change in value. We have only added zero.
F = + 8 = + 8 + 16 − 16
Use 16 because we can then factor into + 4 + 4

which gives me the middle term of 8.
248
Now we can factor just the first three terms in our modified function as follows:
F = + 8 + 16 − 16 = + 4 + 4 − 16 = + 4 − 16
Factor just this part.
This tells us that F = + 8 is exactly equal to + 4 − 16. However, our original function was
not F = + 8. It was F = + 8 + 11. So we’ll just have to add eleven onto our F function to
make it equal to our original function.
F = + 4 − 16 + 11
F = + 4 − 5
Now we have our function written in vertex form. Let’s work through a few more examples.
= + 4 F = + 6 + 11 ℎ = − 10 + 2
= + 4 + 4 − 4 F = + 6 + 9 − 9 + 11 ℎ = − 10 + 25 − 25 + 2
= + 2 + 2 − 4 F = + 3 + 3 + 2 ℎ = − 5 − 5 − 23
= + 2 − 4 F = + 3 + 2 ℎ = − 5 − 23
Vertex: −2, −4 Vertex: −3, 2 Vertex: 5, −23
Did you notice that the number we add and subtract is always half the -term’s coefficient squared? In
other words, if a function is written in standard form as = + @ + +, to complete the square we add and

subtract AB . Notice that’s without an ? value.
What would we do if there is an ? value? First, factor out ? from the original function and then complete
the square with the remaining quadratic.
Why is , · the Vertex?
minimum of the quadratic. So why would the vertex be , h in the form h?
I’m so glad you asked! Very inquisitive. You may have noticed that the vertex gives us the maximum or
If we want the minimum of that function, what is the smallest value we could have? If we input then
we will make the parentheses zero giving the function an overall value of h. This is the smallest value that
we can get since anything besides zero squared would be a positive value. Therefore, h must be the minimum
value making the point , h the vertex.
A similar argument can be made for a maximum if the parabola is upside down for the function
h. The largest value is when since anything else will be negative.
249
Lesson 5.5
Find the vertex using any method.
1. 2 − 8 2. () + 4 − 4 3. () − 5 + 4
4. () + 4 + 10 5. = 2 − 12 + 6 6. = + 3 − 18
7. = − 4 + 8 8. = 2 − 12 + 16 9. = 3 + 9 + 3
10. = − + 5 11. = 3 + 9 + 6 12. = − 4 + 4
13. = + 8 − 4 14. = + 2 − 1 15. = + 6 + 3
16. = −2 + 8 − 4 17. = − 6 + 7 18. = + 2 + 3
250
Do a quick sketch of the graph of each function by finding first finding the vertex and then filling out the /
chart or finding the zeros.
19. 6 1 20. 2 6 21. 6 8

22. 8 12 23. 2 8 24. 4 2

251
5.6 Transforming Quadratics
Transforming quadratic functions works just like transforming any other function. However, to be a bit
more specific with quadratics, we’ll spend more time looking at vertex form. First, a quick review of the general
function notation transformations.
Transforming
In general, we have talked about translating functions up or down, translating functions left or right, and
stretching functions away from (or closer to) the axes. Here’s the quick review:
+ +
Translate up/down Translate left/right
If + is positive, the function shifts up. If + is positive, the function shifts left.
If + is negative, the function shifts down. If + is negative, the function shifts right.
Farther from -axis Closer to -axis

+ +
If + k 1, the function goes farther from -axis. If + k 1, the function goes closer to -axis.
If 0 f + f 1, the function goes closer to -axis. If 0 f + f 1, the function goes farther from -axis.
If + is negative, the function reflects across -axis. If + is negative, the function reflects across -axis.
Transforming a ·

Let’s talk specifically about transforming quadratics in vertex form. Since the point , h) is the vertex,
those values give us our shift left/right and up/down. Consider the parent function () = . Then the function
F() = ( − 4) − 7 has been translated four to the right and seven down because the vertex is at 4, −7.
Parent Function Transformed Function n 9
Right four and

down seven
252
The ? value in vertex form is a bit different. Sometimes that is called the stretch value. Let’s think about
why. If ? k 1, then the transformed function output will be higher than the parent function. Since a parabola is
“U” shaped, this will mean the parabola will narrow as it goes up faster on both sides of the vertex.
Original Function i Transformed Function n i
Parabola
narrows
If 0 f ? f 1, then the transformed function output will be smaller than the parent function. Since a
parabola is “U” shaped, this will mean the parabola gets wider as it goes up slower on both sides of the vertex.
Original Function i Transformed Function n 8V i

8
Parabola
widens
If ? is negative, then the transformed function output will be reflected across the horizontal line through
the vertex. In other words, it will flip upside down.
Original Function 9 Transformed Function n 9
Line of reflection
through the vertex
Parabola
reflects
253
Lesson 5.6
Describe the transformation applied to the parent function . Then do a quick sketch of each one.
1. 3 2 ∗ 2 3. 5

2.
4. F 1 5. F 2 8 6. F 6
254
7. F C 3 8. F 2 5 9. F 2 3

10. F 8 16 11. F 2 5 12. F 2 12 18
255
Review Unit 5: Polynomials and Quadratics
Identify whether the following are polynomials or not. If it is a polynomial, give its name by both degree and
number of terms.
1. C 4 + 3 − 1
D
2. = + 2 − 1
1
3. = −2 4. = 2√ − 4
5. = D − C − 6. = 5 − 3
Perform the following polynomial operations.
7. 5 C + 4 − 3 − 7) + (−2 C − 5 + 6 + 12 8. 7 C − 4 + 1 − 3 C − 7 − 2
9. − 3 − 10 + C + 4 − 3 − 7 10. 3 C + 6 − 5 − 8 C − + 3 + 1
11. 2 − 43 − 1 12. − − 2 + 3
13. + 7 − 7 14. + 3 + 2 − 5
256
Graph the following quadratics.
15. 2 16 24 16. 5 8
17. 4 5 18. Max: 4, Zeros: 3 and 7
19. Min: 4, Zeros: 3 and 9 20. A cannon is launched from 9 ) behind you and lands
9 ) in front of you. It reaches a max height of 7 ).
257
21. 2 + 1 22. = − 64
23. = + 3 24. = + 3 − 28
25. = + 6 + 8 26. = 2 + 8 − 10
27. = − 10 + 25 28. = − 5 − 24
Find the vertex using any method without graphing.
29. 2 + 3 30. () + 12 + 36
31. = + 4 − 6 32. = − + 6 − 2
33. = − 9 34. = + 4 − 32

35. = + − 8 36. = + 14 + 41
258
Sketch a graph using the vertex and zeros.
37. 4 38. 10 21
Describe the transformation from the parent function .
39. F 2 5 40. F 5 7
41. F 2 3 42. F 2 1 3
Sketch the transformation from the original function 9.
43. F 3 4 44. F 3 7
259
Unit 6: Solving with Quadratics
6.1 Solving Quadratic Equations
6.2 The Quadratic Formula
6.3 Creating and Comparing Quadratics
6.4 Solving Systems with Quadratics
6.5 One-Variable Quadratic Inequalities
6.6 Two-Variable Quadratic Inequalities
260
Pre-Test Unit 6: Solving Quadratics
You may use a calculator on the whole test.
Solve the following quadratics using any method. (5 pts; 2 pts for solution(s), 3 pts for method)
1. 6 + 12 = 3 2. − 4 − 10 = 11 3. 2 + 8 + 20 = 4
4. 8 + 2 = 3 5. 6 + 3 + 7 = 7 6. − 10 = 4
Answer the following questions about the given situation. (5 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
Humpty Dumpty fell off the top of the king’s castle which is 2160.9 O tall. At the same time, his cousin, Lumpy
this case would be −4.9 O/J . Don’t worry. Both Dumpty and Grumpy are now made of the same airbags that
Grumpy, was catapulted up into the air from the king’s courtyard (on the ground). The coefficient for gravity in
bounced the Mars rovers in for a safe landing.
7. Write an equation to represent Humpty Dumpty’s height in terms of time.
8. The equation to represent Lumpy Grumpy’s height in terms of time is ) 4.9) + 98). How fast did the
catapult launch him into the air?
9. What time did Lumpy Grumpy reach his maximum height and what was that height?
10. Who hit the ground first?
261
Solve the following systems using any method. (5 pts; 2 pts for solution(s), 3 pts for work)
3 2 1 5 7
11. µ 12. µ
2 11 2 6
10 32
13. µ
6 16
Solve the following quadratic inequalities in one variable and graph the solution set on the number line. (5 pts;
1 pt for graphing answer, 2 pts for inequality answer, 2 pts for work)
14. 2 15 f 0 15. k 9
262
Solve the following quadratic inequalities in two variables by graphing on the coordinate plane. The tables are
provided to help you graph if you want to use them. (5 pts; 2 pts for correct parabola, 1 pt for dotted/full, 2 pts
for shading)
16. g 8 8 17. f 4 7

263
6.1 Solving Quadratics
In the previous unit we looked at the behavior and characteristics of quadratic functions. We can now use
that information to solve a quadratic equation in one variable.
Let’s say we want to solve the equation 4 12 9. We can always graph the related equation
Solving by Graphing
4 12 and check when the height, or , is equal to 9. Graphing the related equation gives us the following:
Notice that it has a height of nine at 7 and 3. This means we

have two solutions to the equation 4 12 9, namely 7 and
3.
However, by this point you might guess that graphing is not always the
most precise method and that we may be able to solve algebraically with less
effort and more precision. Sounds like a plan. Let’s do it!
Algebraically, we can’t solve the equation 4 12 9 using inverse operations like we did with
Solving by Factoring
linear functions. Since there is not a single instance of the variable , we can’t undo the operations in reverse order.
However, we do know how to find zeros for quadratics by factoring (when factoring is possible). So, let’s see if we
can manipulate this equation to make it so that we are solving for the zeros.
4 12 9
4 12 9 9 9
4 21 0
What this means is that the zeros to the quadratic 4 21 0 will give us the solution to our original
quadratic equation. So let’s factor and find the solutions.
4 21 0
7 3 0
7 ?<L 3
Notice that in essence what we did is translate the parabola down nine units so that the height we were
looking for was actually zero.
264
Solving by Completing the Square
As we saw in the previous unit, we can’t always factor nicely, but completing the square works all the time.
You can complete the square all day, every day. You can complete the square until the cows come home. You
can…never mind. Let’s just do it.
First remember that completing the square helps us to find the zeros of a quadratic. So we’ll need to rewrite
the quadratic in an equivalent form so that it is equal to zero instead of nine. This leads us to the same initial work
of:
4 − 12 = 9
+ 4 − 12 − 9 = 9 − 9
+ 4 − 21 = 0
Now we can complete the square with this new equation.
+ 4 − 21 = 0
+ 4 + 4 − 4 − 21 = 0
+ 4 + 4 − 25 = 0
+ 2 − 25 = 0
After completing the square, notice that we have a single instance of the variable, we can use inverse
operations to solve as follows:
+ 2 − 25 = 0
+ 2 − 25 + 25 = 0 + 25
+ 2 = 25
+ 2 = √25

Notice that we must consider both
square roots since we are taking the
+ 2 = ±5
square root ourselves. It does not mean
the principal root in this case.
+ 2 − 2 = ±5 − 2
= ±5 − 2
= −7 ?<L = 3
Solve whichever way makes sense in each given situation. Just remember, you won’t always get an integer
solution. If you end up with a weird square root, either approximate the solutions by rounding the square root to
the nearest two decimal places or leave it written with the square root sign as an irrational number.
265
Lesson 6.1
Solve the following quadratic equations using any method.
1. 6 10 2. − − 2 = 28 3. − 12 + 12 = −24
4. − 6 − 7 = 9 5. − 21 = 4 6. − 3 − 4 = 6
7. − 14 + 55 = 6 8. + 21 = −4 9. + 2 − 12 = 10
10. 2 − 16 + 10 = −20 11. 4 − 11 = 25 12. 3 − 9 − 9 = 21
266
13. − 8 − 9 = −28 14. − 13 = 2 15. + 6 + 12 = 8
16. 2 − 4 + 2 = 16 17. + 5 + 4 = + 7 18. + 10 = 2 + 9
19. + 4 = −4 20. + 4 − 5 = + 13 21. + 5 = + 2 + 9
22. − 8 + 2 = −10 23. 3 − 6 − 10 = + 4 + 2 24. + 12 = 2 − 9
25. 2 − 5 − 16 = − 5 26. 3 + 2 − 3 = 2 27. − 3 = + 12
267
6.2 The Quadratic Formula
Factoring and completing the square are great tools to use when solving quadratics. Unfortunately, as we
saw in the last homework assignment, there are some fairly ugly looking answers when completing the square.
Now imagine that you had a quadratic with negative fraction coefficients. Wouldn’t it be easier if we just had a
formula, and it says that if you have a quadratic ? @ + 0, then:

formula for quadratics that you could just plug into to get the answer? Oh, wait. We do. It’s called the quadratic
−@ ± √@ − 4?+
=
2?
The Quadratic Formula Origin Story

Every good superhero has an origin story. Wolverine came from the Weapon X project, Superman was sent
off as completing the square. Let’s start with the basic standard form quadratic and factor out the ? value so we
to Earth by his father, and Batman, well, Batman was just always awesome. The quadratic formula actually started
can pretend ? 1 after that.
? + @ + + = 0
@ +
? + + = 0
? ?
Now we can just deal with the quadratic in the parentheses so the ? value doesn’t throw off the completing
the square process. We’ll just have to remember to put it back in at the end. So let’s write that quadratic in as an
equivalent expression in vertex form (i.e. complete the square).
@ +
+ +
? ?
¸
+ + − + Add and subtract half the coefficient squared.
¸
A + B − + Factor the trinomial.
¸
A + B − + ∗
Get a common denominator.
¸
A + B − + Add the last two terms.
@ 4?+ − @
+ +
2? 4?
268
Whew! We can’t forget about that ? we originally factored out. Let’s put that back in.
0
¸
? ¹A + B + º
Notice the quadratic is now in vertex
form and that the vertex is at =

@ 4?+ − @
.
? + + =0
2? 4?
Finally, we’re ready to solve.
@ 4?+ − @
? + + =0
2? 4?
¸
? A + B =−

Subtract the fraction from both sides.
¸
? A + B =

Multiply through the negative.
¸
A + B = Divide both sides by ?.

±√ ¸
+ =
We must consider both square roots.
±√ ¸
=

Subtract the fraction from both sides.
And that, my friends, is how the average, everyday completing the square turned into the superhero
QUADRATIC FORMULA!
Using the Quadratic Formula
equation 4 − 5 0, we know that we could factor and find + 5 − 1 = 0. This would mean that the
Let’s take a factorable quadratic equation and use the quadratic formula. If we wanted to solve the
solutions would be = −5 and = 1. Now let’s confirm that the quadratic formula will give us the same solutions
for .
−@ ± √@ − 4?+ −4 ± 4 − 41−5

= =
2? 21
−4 ± √16 + 20
=
2
−4 ± √36
=
2
−4 ± 6
=
2
2 −10
= = 1 67 = = −5
2 2
269
We got the same answers! The quadratic formula works! Now let’s use the quadratic formula for an
equation that may not factor.
3 − 5 + 2 = 0
−@ ± √@ − 4?+ 5 ± −5 − 432 5 ± √25 − 24 5 ± √1 5 ± 1

= = = = =
2? 23 6 6 6
4 2
= 1 67 = =
6 3
We can double check that these are the correct solutions by substituting them back into the original

equation. Plugging in = 1 makes the statement true and so does plugging in = . (The fraction just takes a bit
C
more work!)
The Parts of the Quadratic Formula
we can see the -coordinate of the vertex right away.

The quadratic formula not only solves quadratics, but it also can give us information quickly. For example,

±√ ¸

the quadratic in vertex form? Well, there’s the -coordinate of the vertex sitting right in the formula. And the plus
Remember how earlier we noted that the quadratic formula came from completing the square and putting
or minus blah blah? That represents moving the same distance to either side of the vertex to find the zeros. Pretty
cool, huh?
which one this will be. We know we can’t take the square root of the negative, so if @ 4?+ is negative, we’ll get
A quadratic can have a no zeros, a single zero, or two zeros. There is a hint in the quadratic formula as to
no solution. That means there will be no zeros. That part of the formula, @ − 4?+, is called the discriminant.
If the discriminant is zero, then there will be a single zero. That’s because we’ll be adding and then
subtracting zero which gives us the same value either way. If the discriminant is positive, then we’ll have our
regualar two zeros.
We can also tell if the parabola opens up or down based on the ? value. If it’s positive, then the parabola
opens up. If ? is negative, then the parabola has been reflected vertically meaning it opens downward.
What can you tell from this quadratic formula?
12 ± 12 − 4−3−10

2−3
There are no zeros since the discriminant is −111, the vertex is at = 2, and the parabola opens down.
We can also reconstruct the original quadratic equation as −3 + 12 − 10 = 0.
270
Lesson 6.2
Solve the following quadratic equations using any method.
1. 3 + 2 − 7 0 2. 3 + 2 + 1 = 2 + 2 3. 4 − 484 = 0

4.
− 4 + 8 = 0 5. 3 − 6 + 11 = 0 6. −5 − 6 + 7 = 0

7. − = 6 + 9 = 3 9. 7 + − 8 = −9

8.
10. 2 − 20 + 25 = −25 11. − 5 + 2 = − 3 12. 6 − − 1 = 0
271
Find the -coordinate of the vertex and determine how many zeros the quadratic has.
13. 2 − 7 14. () 2 + 8 + 11 15. = 3 − 6 + 3
16. = 2 − 2 + 5 17. = 2 − 2 − 4 18. = 2 − 4 + 1
19. = − − − 1 20. = − − + 5 21. = −2 − 20 − 50
22. = + 5 − 3 23. = 4 − 8 + 4 24. = 3 + 18 + 1
272
6.3 Creating and Comparing Quadratics
Just like with exponentials and linear functions, to be able to compare quadratics, we’ll need to be able to
create equation forms of the quadratic functions. Let’s examine each modality individually.
Creating Equations from Tables

We’ll start by examining a table and looking for any patterns that we see.
4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−3 −6 −7 −6 −3 2 9 18 29
What things do you notice about this table? Here are some things you might notice:
• There is no constant rate of change or constant difference.
The vertex must be at −2, −7 since the values are symmetrical on either side of that point.
• There is no constant growth factor that comes out of the differences.
•
What you might not have noticed is that there is a constant SECOND difference in the table. Did you notice
that the differences in outputs are all the odd numbers? That means the rate of change is changing by a constant
value of two. Check this out:
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
−3 −6 −7 −6 −3 2 9 18 29
−3 −1 +1 +3 +5 +7 +9 +11
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
If there is a constant second difference, that’s our hint that it is a quadratic function. Notice that this is not
a constant growth rate. The growth rate for exponential functions was multiplication of the rate of change. This is
a constant difference between the different rates of change which we call a constant second difference. This gives
us a way to determine whether a function is quadratic or not.
Since we know the vertex is at −2, −7 in this table, we know that the equation must be something of the
form = ? + 2 − 7. What we don’t know is the ? value, but we can find it by using an input/output pair
the ? value. Instead, let’s use a different point such as 1, 2. Plug in what you know and solve for what you don’t.
from the table. We shouldn’t use the vertex because it will make the parentheses zero meaning we can’t solve for
= ? + 2 − 7
2 = ?1 + 2 − 7
2 = 9? − 7
9 = 9? → ? = 1
From this we can see that the ? value must be one. In other words, this quadratic has not been stretched
(widened or narrowed) and has the equation = + 2 − 7.
273
Let’s look at an example where the ? value is something other than one.
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
112 79 52 31 16 7 4 7 16
33 27 21 15 9 3 3 9
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
We have a constant second difference, so it is a quadratic function. The vertex is at 2, 4 so we can solve
for ? using the point 3, 7 as follows:
= ? − 2 + 4
7 = ?3 − 2 + 4
7=?+4→? =3
So we know that the equation of this function is = 3 − 2 + 4.
Astute observers may have noticed that the second difference is actually equal to twice the ? value. In the
first example, ? = 1 and the constant second difference was 2. In the second example, ? = 3 and the constant
second difference was 6. Explore on your own or with a teacher whether this works all the time or not.
Creating Equations from Graphs

With graphs, we follow the same process as with tables except that we’ll usually be able to spot the vertex
immediately thereby making the process shorter. Consider the following graph:
Notice that the vertex is at 6, 8) and that we have a nice point at (3, −1)
which lets us immediately set-up an equation to solve for the ? value as follows:
−1 = ?(3 − 6) + 8
−1 = 9? + 8
−9 = 9? → ? = −1
This gives us the equation () = −( − 6) + 8.
Creating Equations from Descriptions
Given the vertex and a point is exactly the same as the table or graph method for finding the ? value of the function
We can describe quadratics without a context by giving the zeros and a point or the vertex and a point.
in vertex form. Given the zeros and a point, it may be prudent to at least find the -coordinate of the vertex and
use that to solve for the -coordinate of the vertex and ? value.
274
Let’s say we know that the zeros of a quadratic are at1 8 and −2 and there is a point on the
quadratic at 4, 6. Thinking of the graph, it should look something like this:
We can’t quite see where the vertex is, but we should be able to solve for it because we know that the -
coordinate of the vertex must be 3. This leads us to
following equation as a partial set-up.
? 3 h
Now we can use two of the points, one zero and the
other given point, to set-up a system of equations to solve for
the missing values. Why can’t you use both zeros? Because
you would end up with infinite parabolas that could have those
zeros. We need to use the other given point to uniquely define
a quadratic function. So we end up with the following
equations:
0 = ?8 − 3 h
6 ?4 − 3 h
Simplify these equations and solve for the missing ? and h as follows:
0 = 25? h → h 25?
6 ? h
6 ? 25?
1
6 24? → ? =
4
25
h=−
4
Now we know that our equation is () = ( − 3) −

D

. It’s OK that the vertex doesn’t come out as an
integer! That happens in real life!
What to Compare?
point , h. We can compare which quadratic has the highest average rate of change within a given interval by
Now that we have equations, what exactly do we compare? We can compare where vertices are using the
change using the ? value. We can also see when each quadratic will have a certain output by solving the quadratics
substituting into those equations. We can see which quadratic will eventually always have a higher average rate of
using factoring, completing the square, or the quadratic formula.
275
Real Life Modeling with Quadratics
In real life, we use quadratics to model the distance something has fallen because the acceleration of gravity
is in meters per second squared. Squared. That means quadratic. In general we use one of the following two
formulas depending on whether we are using feet or meters:
Height in terms of time using Height in terms of time using &
) 16) + :) + ℎ ) 4.9) + :) + ℎ
In both of these equations, the : represents the initial velocity the object is projected at. If the object is
thrown upwards, then : is positive. If it is thrown down, then : is negative. The ℎ represents the initial height of
the object. Finally, ) represents the time since the object was thrown.
So, let’s say you were standing on a platform 300 ) in the air and throw a ball straight up at 20 )/J. We
can model this situation with the equation:
()) = −16) + 20) + 300
If you friend is standing on a different platform 200 ) in the air and throws a ball straight up at 40 )/J.
We can model this situation with the equation:
()) = −16) + 40) + 200
Now can ask some interesting comparison questions like which ball will hit the ground first? You threw the
to have a height of zero, just plug in ℎ) = 0 and use your favorite solution method (probably the quadratic formula
ball from a higher point, but your friend threw his up in the air twice as fast as you. Since we consider the ground
in this case). Here’s the work for your ball.
0 = −16) + 20) + 300
−20 ± 20 − 4−16300

)= = 0.625 ± 4.375 = 5 67 − 3.75
−32
Since we can’t have a negative time, your ball hit the ground at 5 J. Here’s the work for your friend’s ball.
0 = −16) + 40) + 200
−40 ± 40 − 4−16200

)= = 1.25 ± 3.75 = 5 67 − 2.5
−32
Again, we can’t have a negative time, so your friend’s ball hit the ground at 5 J as well. You tied!
276
Lesson 6.3
Create equations for the following situations.
1. Vertex: 3,4) 2. 3.
5 6
Zeros: = 3
2 3 4
1 5 7 5 1
= −9
4. Point: (5, −9) 5. 6.

2 1 0 1 2
Zeros: = 2
1 4 9 16 25
=6
7. Vertex: (−7, −4) 8. 9.

6 5 4 3 2
Point: (−3, −8)
9 1 7 9 7
277
10. Vertex: 1, −8) 11. 12.
6 5 4 3 2
Point: (−2, −6)
5 0 3 4 3
Answer the following questions about comparing functions.
13. Which type of function will eventually always be growing at the fastest rate:
linear or quadratic? Why do you think so?
14. Which type of function will eventually always be growing at the fastest rate:
quadratic or exponential? Why do you think so?
15. Is it possible for a linear function to be higher than a quadratic function in

some spots but lower than the quadratic in others? Sketch an example to the
left.
Answer the following questions using the given information.

To see who was stronger, The Vision and Thor had a throwing contest. They took turns throwing Thor’s hammer
has a definite advantage with an infinity gem, he allowed Thor to stand at the top of a cliff 320 ) in the air before
straight up into the air, and the winner was the person who kept the hammer in the air longer. Since The Vision
throwing his hammer up at 128 )/J. The Vision then threw the hammer up at 160 )/J from the bottom of a
hole that was 144 ) deep.
16. Write an equation to represent the height of the hammer in terms of time when Thor threw the hammer.
17. Write an equation to represent the height of the hammer in terms of time when The Vision threw the hammer.
18. When did Thor’s throw reach a maximum height and what was that height?
278
19. When did The Vision’s throw reach a maximum height and what was that height?
20. When did Thor’s throw hit the ground?
21. When did The Vision’s throw hit the ground? Why are there two solutions and which one is right?
Sam and Pam had were throwing rocks into a pond. Sam threw from the ground at a speed of 24.5 O/J. Pam
threw from a ledge 4.9 OG)G7J above the ground at a speed of 19.6 O/J.
22. Write an equation to represent the height of the rock in terms of time when Sam threw.
23. Write an equation to represent the height of the rock in terms of time when Pam threw the rock.
24. When did Sam’s throw reach a maximum height and what was that height?
25. When did Pam’s throw reach a maximum height and what was that height?
26. When did Sam’s throw hit the ground?
27. Approximately when did Pam’s throw hit the ground? Why are there two solutions and which one is right?
279
6.4 Solving Systems with Quadratics
Now that we know how to solve quadratic equations, we can move on to solving systems involving
quadratics. As you might guess by now, there are a couple of ways to do this.
Solving by Graphing
Let’s say we wanted to solve the following system by graphing:
9
1
3 9
4
1, −8) and (−3,0).

We could graph them both and see when they intersect which is at the points
We can solve a system of two quadratics this way or even a system of a

quadratic and a linear equation. We are only limited by the degree of precision in
our graphing. However, let’s explore an algebraic method.
Solving Algebraically
We’ve actually already solve a system algebraically, you just didn’t know it. Consider in the following
system, we looking for the point or points of intersection.
2 1
2 6
In this case it’s a linear and a quadratic. They could cross at two points, exactly one point, or not intersect
at all. No matter what the solution, we’re in essence looking for when the linear equation is the same as the
quadratic. That means we can set them equal to each other and solve like we did previously.
2 6 2 1
4 5 0
5 1 0
This means our solutions are the points 5,9) and (−1, −3). The values came from plugging in the
values we got from solving the quadratic. Of course, things won’t always factor, so completing the square or the
quadratic formula may become necessary.
280
Lesson 6.4
Solve the following systems of equations using any method.

1. µ
( − 3) − 4
2 + 3
2. µ 3. µ
+6 −4
− 7 + 1

−( + 4) − 5 C − 2 + 7
4. µ 5. » 6. µ
− + 2 − + 7 19 + 3 = 11
= − 4 + 8 = 2 − + 1 = + 4 − 3
7. » 8. µ 9. µ
2 + 7 = −42 =9

= −5

281
= = + 2 − 3 = + 2 − 4
10. µ 11. µ 12. µ
= −2 = + 2 + 5 = + 4 + 2
= + 3 = + 8 + 8 = − 5
13. µ 14. » 15. µ
= 2 + 3 − 9 = + 2 + 2 = 3 + 4 − 5
= − 6 + 2 = + 2 − 1 = − − 3 + 4

16. µ 17. µ 18. µ
= − 10 + 36 = + 11 = − 6 + 5
282
6.5 One-Variable Quadratic Inequalities
So what does that mean? It means instead of solving an equation like 4 2 7, we’ll be solving an
inequality like 4 2 f 7.
Find the Zeros

If you haven’t caught on that we’re solving for the zeros an awful lot, now is a good to look for that pattern.
First, we’ll pretend that the inequality is actually an equality and find the zeros.
4 2 7
4 5 0
5 1 0
5 67 = −1
Now that we know the solution if it’s an equation, but it’s not. For an
inequality we have to know is it greater than or less than five? Is it greater than
or less than negative one? Let’s back up and think conceptually about what the
question is really asking.
By asking for what values is this statement true, − 4 2 f 7, we’re

really asking when the parabola is below a height of seven. Since the ? value of
that parabola is positive, it will be opening upwards. Think of the height of seven
5 and 1 or outside of those two values? It’s below between those

as the zeros we just found. Is the height of the parabola below seven between
values, or when f 5 and when k 1.
When we write a solution that is in between, we usually write it as a single inequality as follows:
1 f f 5
See? The is between 1 and 5. Whenever is between those values, the parabola is below a height of
seven. In other words, values in that interval of the domain make our original statement true.
Other than graphing, we could simply test a value. We got that 1 and 5. Since 0 is a simple
number between those values, let’s test it and see if it makes the original inequality true.
0 40 2 f 7 )7>G
Check a number outside of that interval, like = −2, to see that it is false.
(−2) − 42 2 f 7 ?HJG
283
Solve for in the following inequality and note that it will be outside of the interval.
Outside the Interval
3 1 / 5
3 1 5
3 4 0
4 1 0
4 67 = −1
Checking to see if = 0 is true, we see the following:
(0) − 3(0) + 1 / 5 ?HJG
Therefore the solution set must be outside of that interval. This should make sense because we’re asking
when a parabola has a height greater than five. Outside of a small interval, a parabola that opens up will always
have a height greater than five. We write our solution as follows:
f −1 67 k 4
We can also represent the solution set on a number line. For our first example, 4 2 f 7, we found
Graphing the Solution on a Number Line
the solution set 1 f f 5. We represent that on a number line as follows:
For our second example, 3 1 / 5, we found the solution set f 1 67 k 4. We represent that
on a number line as follows:
This should be familiar from when we solved linear inequalities. If it’s “or equal to” we fill in the circle. “Less
than” to the left, and “greater than” to the right.
Again, keep in mind that not everything will factor nicely. You’ll probably have to either complete the square
or use the quadratic formula at some point.
284
Lesson 6.5
Solve the following quadratic inequalities in one variable and graph the solution set on the number line.
1. 4 3 f 0 2. 6 7 / 0
3. 2 8 9 g 3 2 5 k 2

C
4.
5. 4 4 k 0 6. 8 21 f 4
7. 8 9 g 8 8. 6 8 / 1
285
9. 2 5 3 / 0 10. 2 8 g 10
11. 3 4 f 0 12. 7 4 k 4
13. 5 g 1 14. 2 5 / 4
15. 2 6 / 8 16. 3 g 3
286
6.6 Two-Variable Quadratic Inequalities
Solving two-variable quadratics inequalities will be much like solving two-variable linear inequalities. With
the linear inequalities, we shaded the half plane above or below the dotted or full line. With quadratic inequalities,
we’ll shade above or below the parabola (which will look like inside or outside) with either a dotted or full curve as
well.
Let’s think about the quadratic inequality g 4 1. If we want to know the and values that will
Two Examples
make that statement true, we’ll have to graph it on the coordinate plane and shade the area that represents the
solution. Since this inequality is an “or equal to,” we’ll use a full curve as follows:
Since it is a “less than,” we will

shade below the parabola. One way to
think about this is to pick any point on
the parabola and go down. You can’t
think that “less than” always means
outside the parabola because if the
parabola is upside down, you’ll shade
inside the parabola.
Therefore, the final

graph should look like the graph to the
right. Yikes! That graph is a bit sloppy
because of the technology, but you get the general idea.
Now let’s look at one that is greater than like / 2 3 7. Again we’ll use a full curve instead of the
dotted, but this time it should be shaded above the parabola making it look like the graph below.
All that needs to be done is to graph with either a dotted or full curve
(depending on the “or equal to” part) and then shade above or below (based on
the “less than” or “greater than” part).
You could also imagine solving a system of inequalities where we look

for the region that is double shaded.
287
Lesson 6.6
provided to help you graph if you want to use them.
1. f 4 3 2. k 6

3. k 4 4 4. f 8

5. f 4 5 6. k 5 6

288
7. g 4 8. / 2 3

9. / 4 10. g 8

11. / 2 6 5 12. g 1 8

289
Review Unit 6: Solving Quadratics
Solve the following quadratics using any method.
1. 4 + 7 = 4 2. − 8 + 5 2 3. 3 + 6 − 24 0
4. 5 + 15 = 5 5. 4 + 10 − 9 = −2 6. − 3 = 12
7. − 3 + 3 = 13 8. 4 − 7 + 10 = 8 9. 4 + 5 = 1
10. 3 + 3 + 5 = 11 11. + 7 = 32 12. − 9 = −8
Answer the following questions about the given situation.
Batman jumped off of Sears Tower which is 527 meters tall. At the same time, Catwoman was catapulted up into
the air from Millennium Park (on the ground). The coefficient for gravity in this case would be −4.9 O/J .
13. Write an equation to represent Batman’s height in terms of time.
14. The equation to represent Catwoman’s height in terms of time is ) 4.9) + 58.8). How fast did the
catapult launch her into the air?
15. What time did Catwoman reach her maximum height and what was that height?
16. Who hit the ground first?

290
Solve the following systems using any method.
5 14 2 5
17. µ 18. µ
7 1
5 10 2 3 1
19. µ 20. µ
2 3 2
4 6 4 3
21. µ 22. »
4 6 3 5

Solve the following quadratic inequalities in one variable and graph the solution set on the number line.
23. 4 12 f 0 24. 5 4 / 0
25. g 25 26. 6 k 9
291
provided to help you graph if you want to use them.
27. g 6 7 28. / 3

29. f −( − 2) + 4 29. f + 2 − 8

292
Quarter 3 Review
1. Name the following polynomials by both degree and the number of terms:
a. C 2 4
b. 5 2
c. 5 D
a. 2 3 1 3 4
2. Perform the following polynomial operations:
b. 5 C 7 5 3 6 3
c. 2 33 2
d. 2 4 5
3. Graph the following functions:
a. 6 5 b. 4 3
a. 5 14
4. Find the zeros of the following quadratics:
b. 2 8 8
c. 16
d. 3 9
293
a. 4 3
5. Find the vertex of the following quadratics:
b. 6 7
c. 3 12 9
6. Knowing the parent function is , describe the following transformations

a. F 3 8
b. F 2 4
c. F 4
a. 6 3 4
7. Solve the following quadratic equations:
b. 3 2 14 6
c. 3 5 14
d. 3 2 8 0
e. 5 25 10
f.2 − 12 + 20 = 2
8. A man stood at the top of the St. Louis arch 630 feet in the air and threw a penny toward the ground at a
speed of 94 feet per second.
a. Write an equation of height in terms of time.
b. When did the penny hit the ground?
9. A man stood at the top of the St. Louis arch 192 meters in the air and threw a penny up into the air at a speed
of 20 meters per second.
10. Solve the following systems of equations:

= − 5 − 6
a. µ
= −2 + 4
= 2 − 4 + 10
b. µ
= − + 6 − 1
= + 4 − 2
c. µ
= − 2 − 2
294
11. Solve the following inequalities:
a. + 6 + 5 / 0
b. − 3 − 28 g 0
c. 2 − 8 + 8 k 0
12. Graph the following inequalities:
a. f + 2 − 8 b. / + 5 + 6
295
Unit 7: Pythagorean Theorem
7.1 Pythagorean Theorem and 2D Applications
7.2 3D Applications of the Pythagorean Theorem
7.3 The Distance between Points
7.4 Pythagorean Theorem Converse
296
Pre-Test Unit 7: Pythagorean Theorem
Answer the following questions. (5 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
1. What is the IF-THEN statement for the Pythagorean Theorem?
2. What is the Pythagorean Theorem used for?
3. What is the IF-THEN statement for the Pythagorean Theorem Converse?
4. What is the Pythagorean Theorem Converse used for?
Determine if each of the following is a right triangle or not using the Pythagorean Theorem Converse. (5 pts;
3 pts for set-up/work or explanation, 2 pts for correct answer)
5. 6.
26 ;< 27 O
24 ;< 21 O
10 ;< 20 O
Find the length of the missing side of each right triangle. Round your answer to three decimal places if
necessary. (5 pts; 3 pts for set-up/work or explanation, 2 pts for correct answer)
7. 8.
13 +O +
@ 23 O
5 +O 7O
297
Find the value of the variable. Round your answer to three decimal places if necessary. (5 pts; 3 pts for set-
up/work or explanation, 2 pts for correct answer)
9. The following cone has a radius of 6 OO and a

height of 8 OO. What is H, the slant height? 50 ) on each side. The slant height is 50 ). What
10. The following pyramid has a square base that is
is ℎ, the height of the pyramid?

slant slant
height height
H

7
Determine the distance between the given points. Round your answer to three decimal places if necessary.
(5 pts; 3 pts for set-up/work or explanation, 2 pts for correct answer)
11. 6, −3) and (6,2) 12. (−6,4) and (8, −4)
298
Solve the following problems. (10 pts; 3 pts for set-up/work of each half, 2 pts for correct answer to each half)
13. A hospital helicopter must go pick up a patient that is six miles west and eight miles north of the hospital.
How many miles total will the helicopter travel to pick up the patient and bring him back to the hospital?
14. Your TV is mounted on the wall but looks slightly crooked to you. You’re not sure if the TV is actually crooked
or if it’s the shelf below the TV that makes the TV look crooked. You measure the TV and shelf as shown in the
55 ;<
picture. What is crooked and what is not?
48 ;<
48 ;<
73 ;<
55 ;<
Floor
74 ;< Zoomed In View

Of Just The Shelf
Floor
the field that will costs $1,000 per mile. How much will the fence cost to the nearest dollar?
15. A nature area has a rectangle field that is 10 miles by 5 miles and wants to put a fence along the diagonal of
16. Sam lives in a house he claims is rectangular. He measures around the outside of the house’s foundation and
under the crawl space and finds the following measurements. He says since the length and widths are the same
on either side, it must be a rectangle. First, what is wrong with his argument? Second, use a better method to
decide if the house really is rectangular or not.
80 )
90 )
40 ) 40 )
80 )
299
7.1 Pythagorean Theorem and 2D Applications
The Pythagorean Theorem states that IF a triangle is a right triangle, THEN the sum of the squares of the
the triangle measure ? and @ and the hypotenuse measures +, then ? @ + . While you may have heard this
lengths of the legs equals the square of the hypotenuse lengths. That’s a complicated way to say that if the legs of
in the past, we will now prove it.
Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem

There are many ways to prove the Pythagorean Theorem, but take a look at the following picture. We will
refer to this for our proof.
In this picture we have a large square whose side lengths are equal to ?
@ and an inner square whose side lengths are +. Notice that if we find the area of
a b
c the large square and subtract the area of the triangles we get the area of the inner
b c a
square. So let’s do that algebraically.
The area of the larger square is:
a c
c b ? @ ? @? @ ?? @ @? @ ? ?@ ?@ @
b a ? 2?@ + @

The area of each triangle is ?@ and since there are four of them, the total area of the triangles is 2?@.
The area of the inner square is + .
This means the large square minus the triangles would look like this:
? + 2?@ + @ − 2?@ +
Notice that the +2?@ and the −2?@ cancel each other out (become zero), so we do get the result we expect
which is that ? + @ + .
Do a search online to see if you can find another proof for this vital theorem.
One more time, the IF-THEN statement for the Pythagorean Theorem is:
IF it’s a right triangle, THEN a N d
Since we know that in a right triangle the statement ? @ + must be true, we can now solve for any
missing side length given the other two side lengths. The process of solving for a missing leg (? or @) is only slightly
different from solving for a missing hypotenuse (+).
300
Let’s first solve for a missing leg. First note that it makes no difference which leg we label as ? and which
Solving for a Missing Leg
leg we label as @. This is because the commutative property says that we can add in any order. In other words,
whether we have ? @ or @ ? doesn’t matter, it will always equal + . So if we are missing the length of a
leg, it might be easiest to always assume it is ? that is missing.
missing leg length, ?. Just substitute everything we know into the

Given the fact that this is a right triangle, we can solve for the
Pythagorean Formula. We know that the hypotenuse length, +, is 13

13 in. inches and that the other leg length, @, is 12 inches.
12 in. ? @ +
? 12 = 13
a Now go ahead and multiple out those exponents to get the

following statement:
? + 144 = 169
Notice this is a two-step equation where ? is being squared and then increased by 144. Applying inverse
operations, we know we should subtract 144 from both sides and then take the square root. That looks like this:
? + 144 = 169
−144 − 144
? = 25
? = √25
?=5
We have just proved that the missing side length must be 5 inches.
301
Sometimes the missing side length will be labeled with a different variable just to throw us off. Just
remember that the legs are always ? and @ in the Pythagorean Formula and that +, or the hypotenuse, is always
the longest side length. For example, in the following picture which are the legs and which is the hypotenuse?
The hypotenuse is always opposite (or across from) the right angle and is
10 ft. the longest side. So the hypotenuse in this picture is 10 ft. That means that
the 6 ft and the must be the two sides. Notice that the legs can also be
identified by the fact that they are the sides that make up the right angle. Now
substitute into the Pythagorean Formula to solve for .
x
+ 6 = 10
6 ft.
+ 36 = 100
−36 − 36
= 64
√ = √64
=8
So we know that the missing side length is 8 ft. in this particular triangle.
Solving for a Missing Hypotenuse

Let’s now solve for a missing hypotenuse. Remember that the hypotenuse is always the longest side and
the side opposite the right angle. Take a look at this example.
make up the right angle. That means that in this case is the missing
Note that 8 ft. and 15 ft. must the lengths of the legs since they
15 ft.
8 ft. hypotenuse. Plugging those values into the Pythagorean Formula yields
the following:
8) + (15 =
x 64 + 225 =
Be careful at this point. Many students mistakenly try to subtract either 64 or 225 from both sides, but that
is not accurate. We always combine like terms before using inverse operations, and in this case we still need to
combine the 64 + 225 to get 289. So our next steps should look like this:
289 =
√289 =
17 =
This means that the missing hypotenuse length is 17 feet. Note that the only inverse operation we needed
to apply in this case was the square root.
302
Let’s look at one more example of solving for a missing hypotenuse. Consider the following picture.
Note that is the hypotenuse in this case because the sides with lengths 3
3 cm. and 4 make up the right angle. Plug these values into the Pythagorean Formula.
3 + 4 =
9 + 16 =
y
25 =
4 cm. √25 =
5=
So the hypotenuse has a length of 5 centimeters in this case.
Pythagorean Theorem Word Problems

The use of the Pythagorean Theorem can applied to word problems just as easily. For example, if we know
that it is 90 feet from home plate to first base and 90 feet from first base to second base, how far would the catcher
have to throw the baseball to get a runner out who is stealing second base? The best tip to give for solving word
problems like this is to draw a picture.
In this case, note that the distance from second base to home plate
is the hypotenuse of the triangle. That means that the 90 feet distances
are the legs. We can now solve as follows.
90 + 90 = +
8100 + 8100 = +
16200 = +
√16200 = +
127.3 S +
For this problem, there was no exact square root. That means that
√16200 is irrational and it’s probably best to estimate this number. Our
answer is approximated to the nearest one decimal place giving us about
127.3 feet. So the catcher would have to throw just over 127 feet to get out the runner trying to steal second base.
303
Lesson 7.
7. 1
Find the missing side length of each right triangle. Round your answers to three decimal places if necessary.
1. 2. 3.
29 O
40 ;< 20 O +
? 4 )
?
9 ;< 3 )
4. 5. 6.
25 +O 73 OO +
@ 55 OO 5 ;<
10 +O @ 3 ;<
7. 8. 9.
I
28 ) 40 +O
15 hO 30 +O
45 )
8 hO
304
10. 11. 12.
61 +O
13 O
F 26 ;< 12 O
60 +O
10 ;< ℎ
45 OO
13. 14. 15.
7
) 20 hO 28 )
40 OO
7 hO 21 )
Solve the following problems. Round your answers to the nearest whole number when necessary.
16. You’re locked out of your house, and the only open window is on the second floor 25 feet above the ground.
There are bushes along the side of the house that force you to put the base of the ladder 7 feet away from the
base of the house. How long of a ladder will you need to reach the window?
17. Shae takes off from her house and runs 3 miles north and 4 miles west. Tired, she wants to take the shortest
route back. How much farther will she have to run if she heads straight back to her house?
305
18. Televisions are advertised by the length of their diagonals. If a 42 inch television measures 18 inches high,
how wide is the television?
19. A soccer field is 100 yards by 60 yards. How long is the diagonal of the field?
20. You place a 24 foot ladder 10 feet away from the house. The top of the ladder just reaches a window on the
second floor. How high off the ground is the window?
21. A rectangular garden measures 5 feet wide by 12 feet long. If a hose costs $5 per foot, how much would it
cost to place a hose through the diagonal of the garden?
22. A rectangular dog pen is 3 meters by 4 meters. If a chain costs $1.75 per meter, how much would it cost to
put a chain along the diagonal of the pen?
23. A rectangular park measures 8 miles long by 6 miles wide. The park director wants to put a fence along both
sides of the trail that runs diagonally through the park. If the fence costs $150 per mile, how much will it cost to
buy the fence?
24. A rectangular pool has a diagonal of 17 yards and a length of 15 yards. If the paint costs $2 per yard of
coverage, how much will it cost the owner to paint the width of both ends of the pool?
306
7.2 3D Applications of the Pythag. Theorem
Now that we know how to use the Pythagorean Theorem to find either a missing leg or missing hypotenuse,
we can move this concept into three-dimensional concepts. Let’s look at some examples.
Regular Cones and Pyramids

In both cones and pyramids we can use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the height or slant height. We
can also find the radius in a cone or the side length of the base of a pyramid. First look at this cone.
vocabulary. The slant height, usually referred to as H in problems, is the height from the
slant The height and radius are fairly obvious, but the slant height might be new
height
H
outer bottom edge of the cone up to the tip. It is not the actual height because it is not
perpendicular to the base. Notice that each of these three variables form a right triangle.
ℎ
7
Therefore if we know two of them we can find the other one.
For example, assume that 7 5 ;<. and ℎ = 12 ;<. What is H, or the slant height,
in inches?
? + @ = +
7 + ℎ = H
5 + 12 = H
25 + 144 = H
169 = H
√169 = H
13 ;<. = H
Why is this useful? Knowing each dimension allows us to find the volume or surface area of the shape. For
example, the formula for the surface of a cone is ¼P = ½7 + ½7H. Now that we know H = 13 ;<. we can find the
surface area is ¼P = 25½ + 65½ = 90½ ;< .
307
Let’s look at a pyramid missing its height.
Assume that the base of the pyramid (bottom) is a square with side length of
12 +O. and the slant height is 10 +O. What is the height of the pyramid? Since we have
slant
height

the side length of the square, we only need half of that to form the short leg of our right
triangle, or 6 +O. This gives us the following:
? + @ = +
? + ℎ = H
6 + ℎ = 10
36 + ℎ = 100
−36 − 36
ℎ = 64
ℎ = √64
ℎ = 8 +O.
Again, we can now answer further questions about this shape like finding the volume. The volume of a

regular pyramid uses the formula ¾ = C Qℎ where Q is the area of the base shape (the square). This means that
the volume is C 1448 = 384 +OC .

308
Lesson 7.2
Use the picture below to find information about the pyramid with a square base in problems 1-8. Round your
answers to three decimal places if necessary.
1. The pyramid has a square base that is 70 ) on each side. The slant height is
slant
37 ). What is ℎ, the height of the pyramid?
height
H
2. The pyramid has a square base that is 50 O on each side. The slant height is 30 O. What is ℎ, the height?
3. The pyramid has a square base that is 14 +O on each side. The height is 24 +O. What is H, the slant height?
4. The pyramid has a square base that is 70 OO on each side. The height is 10 OO. What is H, the slant height?
5. The height of the pyramid is 15 +O, and the slant height is 39 +O. Find the value of ? in the diagram.
6. The height of the pyramid is 80 ;<, and the slant height is 82 ;<. Find the value of ? in the diagram.
7. The slant height is 17 ) and the height is 8 ). What is J, the side length of the base?
8. The slant height is 50 ) and the height is 32 ). What is J, the side length of the base?
309
Use the picture below to find information about the pyramid in problems 9-14. Round your answers to three
decimal places if necessary.
9. The cone has a radius of 12 +O and a height of 5 +O. What is H, the slant height
slant
height
of the cone?
H

7
10. The cone has a radius of 15 OO and a height of 8 OO. What is H, the slant height of the cone?
11. The cone has a radius of 30 ) and a slant height of 34 ). What is ℎ, the height of the cone?
12. The cone has a radius of 33 O and a slant height of 65 O. What is ℎ, the height of the cone?
13. The cone has a height of 16 +O and a slant height of 65 +O. What is 7, the radius of the cone?
14. The cone has a height of 4 ;< and a slant height of 6 ;<. What is 7, the radius of the cone?
310
Use the picture below to find lengths of segments in the rectangular prism in problems 15-20. Round your
answers to three decimal places if necessary.
15. The length of ±±±±

PQ is 6 ) and the length of ±±±±
QR is 8 ). Find the length of ±±±±
PR .
D
C
A B

PQ is 23 +O and the length of ±±±±
QR is 70 +O. Find the length of ±±±±
PR .
PR is 13 OO and the length of ±±±±

17. The length of ±±±± ,R is 84 OO. Find the length of ±±±±
P,.

PR is 11 OO and the length of ±±±±
,R is 30 OO. Find the length of ±±±±
P,.

PQ is 4 ), the length of ±±±±
QR is 3 ) and the length of ±±±±
,R is 12 ). Find the length of ±±±±
P,.

PQ is 2 ), the length of ±±±±
QR is 3 ) and the length of ±±±±
,R is 10 ). Find the length of ±±±±
P,.
311
7.3 The Distance between Points
A final application of the Pythagorean Theorem is on the coordinate plane. We can easily find the distance
between two points vertically or horizontally on a coordinate plane just by counting, but finding the exact distance
diagonally we have not been able to do until now.
The Distance between Any Two Points

On a coordinate plane, we can now find the distance between any two points by drawing in a right triangle
and using the Pythagorean Theorem. Consider the following example:
Notice that if we want to find the distance between these two points, 2,2)
and (5,6), we need to find the length of L. Also note that ℎ is the horizontal
L distance between the points and : is the vertical distance between the points.
:
With all those values we now have a right triangle and can use the Pythagorean
ℎ Theorem as follows:
ℎ + : L
3 + 4 L
9 + 16 = L
25 = L
5=L
So we know that the distance between these points is five units. While this is easy to see when drawn out
on the coordinate plane, there are times when we are given the two points without a picture. In that case, we have
two options. We can either draw the points on the coordinate plane as above, or we can find the horizontal and
vertical distance between the points in another way.
The Distance without a Coordinate Plane
their values. Why is this? Similarly, the vertical distance between two points is the difference in their values.
To do this without graphing, we realize that the horizontal distance between two points is the difference in
Again, can you explain why?
So let’s look at our two points again, 2,2) and (5,6). The horizontal distance would be the difference
between 2 and 5. Since difference means subtract, we can take 5 − 2 3 to find the horizontal distance is 3.
Similarly we can subtract the values to get 6 − 2 4 meaning a vertical distance of 4. We can then plug in 3 and
4 into the Pythagorean Theorem and solve exactly as above.
312
The Distance Formula
represent generic points with the notation of , and , . So what would the horizontal and vertical
Using the information above, how would we find the distance between two generic points? We typically
distance between these two points be?
Horizontal distance:
Vertical distance: :
Finally, let’s substitute these into the Pythagorean Theorem of : L as follows and then solve for
L since L is the actual distance between the points.
L
L
L
the points 3, 4) and (3, 4).

The final result is what is known as the distance formula. Let’s use this formula to find the distance between
L = ( − ) + ( − )
L = (3 − (−3)) + ((−4) − 4)
L (6) + (−8)
L √36 + 64
L √100
L = 10
We see that the distance between those two points is ten units. While the distance formula works, it is
often easier to simply visualize the horizontal and vertical distance between two points mentally or on a coordinate
plane. The distance formula is basically a fancy way to use the Pythagorean Formula and is meant for enrichment
only.
313
Lesson 7.3
Determine the distance between the given points. Round your answers to three decimal places if necessary.
1. 1, 3) and (4, 7 2. 3, 3) and (2, −9)

2.
3. 2, −5 and 3, −8) 4. (−3, −3) and (3, 3)
5. 3, −2) and (5, 0) 6. (−3, −9) and (−3, 9)
314
7. 2, 1 and 3, −3 8. 4, −2 and 7, 2 9. 1, 1 and 7, 9
10. 8, 2) and (6, 2) 11. (−4, 6) and (6, 2) 12. (2, 4) and (5, 2)
13. 5, 3) and (6, 6) 14. (−5, 4) and (7, 3) 15. (−9, 3) and (−4, 4)
16. 2, 4) and (5, 4) 17. (0, 7 and 4, 2) 18. (−8, 7) and (7, 5)
315
7.4 Pythagorean Theorem Converse
The converse of the Pythagorean Theorem states that if a triangle with side lengths ?, @, and + has
the property that ? @ + , then it is a right triangle. We will now prove this.
Assume you have a triangle with side lengths ? , @ , and + has the property that ? @ + . Now
Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem Converse
construct another triangle with side lengths ? and @, but make it a right triangle this time with a hypotenuse of
length L. The picture would look like this with the original triangle on the left (the one that we don’t know whether
it is a right triangle or not) and the new triangle on the right (the one we make specifically to be a right triangle).
true, we know that ? @ L which means that

Since we know the Pythagorean Theorem is
L √? @ by taking the square root of both sides.

c d
b b This means that L + since + √? @ as well
by the original statement that for this triangle ?
@ + . Since all three side lengths are the same, the
a a
two triangles are congruent which means that the first
triangle must be a right triangle just like the second one
we made.
Now that we know both if a triangle is right then ? @ + and if ? @ + then the triangle is
Implications for the Pythagorean Theorem and its Converse
right, we can solve multiple types of problems. Given any two side lengths of a right triangle we can solve for the
third side length using the Pythagorean Theorem. Given three side lengths of a triangle we can test if it’s a right
triangle using the Pythagorean Theorem converse.
Is it Right?
Because of the Pythagorean Converse, we can check whether a triangle is a right triangle or not. Consider
the following two triangles. If their side lengths make the Pythagorean Theorem true, they are right.
17 7
8 2
15 5
8 + 15 = 17 2 + 5 = 7
64 + 225 = 289 4 + 25 ≠ 49
True, so this is a right triangle. False, 4 + 25 is not 49, so it is not a right triangle.
316
Lesson 7.
7. 4
1. What is the Pythagorean Theorem in your own words?
2. What does the Pythagorean Theorem allow us to do?
3. What is the Pythagorean Theorem Converse in your own words?
4. What does the Pythagorean Theorem Converse allow us to do that is different than the regular theorem?
5. The door to your bathroom has never closed well. In fact, every time you try to use the bathroom, the cats
bust open the door because it simply won’t latch. You look at the door and it appears that the door frame is
slightly tilted. The person who built your house claims that can’t be true because he measured your door frame
32 ;<
and found it be an exact right angle. He claims what you’re seeing is an optical illusion.
a. Without having a protractor, what could you do to see if he is correct

without having a protractor?
81 ;<
86 ;<
b. If you knew the door frame measurements were as pictured to the right,
did the builder install your door frame correctly at a right angle?
6. Bob is building a triangular garden and needs fencing around it to keep the rabbits out. He has one section of
fence measuring 40 ft, another measuring 42 ft, and a third measuring 58 ft. Bob says that after the fence is
complete it will make a right triangle using the following argument: “First, I’ll set-up the longest section of fence.
Next, I’ll attach the other two sections to either end of the long one. Finally, I’ll swing the two shorter sections
together. Since they must meet together, that makes it a right triangle.”
a. Is Bob correct that the garden fence will make a right triangle?
b. If so, is Bob’s argument correct for why it will make a right triangle?
c. What would be a better argument?
317
Determine if the following triangles are right triangles or not using the Pythagorean Theorem Converse.
17 +O
7. 8. 9.
25 ;< 24 ;< 8O
15 +O 6O
8 +O
7 ;< 7O
14 +O
10. 11. 12.
10 O
10 +O 41 ;< 40 ;< 6O
8 +O
9 ;< 8O
13. ? 12 ) 14. ? = 12 hO 15. ? = 10 OO

@ = 16 ) @ = 35 hO @ = 24 OO
+ = 25 ) + = 37 hO + = 27 OO
16. ? = 20 ) 17. ? = 5 hO 18. ? = 5 OO

@ = 21 ) @ = 12 hO @ = 12 OO
+ = 29 ) + = 17 hO + = 13 OO
318
Review Unit 7: Pythagorean Theorem
Determine if the following triangles are right triangles or not using the Pythagorean Theorem Converse.
1. 2.
29 ) 8 +O
20 ) 7 +O
21) 6 +O
Find the length of the missing side of each right triangle. Round to three decimal places if necessary.
3. 4. 5.
50 O 26 )
12 +O 45 O F
9 +O h 10 )
Determine the distance between the given points. Round to three decimal places if necessary.
6. 0, −8) and (6, 0) 7. (1, 5 and 6, −5
319
Find the value of the variable.
8. The following cone has a radius of 11 OO and a 9. The following cone has a height of 20 +O and a
slant height of 61 OO. What is ℎ, the height? slant height of 29 +O. What is 7, the radius?
slant slant
height height
H H

7 7
10. The following pyramid has a square base that is 11. The following pyramid has a square base. The
30 ) on each side. The height is 8 ). What is H, height is 12 ;< and the slant height is 20 ;<. What is
the slant height of the pyramid? J, the side length of the base of the pyramid?
slant slant
height height

Solve the following problems.
12. Firefighters position an 85-foot ladder 13 feet away from the building. The top of the ladder just reaches a
window on the fourth floor. How high off the ground is the window?
13. The school is located 9 meters north and 40 meters west of Kiley’s house. Kiley walks through her neighbors’
yards, so she can take the shortest route possible (a straight line). How far does she have to travel if she walks to
and from school?
14. An open field is 85 meters wide and 105 meters long. The owner wants to put spray paint along both
diagonals of the field. If the spray paint costs approximately $2 per meter of coverage, how much should the
owner budget for spray paint?
320
Unit 8: Piecewise Functions
8.2 Step Functions
8.3 Other Piecewise Functions
321
Pre-Test Unit 8: Piecewise Functions
Fill out an / chart and graph each of the following functions. (5 pts; 2 pts for appropriate inputs, 1 pt for
You may use a calculator for the whole test.
correct outputs, 2 pts for graphing correctly)
1. | 5| 7 2. 2À 4Á

2 4; g −2 C
+ 2; f 4
3. » 4. () = »
+ 3; k −2 4 8; / 4

322
Given that is the parent function, describe the transformation of n. (5 pts; partial credit at teacher
discretion)
5. || 6. ÀÁ 7. ÃÄ

F | 6| − 8 F() À − 3Á + 5 F() −ÃÄ
8. () || 9. () ÃÄ 10. () ÀÁ

F() −3|| F() 5ÃÄ F() À5Á
Solve the following equations. (5 pts; 3 pts for appropriate work, 2 pts for solution)
11. | 9| = −4 12. ÀÁ + 5 = 10
2 − 4; f 4

13. 2| + 3| = 8 14. = 3 where = Å− + 6; 4 ≤ ≤ 8
− 6; > 8
323
Solve the following equations. (5 pts; 3 pts for appropriate work, 2 pts for solution)
15. Ã 7Ä = 6
( + 2) + 4; ≤ 0
16. () 8 where () µ
−3 + 5; k 0
17. | − 3| < 15 18. |2 + 7| ≥ 11
Create a function to model the following situations. (5 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
19. You decide to rent a luxurious cabin out in the woods. However, due to high demand in the area, they force to
rent the cabin in chunks of 5 days. In other words, if you stay one day, two days, three days, four days, or five days,
it will all cost the same amount. The cabin company charges $3000 for every chunk of 5 days.
20. A manufacturer produces tennis balls. To be a legal tennis ball to use in USTA tournaments, the diameter of
ball must be within 0.1 +O of the mandated 6.7 +O.
324
We will explore one final function family this year known as piecewise functions. Piecewise functions are
functions that are defined a piece at a time. In other words, for one section of the domain, the function will look
one way, and in another part of the domain, the function will look different. The simplest example of a piecewise
function is the absolute value function.
Overview of Absolute Value Functions
of 7 is just 7 because it is seven units away from zero. We use bars on either side of a number or variable to show
The absolute value is a measure of how far away from zero something is. For example, the absolute value
absolute value like this: |7| 7.
||. This means when we input a value for the variable, the output is the distance from the input to zero.
We can do the same thing with functions. For example, the parent function for absolute value functions is
With this knowledge in hand, we can evaluate and graph.
Let’s start by evaluating and graphing the parent function, ||. We’ll make an / chart and plot
Evaluating and Graphing Absolute Value Functions
the points on the coordinate plane as follows:
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
Notice that the graph looks like a “V”. It’s not a parabola, but it
appears to have something like vertex. The reason it does this is because
all the negative values become positive through the absolute value
function.
about transformations of absolute value functions. We’ll make an /

Let’s look at two more examples that will lead us into thinking
chart and graph F | 4| and | 4| 7.
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F | 4| | 4| 7
2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6
F 2 1 0 1 2 5 6 7 6 5
Notice that the absolute value can be translated (or shifted) around even leading to times when there are
negative outputs. So how do these transformations work?
The general form of a linear absolute value function is ?| | h. As you might already be able
Transforming Absolute Value Functions
to guess, the value controls the shift left and right while the h value controls the shift up and down. If you had to
take a stab at it, you would probably say that the ? value controls the tilt or slope of the line. You would be correct.
Let’s take a look at a few more transformations.
3|| F | 5| 4 2|| 7
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 1 0 1 2
6 3 0 3 6 F 6 5 4 5 6 3 5 7 5 3
interesting one is the negative ? value in which reflected the graph so that we get a mountain top instead of
All of these transformations should be about what you would expect at this point in the course. The
the “V” shape of the pointed down.
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Solving Absolute Value Equations
To solve absolute value equations, we could graph the function and look for the input where the height is
what we want. However, by now you should know that we’ll want an algebraic method for solving as well. The key
have the function || and want to solve for || = 7, the two answers would be = 7 and = −7. When
to the algebraic method is realizing that there are two ways that we can get any given value. For example, if we
the inside of the absolute value equals exactly what we want or when it is the opposite (the negative) of what we
want, we get our two solutions.
All this means that when we solve ABS (shorthand for absolute value since I’m tired of typing it so many
times) equations, we need to consider both the case when inside the ABS symbol is positive and the case when the
inside of the ABS symbol is negative. Let’s take a slightly more complicated example:
| − 7| = 5
Positive Case Negative Case
−7=5 −( − 7) = 5
+7 +7 − + 7 = 5
= 12 −7 −7
− = −2
1
=

=2
So we get two answers. | − 7| = 5 when = 12 and when = 2. Notice that we had to take the
opposite of everything in the ABS symbol meaning we had to distribute the negative sign.
Solving Absolute Value Inequalities
to consider both the positive case and the negative case. Solving the problem | 3| ≥ 2 gives us the following
ABS inequalities work the same way except that our solution will be plotted on the number. We’ll still need
solution:
−3≥2 −( − 3) ≥ 2
+3 +3 − + 3 ≥ 2
≥5 −3 −3
− ≥ −1
1

≤
≤1
shaded area of the number line. For example, inputting = 0 makes the statement | − 3| ≥ 2 true, but inputting
Plotting on the number line gives us our final solution. You can double check by plugging in any input in the
= 3 makes the statement false.
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Real-Life Absolute Value
Often times we talk about margin of error. For example, on the MAP test there is a margin of error of three.
This means that if you score a 234 on the MAP test and retook the test, you should score within three points of 234
on the next test. In other words, you would score anywhere from 231 to 237 should you retake the MAP test. We
can model situations like this using absolute value.
Let 7 score on your MAP retake assuming you got a score of 234 on the original test. Then our absolute
value inequality would be |7 234| ≤ 3. We can again set this up with two cases to solve.
7 − 234 ≤ 3 −(7 − 234) ≤ 3

+234 +234 −7 + 234 ≤ 3
7 ≤ 237 −234 −234
−7 ≤ −231
u C
≥

7 ≥ 231
So again, we see that the score on the retake should be greater than or equal to 231 but less than or equal
to 237. Other situations where we use the margin of error include manufacturing where measurements are taken
or partial credit on tests where you can be within a given amount of the actual answer for your estimate to count.
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Lesson 8.1
Fill out an / chart and graph each of the following functions.
1. || 2. F | 2| 3. || 4

F
4. | 4| 5 5. F 2|| 4 6. C | 1|

F
Given that || is the parent function, describe the transformation of n.
7. F | 3| 2 8. F | 4| 9. F 2|| 6
10. F | 2| 7 11. F || 12. F C | 1| 5

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Solve the following equations.
13. | 3| 6 14. 2|| 5 9 15. | 5| 2 7
16. | 2| 10 4 17. 2| 7| 3 15 18. || 4 24

Solve the following inequalities.
19. | 2| k 4 20. | 4| 1 g 0
21. 2|| 3 g 3 | 5| k 1

22.
23. 2| 3| 5 k 1 24. | 6| 2 g 3
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Set-up an absolute value inequality to model each of the following situations.
25. On the MAP test you originally scored a 272. To validate your high test score, the school wants you to retake
the test. According to the MAP test guidelines, you should score within 3 points of your original score on a retake.
26. A factory produces cereal boxes that are supposed to be 12 inches high, but there is an acceptable margin of
error of 0.1 inch.
27. The correct answer to a system of linear equations is the point 2.8, −3.2, but the teacher says your estimate
the -coordinate and one for the -coordinate.)

can be within half a unit for both coordinates. (Note: You need to set-up two absolute value inequalities - one for
28. A couple invites 300 people to their wedding knowing that all of them may not show-up and that some
of 20 people when they talk to the caterer.

people invited may bring along extra people. To plan for such an event, they decide to include of margin of error
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8.2 Step Functions
Step functions are piecewise functions that produce graphs that look like stair steps. They reduce any
number within a given interval into a single number. Typically parking garages, boat rentals, or any place that
charges per segment of an hour, is actually using a step function rather than a linear function.
Overview of Step Function Notation
floor function ÀÁ will output the greatest integer that is less than or equal to the input. For example,
There are two main step functions that we will be using: the floor function and the ceiling function. The
À7.2Á 7 or À2.2Á 3. Just like the notation has the extra lines below, we always take the input values down
to the nearest integer.
The ceiling function ÃÄ will output the least integer that is greater than or equal to the input. For
example, Ã7.2Ä 8 or Ã2.2Ä 2. Just like the notation has the extra lines above, we always take the input
values up to the nearest integer.
Let’s start by evaluating and graphing the parent floor function, ÀÁ. We’ll make an / chart and
Graphing Step Functions
plot the points on the coordinate plane as follows:
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
Notice that if we were to graph these points, we might think it was

a linear function. To see the “steps” appear, let’s think of some values in
between the integer inputs as follows.
1.8 1.2 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.4 1.6 1.7

2 2 1 1 0 0 1 1
domain 2 g f 1 will be assigned to an output of 2. That’s what

Now we can see why it is called a step function. Any input in the
leads us to the open and closed circles as well. Since an input of 2 gives the output of 2, we use a closed circle
there. However, on the other end, an input of 1 will not give us an output of 2. So that is an open circle.
Next let’s graph a couple more step functions, to make sure we have the hang of it.
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F À 4Á ÃÄ 2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

F 4 4 5 5 6 2 3 3 4 4
Notice that the ceiling function leads to open circles on the other end. This is because if we input an integer
value, it will stay the same, but as soon as get any bigger, it will bump up to the next integer. Both the floor and
ceiling functions can be translated (or shifted). So let’s examine these transformations in more detail.
The general form of a step function is ?À@ Á h. As you might already be able to guess, the
Transforming Step Functions
value controls the shift left and right while the h value controls the shift up and down. The ? and @ values are
perhaps a bit more perplexing. Let’s look at those a bit closer.
3ÀÁ F C ÀÁ

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

0 0 3 3 6 F 0 0 0. 3 0. 3 0. 6
Notice that the ? controlled the “height” of the steps. This should make sense because we are multiplying
the output by the value ?, so when ? gets bigger, the output is bigger. When ? gets smaller, the output is smaller.
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of transformations that ? ∗ moves the function ? times farther from the -axis.
(Sorry about zooming in so far on the graph, but graphing in Word is annoying.) This also relates to our knowledge
Since the ? value controlled the height of the steps, what would you guess the @ value controls? Let’s find
out by looking at the following graphs. Note we’re also switching to the ceiling function so the open circles will now
be on the left.
Ã3Ä F ÆC Ç

0 0.1 0. 3 0.5 0. 6 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 1 2 2 F 0 1 1 1 2
Notice that the @ controlled the “length” of the steps. This should make sense because we multiplying the
input by the value @ before performing the step function. So when @ gets bigger, the steps get smaller. When @
gets smaller, the steps get bigger. This again relates to our knowledge that @ will pull the function @ times
closer to the -axis.
Solving Step Equations
the equation ÀÁ 5, then we know that / 5 and f 6. Any value in that interval will turn into five with the
To solve step equations, we must think about the inequality that they represent. For example, if we had
floor function. Similarly, ÃÄ 7 occurs when k 6 and g 7. Thinking of those two inequalities, when can then
solve any step function.
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Let’s consider solving the equation 2Ã + 3Ä − 4 6. We can use inverse operations until we get it down
to the ceiling function as follows:
2Ã + 3Ä − 4 6
2Ã + 3Ä − 4 + 4 6 4
2Ã + 3Ä 10
2Ã + 3Ä 10
=
2 2
Ã + 3Ä = 5
Now that we are down to the step function alone, we know that 3 must be greater than 4 (to round
up to 5) but no bigger than 5 itself. This is because the ceiling function will round the value up to the nearest
integer. That gives us two inequalities to solve:
Lower Bound: Upper Bound:
3k4 +3≤5
3−3k4−3 +3−3≤53
k1 ≤2
Now we have our final solution which we could write as 1 f ≤ 2 and even plot on a number line if we
so desired.
Let’s say you travel to a lake and want to rent a paddle boat. They charge $7 for every 15 minutes plus a
Real-Life Step Equations
s
flat fee of $25 for insurance. In the past, we modeled this situation with a linear function of +O = D O + 25,
but the boat rental place doesn’t actually charge for each minute. If you have the boat five or ten minutes it costs
the same as if you kept the boat out the full fifteen minutes. To more accurately model this situation, we could use

the equation: +O = 7 Æ OÇ + 25.
D
Taxes, rentals, stamps, and many other situations we would typically think of as being modeled by a linear
function are actually step functions (and usually ceiling functions since they round the cost up instead of down).
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Lesson 8.2
1. ÀÁ 2. F À 2Á 3. À2Á 4

F
4. Æ Ç 3 5. F ÃÄ 4 6. C Ã 1Ä

F
Given that ÀÁ is the parent function, describe the transformation of n.
7. F È 2É 8. F ÀÁ 4 9. F À 6Á

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Given that ÃÄ is the parent function, describe the transformation of n.
10. F 2ÃÄ − 7 11. F() −Ã4Ä 12. F() À− + 1Á + 5
14. À 4Á + 5 = 4 15. È − 1É + 4 = 0

13. 2ÀÁ 10

16. Ã−4Ä − 9 = −5

17. −Ã − 5Ä = 15 Æ + Ç = 8
C
18.
Create a function to model the following situations.
19. You want to bring cupcakes to school for your birthday. Each case comes with 12 cupcakes and costs $6.95.
Create a function that models the number of cases you should buy in terms of the number of students in your
class.
20. Renting jet skis in the Bahamas costs $40 per hour plus a $15 gas fee. Create a function that models the cost
in terms of the number of hours the jet skis were rented.
21. Laser tag at Fred’s Family Fun costs $6 for every segment of 15 minutes of play, plus a $5 battery fee. Create
a function that models the cost in terms of the number of minutes playing tag.
22. A textbook company charges $725 for each case of books that it sells. A case can contain any number of
books up to 30 books. They charge a flat shipping fee of $100. Create a function that models the cost in terms of
the number of books needed.
23. Long distance phone calls cost $0.99 for the first minute, and $0.39 for every minute after that. Create a
function that models the cost in terms of the duration of the phone call in minutes.
24. You’re ordering pizza for your birthday party. You estimate that each pizza will serve 4 people. Create a
function that models the number of pizzas you need to order in terms of the number of people attending.
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8.3 Other Piecewise Functions
We have examined two piecewise functions so far. The absolute value linear function has two pieces
making the stark “V” shape, and the step functions had each piece looking like a step in a staircase. Now we will
examine generic piecewise defined functions. This means we define what function we are dealing over each piece
of the domain.
Overview of Piecewise Defined Functions

When we use a piecewise defined function, we normally will use the left curly bracket to contain the
different pieces of the function. We first list what the function is on that piece and then domain where that function
exists. For example, look at the following piecewise defined function:
2 4; f −2
− 4, ; −2 g f 2

Ê
− 1; / 2
1
2
In this case, the function is defined by three pieces. The first piece is a linear function. The function ()
looks and acts like a linear function on the domain f −2 (or to the left of = −2). However, exactly at = −2,
the function () begins to look and act like a quadratic. It continues this behavior until we get to the domain /
2 at which point it begins to look like a linear function again but a different one. Take a look at the graph from a TI-
84:
1
1
2
= 2 + 4
4
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It is also possible that the pieces don’t actually connect like they do in the above example. In the case where
they don’t connect, we would need some open and closed circles marking the end points depending on whether
the domain was an “or equal to” or not. Consider the following piecewise defined graph and its graph:
2 12; f 6
F Ë 1
6; / 6
3
Notice the open circle on the 2 12 portion of the function and the closed circle on the C 6 portion.

These are due to the inequalities associated with their domains.
Graphing Piecewise Defined Functions
only on the domain specified in the definitions. Let’s look at the above function F which had two pieces. In that
So how exactly do we create these graphs? In essence, we have to graph each of the pieces separately but
case, we would make two separate / charts but use inputs that are within the domain as follows:
F 2 12 F C 6

Domain: f 6 Domain: / 6
10 9 8 7 6 6 3 0 3 6
F 8 6 4 2 0 F 4 5 6 7 8
less than 6, this will equal to 6, this will

Since inputs must be Since inputs can be
be an open circle. be a closed circle.
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In the case of our function , there were three pieces, so we would need three separate / charts
using inputs within the domain. The only difference is that for the function , each piece ends on the same
point as the next piece starts. That means we don’t have to worry about the open and closed circles since they
would overlap.
Open circle from left and
closed circle from right.
They overlap, so no circle
is necessary.
Let’s again use our function as follows:

Solving Piecewise Defined Equations
2 4; f −2
− 4, ; −2 g f 2

Ê
− 1; / 2
1
2
We can now talk about solving this as an equation if () = 5. To do so, we need to solve each piece of
the function separately as follows:
2 + 4 5 4 5 15

2 4 4 5 4 4 4 5 4 1151

2 1 9 6

√ √9 2 ∗ 6 ∗2
1

0.5 ±3 12
However, are each of these answers within their respective domains? For the first answer we got 0.5, but if
We now have four separate answers (since the second answer is both the positive and the negative).
0.5 were our input, we would not be using that piece of the function. That piece of the function is only for when
f 2, and therefore 0.5 is not a valid solution. Similarly, we got an answer of ±3 for the quadratic
portion, but that’s only when is between 2 and 2. Therefore ±3 is not a valid solution. The last answer is
the only correct solution because 12 is within the domain of the piece of defined as 1.

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Lesson 8.3
Fill out an / chart and graph each of the following piecewise functions.

5; / −3 2; g 2
1. » C 2. () = µ
−2 − 9; f −3 −( − 3) + 6; k 2

() ()

() ()
2 + 15; f −6
− 5; f 0

Ê− C + 1; −6 g g 6

3. () = » 4. () =
− 2; / 0
− 4; k 6

() ()

() ()

()
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− − 4; f −2

− − 8 − 12; g −2
5. () = Å −8; −2 f f 2 6. () = Ê − 7; −2 g g 2
− + 8 − 12; / 2
− 4; k 2

() ()

() ()

() ()
2 5; g −5 4 8; / 0
7. 3 where » 8. () = 4 where µ
− 4; k −5 − 2 − 4; f 0

5; f 1

( + 3) − 1; g 5

9. () = −2 where () = µ 10. () = 4 where Å−2 + 10; 1 g g 6
− + 1; k 5
− 2; k 6
3 + 3; g −1 3 5; f −8
11. () = 0 where () = Å − 4 5; −1 f g 5 12. () = −7 where Ë 2 + 3; −8 g g 5

+ 4; k 5 −( − 3) + 9; k 5

342
Review Unit 8: Piecewise Functions
1. | 3| 4 2. 2|| 6

3. 3Ã 5Ä 4. È É 6

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2 10; f −6 − 4 5; g 4
5. » 6. () = »
+ 5; / −6

3; k 4

C

Given that is the parent function, describe the transformation of n.
7. || 8. || 9. ÃÄ

F | 4| 1 F | 5| F 2ÃÄ 3
10. ÃÄ 11. ÀÁ 12. ÀÁ

F Ã 4Ä F ÈC É F ÀÁ 5

Solve the following inequalities.
13. 2| 3| g 10 14. ÌC 2Ì k 1

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15. | 2| + 6 12 16. À2Á + 3 = 7
Solve the following equations
− 1; f −3

17. 2|| + 8 = 2 18. = −1 where = Å− + 1; −3 ≤ ≤ 3
− 3 − 5; > 3

19. Ã 2Ä + 4 9
2( + 4) ; ≤ 0
20. () 8 where () »

+ 6; k 0

21. ÃÄ + 7=3 22. À− + 5Á −8

Create a function to model the following situations.
23. General Mills produces boxes of cereal. According to regulations, the amount of the cereal in each box must
be within 0.07 ounces of the amount listed, which is 20.5 ounces.
24. At Blaine’s Bowling Lanes, cosmic bowling costs $4 for each hour segment and an additional $2 for shoes.
Create a function that demonstrates the cost in terms of the number of hours spent bowling.
25. A newly engaged couple is ordering cakes for their wedding reception. Each cake serves 12 people. Create a
function that demonstrates the number of cakes they should order based on the number of people planning to
attend.
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Unit 9: Descriptive Statistics
9.1 Representing Univariate Data
9.2 Analyzing Univariate Data
9.6 Two-Way Tables
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Pre-Test Unit 9: Descriptive Statistics
The following table shows how many text messages different students sent this week. Answer the following
questions using the table.
20 200 340 0 75 55 90 120 60 150 170 220 240 90 85 40 35 100 65 30
1. Construct a histogram for the above data set using appropriate scale for the -axis and appropriate -axis
intervals for the frequency. (8 pts; 2 pts for -axis scale and label, 2 pts for -axis intervals and label, 4 pts for
correct frequencies)
2. Construct a box and whisker plot for the above data set in the blank space above. (8 pts; 2 pts for quartiles, 2
pts for end points, 2 pts for number line labels, 2 pts for box/whisker)
3. What are the mean and median of the above data set? (4 pts; 2 pts each)
4. What are the range and interquartile range of the above data set? (4 pts; 2 pts each)
5. What is the population standard deviation of the above data set? (4 pts; no partial credit)
6. What can you tell about a data set of test scores with a mean of 75%, median of 78%, range of 30%, and
population standard deviation of 7%? (4 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
7. What could be a mean and median of a data set of test scores where a third of the class failed, but the rest of
the class scored above an 80%? Justify each choice in writing. (4 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
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Construct a scatter plot for the following data set using appropriate scale for both the - and -axis.
(8 pts; 1 pts for each axis scale/interval, 1 pt for deciding to break each axis or not, 2 pts for correct
independent/dependent axes, 2 pts for correctly plotted points)
8. This table shows the number of hours students slept the night before their math test and their scores.
Hours
Score
Slept
Test
Anna 8 95
Bob 7 90
Carly 8 85
Damien 6 75
Esther 5 65
Franco 8 90
Georgia 8 80
Hank 9 95
Innya 7 80
Jacob 6 70
Use the following scatter plot to answer each question. The scatter plot shows the monthly income of each
person in hundreds of dollars versus the percent of their income that they save each month. (4 pts; 2 pts for
correct answer with no explanation)
9. What patterns or associations do you see present in this
data? Why do you think so?
Kory
Percent of Income Saved
10. Which person makes the most money per month? How
much do they make?
Rachel
Nancy Paul
Lexi Tanya Mike
Quinn Stan
Oliver
Monthly Income in Thousands of Dollars
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Draw an informal function of best for the given scatter plots. (3 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
11. This scatter plot shows the amount copper in 12. This scatter plot shows the hours a cubic foot of
water in ppm versus plant growth in cm over three ice was exposed to sunlight versus the thickness of
months. ice that melted in inches.
Plant Growth Ice Melted

10 2
Thickness of Ice Melted in inches

Plant Growth in cm
8
1.5
6
1
4
0.5
2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 10
Copper in Water in ppm Hours of Sunlight Exposure
Explain why the drawn line of best fit is accurate or why not. (3 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
13. This scatter plot shows the age in years versus 14. This scatter plot shows the hours of TV watched
the height in inches of a group of children. per week versus the GPA on a 4.0 scale for a group
of students.
Height GPA
4.0
60
3.5
50
3.0
40
2.5
30 2.0
1.5
20
1.0
10
0.5
Age
Hours Weekly TV
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
−4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
−10 −0.5
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when the room is actually at 68° F. The equation of the line of best fit is 8V 8.
8
The scatter plot shows what people think the temperature “feels like” (-axis) as the humidity (-axis) varies
(4 pts; 2 pts for equation answer, 2 pts for graph answer)
the humidity is at 80% using both the equation and graph.

Feels Like Temp 15. Predict what a person would say the temperature “feels like” when
70
60 Equation Work: Graph Prediction:

50
40
30
20
10
% Humidity
−10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
−10
Using the same scatter plot and equation of the line of best fit of 8V 8, answer the following
8
questions. (2 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
16. What does the slope of this equation mean in terms of the given situation? In other words, explain what the
rise and run mean for this problem.
17. What does the -intercept of this equation mean in terms of the given situation? In other words, explain
what the -intercept means when considering the humidity and “feels like” temperature.
Answer the following questions. (4 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
18. A function of best fit has a correlation coefficient of R S 0.8557. What does that tell us?
x x
19. Plot the two sets of residuals on number lines. (4 pts; 2 pts each)
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Anne’s 0.5 1.5 -0.5 -1 -2 Bob’s 0 0.5 -0.5 0.5 1
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20. Which person’s line of best fit works better and why do you think so? (4 pts; 2 pts for answer, 2 pts for
explanation)
Answer the following questions about two-way tables. (4 pts; partial credit at teacher discretion)
21. Construct a two-way table from the following data about whether people are democrats or republicans and
whether or not they support stricter gun control laws.
Democrat or
Republican?
D R R R D D R D D D R D R R D R D D R R
Support Strict
Gun Control?
Y N N N N Y N Y Y Y N Y N Y N N Y Y Y N
22. Do you think there is a relationship between party affiliation and gun control laws? Based on the data, why or
why not? (no credit without explanation of why, partial credit at teacher discretion for explanation)
Answer the following questions using the given two-way table. (4 pts; no partial credit)
Support School Do Not Support

Uniforms School Uniforms
Students 278 1726
Teachers 82 23
23. How many students were surveyed?
24. As a percent to the nearest hundredth (two decimal places) what is the relative frequency of students who
support school uniforms?
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9.1 Representing Univariate Data
Data, data, data! What can we do with data? Most mathematics in real life comes down to gathering and
analyzing data. Hence NASA, the Hadron Collider, and most other scientific exploration decides what is most likely
true based on data gathered. In this unit, we’ll be analyzing data both univariate data, which means data gathered
about one variable like how many cups you can stack on top of your head, and bivariate data, which means data
gathered about two variables like how many ping pong balls you can accurately throw in a bucket over different
distances. Our starting point is gathering and representing the univariate data.
Frequency Graphs
Let’s say a class of students tried to stack as many blocks on their head as they could (without them falling
off) in a minute. The table below shows the result of that experiment.
Anne Bob Carl Dan Ed Fred George Hidalgo Ingrid Jake

3 6 7 3 4 3 5 4 3 5
Kate Leo Mac Nancy Oscar Pam Quinn Rose Sam Tom
5 1 2 4 3 4 3 6 2 3
When we look for frequency, we are really looking at how often a number occurred in the data set. For
example, the most frequent number in the above data set is 3 which occurred seven times. The frequency of the
value 4 is only three because it occurred four times. Taking those frequency values, we can make several different
types of frequency graphs including histograms, dot plots, line plots, and more.
Histograms are a frequency graph that uses bar graphs with equal intervals on the -axis. As always, we
Histogram
want to make sure we label our axes and the graph. Here are a couple of different histograms we could make with
the above data. Which histogram do you think best represents this data and why?
Frequency of the # of Frequency of the # of

Blocks on Head Blocks on Head
8 12
7
10
6
Frequency
5 8
Frequency
4
6
3
2 4
1
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Block Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks Blocks 1 to 3 4 to 6 7 to 9
# of Blocks on Head # of Blocks on Head
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Dot Plots/Line Plots
Dot plots use a number line and place dots above each value on the number line as it occurs in the data
set. A line plot does the same thing but uses X’s instead of dots. They essentially are the same exact graph and
only differ in aesthetics. If you like circles, use the dot plot. If you like X’s, use the line plot. Here they are for our
previous data set.
X
X
X
X X
X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X X X
Dot Plot Line Plot
Box Plots
Box plots, sometimes called box and whisker plots, are another type of frequency graph but they don’t just
show the frequency. They also give us a picture of the distribution of the data, or how spread out the data is. To
make a box plot we need to do the following: 1) find the median of the data called the 2nd Quartile, 2) find the
median of the lower half of the data called the 1st Quartile, and 3) find the median of the upper half of the data
called the 3rd Quartile. To do this, we need to line up our data in order from least to greatest as follows:
1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 7
Lower Median or Upper

Median or 2nd Quartile Median or
1st Quartile = 3.5 3rd Quartile
=3 =5
Remember that if there are two numbers in the middle for the median, you add those two numbers
together and divide by 2. Also, we will exclude the median when calculating the 1st and 3rd Quartile. The same rule
of adding and dividing by 2 is true for the 1st and 3rd Quartile.
Now that we have our quartiles, we’re ready to actually begin the Box Plot. First, we create two boxes over
the number line, the first extending from the 1st Quartile to the 2nd Quartile and the second extending from the 2nd
Quartile to the 3rd Quartile. You can see this below.
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Finally we add the whiskers by drawing a line out of either end of the boxes. On the left, we draw a line
from the 1st Quartile to the lowest value in the data set. On the right, we draw a line from the 3rd Quartile to the
highest value in the data set. You can see the final product below.
whisker shows where 25% of the data in our data set is.
The advantage of the box and whisker plot is that we see frequency in the big picture. Each box and each
354
Lesson 9.1
For each of the data sets below, create a histogram, dot plot, and box plot.
1. The following data lists the number of hours per week spent playing video games for each person.
Hours
Name
per week
Abraham 8
Betty 3
Carrie 0
Demarcus 0
Ely 5
Francis 6
Gretchen 2
Heather 8
Ingrid 3
Jackson 2
Kamir 7
Lamar 5
Marcus 3
Noel 1
Oji 9
Pat 7
Queen 0
Reed 3
Sage 1
Tiko 2
Ugo 9
Victor 4
Wim 3
Xavia 5
Yuma 6
Zachary 1
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2. The following data lists the number of wins for pitchers in MLB in the 2013 season.
Name Wins
Sanchez 14
Colon 18
Iwakuma 14
Darvish 13
Scherzer 21
Hernandez 12
Sale 11
Shields 13
Santana 9
Jimenez 13
Kuroda 11
Price 10
Wilson 17
Holland 10
Masterson 14
Verlander 13
Quintana 9
Lackey 10
Fister 13
Tillman 16
Pettitte 11
Lester 15
Gonzalez 11
Griffin 14
Parker 12
Guthrie 15
Buehrle 12
Correia 9
Norris 10
Dickey 14
Porcello 13
Doubront 11
Damster 8
Williams 9
Sabathia 14
Hellickson 12
Saunders 11
3. Using the plots, can you tell about where the average might be? What about the middle?
4. Using the plots, is this data very spread out or closely packed?
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5. The following data lists the number of full years in office for U. S. presidents.
Name Years in office

Washington 6
J. Adams 4
Jefferson 8
Madison 8
Monroe 8
J. Q. Adams 4
Jackson 8
Van Buren 8
Harrison 0
Tyler 3
Polk 4
Taylor 1
Fillmore 2
Pierce 4
Buchanan 4
Lincoln 4
Johnson 3
Grant 8
Hayes 4
Garfield 0
Arthur 3
Cleveland 4
Harrison 4
Cleveland 4
McKinley 4
Roosevelt 7
Taft 4
Wilson 8
Harding 2
Coolidge 5
Hoover 4
Roosevelt 12
Truman 7
Eisenhower 8
Kennedy 2
Johnson 5
Nixon 5
Ford 2
Carter 4
Reagan 8
G. H. W. Bush 4
Clinton 8
G. Bush 8
6. Using the plots, can you tell about where the average might be? What about the middle?
7. Using the plots, is this data very spread out or closely packed?
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8. The following data lists the amount of allowance each person receives.
Allowance
Name
$
Robert 5
Mary 15
John 8
Dorothy 10
James 12
Helen 15
William 7
Betty 5
Charles 10
Margaret 8
George 7
Ruth 12
Joseph 15
Virginia 14
Richard 13
Doris 10
Edward 8
Mildred 15
Donald 20
Frances 18
Thomas 12
Elizabeth 7
Frank 15
Evelyn 10
Harold 6
Anna 12
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9.2 Analyzing Univariate Data
Once we have our data graphed or gathered, we need some tools to be able to describe what is happening
in the data set. Some of these tools we are familiar with, such as mean, median, and mode, but we’ll also use some
more sophisticated tools this year. Two ways that we can look at a data set are the center and the spread of the
data.
Center
The center of a data set is a way to describe the central tendency of the data set. In other words, if you had
to boil the data set down to a single value, what would that value be? You would the data is about what number?
There are two main measures of central tendency we use: mean and median.
The mean of a data set is what we would typically call the average. Sum the values of the data set and
divide by the number of data points. Just to look fancy, here’s some new notation for you:
∑zvÐ v
̅
<
The symbol ̅ is called “x bar.” We usually use that to represent the mean of a data. We could also use the symbol
Crazy, huh? We’re only introducing this because we’ll use the notation a little later. Let’s break it down.
Ñ, which is the letter mu of the Greek alphabet, to represent the mean of a data set. The big sideways M symbol is
it is called summation notation. So sigma means we will add what comes after that. The ; 1 below and the n on
the capital letter sigma in the Greek alphabet. We use this symbol when we want to add a bunch of numbers, hence
top of the sigma means that we are adding n different numbers starting with the 1st number. The v is just subscript
notation meaning we’ll add , or the first number, plus , or the second number, plus so on and so on all the way
to z which is the nth and last number. Then we divide that sum by n which is how many numbers we added. See?
It just means add them up and divide! Aren’t you glad we keep it simple?
The median is the middle value of the data set. Line the numbers up in order and find the exact middle
number. If there are an even number of data points, you won’t have an exact middle number. In that case you
average the two middle numbers to find the median. The notation for this is... just kidding! We’ll leave it at that!
How does the center describe the data?

That’s the real question. Let’s think of two data sets. The first data set has a mean of 17 and a median of
11. The second data set has a mean of 17 and a median of 16. What is the difference in the two data sets? We
know they have the same mean, but the medians are different. With a lower median of 11, the first data set must
have much higher values at the top end of the data set to bring the average up. With a median of 16 close to the
average, the second data set is probably fairly evenly distributed since the middle is near the average.
Let’s look at another example from the US Census Bureau. From the years 2008-2012, the mean yearly
income in the United States was only $28,051 while the median was $53,046. This probably means in the lower
half of our population we have a lot of people making very low (likely $0) amounts per year pulling the average
down. The median is higher because once you start making money, it jumps up significantly from zero.
359
Spread
The spread of a data set is a way to describe the distribution of the data set. In other words, how spread
out are the data values? Are they all clumped up in the middle, evenly distributed, or widely spread out? There
are three main measures of spread we will use: range, interquartile range, and standard deviation.
The range of a data set is the simplest description we can give which is the maximum data value minus the
minimum data value. Let’s say we have a math quiz where the highest score was 100% and the lowest score was
75%. The range would be 25. Notice that if the high score on the quiz was 55% and the low score was 30%, it
would also have a range of 25. This demonstrates why we need to look at both the spread and the center of a data
set.
The interquartile range of a data set is the third quartile minus the first quartile. This tells us the range
where half of the data falls. For example, think of a data set with a first quartile of 20, second quartile of 30, and
third quartile of 50. The interquartile range would be 30 because half of the data is within a range of 30, namely
from 50 to 20. Think now of a second data set that has an interquartile range of only 10, and let’s say both data
sets have the same average. What is the difference between the two data sets? The first data set would be spread
out farther but keeping roughly the same proportion of distribution as the second data set.
The standard deviation of a data set tells us on average how far away from the mean the data points are,
but there are two ways to calculate the standard deviation. The first is called the Population Standard Deviation
which we use when we have data from the entire population of whatever it is that we are studying. To find the
population standard deviation, we use the following formula: (Just imagining the look on your face when you read
this is priceless.)
∑Õ v x±
Ó Ô vÐ
Ö
make sure we know what’s happening here. The symbol Ó is the lowercase letter sigma. We use that symbol to
Take a deep breath. That’s right. In through the nose, out through the mouth. Let’s explain each piece to
represent the standard deviation. The summation notation we are already familiar with as well as ̅ . So with the
expression v ̅ what we’re doing is taking the difference between each data value and the mean, or measuring
how far away from the average that data point is. However, why do we square it? The answer is because if don’t,
we would end up with some positive and some negative numbers that would end up canceling each other out as
we added them all up. To get rid of the negatives, we square everything and then square root at the end to get
back down to the number range we were at originally.
The second form of standard deviation is the Sample Standard Deviation which we use when our data set
only contains a sample of the whole population. The calculation for this allows a little bit more buffer since we
don’t have information from the whole population. It is calculated nearly exactly the same way as follows:
∑Õ v x±
Ó Ô vÐ
Ö1
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Now, calculating either of these by hand would be tedious and time consuming. Most calculators have a
function that will give you either or both standard deviations if you input the data set. There are also many online
calculators to find the standard deviation. Basically, I’m asking you to not sweat over doing the computation. The
important thing here is do you understand the concept of what standard deviation tells us?
Let’s say we have two data sets, the first with a mean of 17 and a standard deviation of 2 and the second
with a mean of 17 and a standard deviation of 8. What’s the difference between the two data sets? The second
data set is much more spread out because the average distance from the mean is much larger than the first set.
It turns out that in a data set with a normal curve distribution, 68% of the data is within one standard
deviation of the mean, and 95% of the data within two standard deviations of the mean. For example, the average
height of adult males is 70 inches with a standard deviation 3 inches. That means that 68% of adult males have a
height between 67 and 73 inches while 95% of adult males have a height between 64 and 76.
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Lesson 9.2
The following table shows the test scores for various classes. Answer the following questions using the table.
Period 1 95 73 100 90 95 71 80 83 81 75 73 72 88 80 98 88 85 79 93 80
Period 2 80 90 70 75 68 67 83 60 88 88 85 72 79 82 65 65 78 70 75 75
Period 3 90 95 45 89 90 85 41 88 97 84 86 90 30 89 20 15 96 85 95 81
Period 4 45 87 100 30 92 95 80 20 84 45 35 90 85 25 40 81 92 10 88 5
1. What are the mean, median, range, interquartile range, and population standard deviation for period 1?
5. Compare and contrast Period 1 and Period 2 using the measures of center and spread you calculated.
6. Compare and contrast Period 1 and Period 3 using the measures of center and spread you calculated.
7. Compare and contrast Period 3 and Period 4 using the measures of center and spread.
8. What sort of centers and spread would you expect from a class that all scored relatively near 75%?
9. What sort of centers and spread would you expect from a class whose test scores were evenly spread out from
0% to 100%?
362
The following table shows the batting averages for baseball players from four different teams. Answer the
following questions using the table.
Team 1 0.300 0.290 0.280 0.270 0.260 0.250 0.240 0.230 0.220 0.210
Team 2 0.320 0.310 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.120 0.110 0.100
Team 3 0.280 0.275 0.270 0.270 0.265 0.265 0.220 0.210 0.200 0.180
Team 4 0.350 0.280 0.270 0.260 0.250 0.240 0.230 0.220 0.100 0.050
10. What are the mean, median, range, interquartile range, and population standard deviation for Team 1?
14. Compare and contrast Team 1 and Team 2 using the measures of center and spread you calculated.
16. Compare and contrast Team 2 and Team 4 using the measures of center and spread.
17. What sort of centers and spread would you expect from a team that all batted relatively near 0.250?
18. What sort of centers and spread would you expect from a team whose batting averages were evenly spread
out from 0.100 to 0.300?
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19. What happened in a class if test score percents had a mean of 75% and a median of 90%? What sort of
population standard deviation and interquartile range would you expect?
20. Let’s say two classes had a mean test score of 70% and a median test score of 70%, but their population
standard deviations were 5% and 20% respectively. What could you conclude about the differences between the
two classes?
21. Describe a data set where the mean and median are far apart.
22. Describe a data set where the interquartile range and population standard deviation are far apart.
364
A scatter plot is a plot on the coordinate plane used to compare two sets of data (bivariate data) and look
for a correlation between those data sets. An association is a relationship or dependence between data. For
example, the price of oil and the price of gasoline have a strong association. The daily price of oil and the number
of penguins swimming in the ocean on that day most likely have no association at all. However, to find this
association we need to make a scatter plot.
Start with the Data

Before we can make a scatter plot, we need two sets of data that we want to compare. For example, we
might compare the number of letters in a student’s first name and their math grade. Do people with shorter names
tend to score higher in math? Do people with the lowest grades have longer names? These are questions of
relationship, or correlation, that we can explore with a scatter plot once have some data. That data set might look
like this:
Name Nichole Josiah Kame Gungar Roberto Frank John Herman Sami Daimon
Letters 7 6 4 6 7 5 4 6 4 6
Grade 58 83 61 70 31 76 81 70 72 57
Name Yolina Johanne Karolinea Kurt Addison Ian Dennis Ophelia Kristina Bradford
Letters 6 7 9 4 7 3 6 7 8 8
Grade 77 90 87 83 76 78 87 87 80 41
Prepare the Coordinate Plane
this data on the coordinate plane. We can let the -axis be the
Now that we have our data, we need to decide how to put
number of letters in a student’s name and the -axis be the

100
90
80 students overall math grade. Once we have decided this we
70 should label our axes.
Math Grade
60 Next we’ll need to decide on a scale and interval. The scale

50 is the low to high number on the axis and the interval is what we
40 count by. Notice first of all that we’re only looking at Quadrant I
30 because we won’t have negative amounts of letters or negative
might choose to count by tens on the -axis giving us a scale of 0-

20 grades. Since the grades can be from zero to one hundred, we
10
nine, we might count by ones on the -axis. This gives us a scale

100 and an interval of 10. Since the letters range from three to
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Letters in Student’s Name
of 0-10 with an interval of 1.
365
When to use a broken axis
A broken axis is useful whenever more than half of the area of the scatter plot will be blank. Nobody likes
to see a blank graph with all the data in one tiny area. So instead, we zoom use by using a broken axis. If the range
above if everyone scored above a 60%, then we might break the -axis and begin counting at 60. We could then
of your data is less than the lowest data point, a broken axis may be useful. For example, in our math test situation
count by 4’s to make it up to 100%.
Finally we would then plot each person on the graph. So Nicholas will be the point 7, 58), Josiah the point
Plot the Points
(6, 83), and so forth. Using Excel to make our scatter plot, the final scatter plot might look like the following. Notice
that each dot on the graph represents a person. While the labeling is not necessary, it may be useful in some
circumstances.
Does the number of letters in a student's

name affect their math grade?
100
90
80
70
60
Math Grade
50
Student
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Letters in Student's Name
Many times on a scatter plot you may have the same data point multiple times. One way to represent this
fact is to put another circle around the data point. Let’s add a few new students to our data set: Johnathan (9 letters
and 87 math score), Jacob (5 letters and 76 math score), and Helga (5 letters and 76 math score). The new graph
could look like this:
366
Does the number of letters in a student's
name affect their math grade?
100
90
80
70
60
Math Grade
50
Student
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Letters in Student's Name
While this practice is not necessarily standard, it can be useful as a visual representation of what is
happening with the data. We can more easily see the multiple data points this way. In Excel, you wouldn’t get the
red circles. Those would have to be put in by hand.
367
Lesson 9.3
9.3
Use the given data to answer the questions and construct the scatter plots.
Pathfinder Character Level vs. Total Experience Points

Level 2 3 6 9 10 11 14 15 17 20
XP 15 35 150 500 710 1050 2950 4250 8500 24000
1. Which variable should be the independent variable (-

axis) and which should be the dependent variable (-axis)?
2. Should you use a broken axis? Why or why not?
3. What scale and interval should you use for the -axis?
5. Construct the scatter plot.
Age vs. Weekly Allowance

Age 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16
Allowance 0 5 5 8 10 15 20 20 25 30

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Age vs. Number of Baby Teeth
Age 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 11 12
Baby 20 19 17 15 10 10 8 4 2 2
Teeth

Car Speed (in mph) vs. Gas Mileage (in mpg)

Speed 20 25 35 40 45 55 65 80 90 100
Mileage 25 27 28 30 31 32 30 29 25 22

369
Now that we know how to draw scatter plots, we need to know how to interpret them. A scatter plot graph
can give us lots of important information about how data sets are related if we understand what each part of the
graph means.
Reading Data Points
point represents a country. The axes tell us information about that country. The -axis tells us about how many
Each individual point on a scatter plot represents a single idea. For example, in the picture below each
minutes per day that country spends eating and drinking. The -axis tells us about how many minutes per day that
country spends sleeping. Can you find the United States on this scatter plot? About how many minutes do we sleep
per day? About how many minutes we spend eating and drinking per day? Are these numbers reasonable to you?
Another thing to notice about this scatter plot is

that it uses the broken axis symbol (that little Z looking
thing). This means that they don’t start counting from
zero on either axis. They skip ahead to a reasonable
starting point but still apply a scale after that point. Even
with the broken axis they must count by something in
the -axis and the -axis as well.

each direction. In this case, they count by 20 minutes on
If we did not use the broken axis, it might look

more like the scatter plot below. To be able to label the
data points, it is useful in this case to use the broken axes.
http://www.visualquest.in/2010/09/severalsimple-and-very-useful.html
Eating and Sleeping Habits of

Different Countries
Minutes Eating and Drinking per Day
160
140
120
100
80
60 Countries
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Minutes Sleeping per Day
370
Outliers
An outlier is a data point that is
significantly far away from the majority of the
data. There is no precise mathematical
definition for what makes a data point an
outlier. It’s usually somewhat obvious. For
example, notice that White Dwarf Stars and
Giant Stars are both outliers in the below
scatter plot showing a star’s spectral class
(temperature) versus its magnitude
(brightness).
Why do we care about outliers? We

care because outliers often throw off the
analysis of the data set. For example, let’s say
http://starplot.org/docs/ch1.html
you have three test grades in math class: 80%,
80%, and 80%. Your current class average is, you guessed it, 80%. However, if we throw in an outlier, like a 0%, for
the next test, your class average drops down to 60%. You have dropped two letter grades from a B- to a D-. Yikes!
The outlier sure hurt your grade.
Positive and Negative Associations

An association, sometimes called a correlation, is a relationship between two data sets. For example, in
the above star scatter plot, there appears to be a relationship between a star’s temperature and brightness. We’d
have to know more about the science of stars to fully interpret the graph, but we can see there is an association
because most of the data follows a pattern (except for those pesky outliers).
In fact, the more tightly clumped the data is, the

stronger the association is. We might say that there is a
strong association between the brightness and
temperature of a star. In the scatter plot to the left, we
see a slightly weaker association between scores on a
practice exam and scores of the final exam.
We would also say that the scatter plot to the

left has a positive association because it appears that the
students who scored higher on the practice exam also
scored higher on the final exam. As one variable
(practice exam score) increased, the other variable (final
exam score) also increased. We call this a positive
association.
http://www.r-bloggers.com/r-tutorial-series-basic-polynomial-regression/ 371
There are also negative associations. These associations are recognized by
15
the fact that as one variable increases, the other decreases. For example, as
the supply of oil increases, the cost of gasoline decreases. They have a
10
negative association. A scatter plot with a negative association might look
like the graph to the left.
5
0
0 5 10 15
14
No association would mean that there appears to be no 12
relationship between the two data sets (or variables). For 10
example, we might consider the daily price of tea and the daily
8
number of fruit flies born. There is likely no relationship between
6
those two things which would produce a graph similar to the one
to the right. 4
2
0
0 5 10 15
Linear or Non-Linear Associations

Whether the association is positive or negative, it may appear linear or non-linear. A linear association
would be a scatter plot where the data points clump together around what appears to be a line. The negative
association graph above and to the left is an example of a linear association. The scatter plot about practice and
final exams is an example of a positive linear association.
A non-linear association is usually curved to some extent.

There are many types of curves that it could fit, but we’ll just
focus on the fact that it doesn’t look a line and therefore is non-
linear. Consider the graph to the left showing the relative risk
of an accident compared to the blood alcohol level. As you can
see, the graph curves sharply up when there is more alcohol in
the blood stream. This should not only serve as an example of
non-linear scatter plot, but also the risks of drinking and driving.
http://wps.prenhall.com/esm_walpole_probstats_7/55/14203/3635978.cw/content/index.html
372
Clustering
Clustering is when there is an
association, but it appears to come in
clumps. Consider the following scatter plot
that shows the time between eruptions and
eruption duration of Old Faithful. Notice
how the points cluster towards the lower left
and upper right. While this does show us a
positive association (meaning the longer
between eruptions, the longer the next
eruption will last), it also shows us that there
are not very many medium length eruptions.
They are either short eruptions with short
wait times or long eruptions with long wait
times.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatter_plot
373
Lesson 9.4
9.4
Use the given scatter plots to answer the questions.
1. Does this scatter plot show a positive association,

Daily Study Time negative association, or no association? Explain why.
80
Daily Study Time (minutes)
70 2. Is there an outlier in this data set? If so, approximately

60 how old is the outlier and about how many minutes does
50 he or she study per day?
40
30
3. Is this association linear or non-linear? Explain why.
20
10
0 4. What can you say about the relationship between your
0 5 10 15 20 age and the amount that you study?
Age

Daily Family Time negative association, or no association? Explain why.
350
300 6. Is there an outlier in this data set? If so, approximately
Daily Family Time
250 how old is the outlier and about how many minutes does
he or she spend with family per day?
200
150
100 7. Is this association linear or non-linear? Explain why.
50
0 5 10 15 20 age and the amount of time that you spend with family?
Age
374
Math Grade negative association, or no association? Explain why.
100%
90%
10. Is there an outlier in this data set? If so, approximately
80%
how much does that person watch TV daily and what is his
70%
Math Grade
60%
or her approximate math grade?
50%
40%
30% 11. Is this association linear or non-linear? Explain why.
20%
10%
0% 12. What can you say about the relationship between the
0 2 4 6 amount of time you watch TV and your math grade?
Daily TV Time (hours)

negative association, or no association? Explain why.
Math Grade
100%
90% 14. Is there an outlier(s) in this data set? If so,
80% approximately how much time does that person(s) spend
70% with his or her family daily and what is his or her
Math Grade
60% approximate math grade?

50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 100 200 300 400
16. What can you say about the relationship between the
amount of time that you spend with your family and your
Daily Family Time (minutes)
math grade?
17. Are there any other patterns that you notice in this data?
375
Number of Pets negative association, or no association? Explain why.
14
12 19. Is there an outlier(s) in this data set? If so,
approximately how many pets does that person(s) have?
Number of Pets
10
8
4
0 last name and the number of pets you have?
0 10 20 30
First Letter of Last Name (A = 1 and Z = 26)
22. Are there other patterns that you notice about people’s
last names and how many pets they have?

Last Name negative association, or no association? Explain why.
30
First Letter of Last Name

(A = 1 and Z = 26)
approximately how old is that person?

20
15
10
5
26. What can you say about the relationship between your
0 last name and your age?
0 5 10 15 20
Age
376
Weekly Allowance ($) negative association, or no association? Explain why.
30

Weekly Allowance ($)
approximately how tall is that person and how much does

20 he or she make in allowance each week?
15

5
0 20 40 60 80 height and your allowance?
Height (inches)
31. Do you think that being taller means that you will get
more allowance? In other words, do you think this relationship is a causation or a correlation?

Weekly Allowance ($) negative association, or no association? Explain why.
30
25 33. Is there an outlier(s) in this data set? If so, approximately

Weekly Allowance ($)
how old is that person and how much does he or she make
20 in allowance each week?
15

5
0 5 10 15 20 age and your allowance?
Age
36. Do you think that being older means that you will get
more allowance? In other words, do think this relationship is a causation or a correlation?
377
When we have a scatter plot that suggests a non-linear association, it is often useful to draw in a function
of best fit whether it is a polynomial or exponential function. When we have a scatter plot that suggests a linear
association, it is often useful to draw in a line of best fit to help us interpret the data more accurately. A line of best
fit is a line drawn on the scatter plot such that the distance between each of the points and the line are minimized.
Let’s look at some examples of a line of best fit first before moving to other functions.
Drawing the Line of Best Fit

Finding the true line of best fit is quite an involved task if 80
we do it by hand. While programs like Excel will automatically draw
70
in the line of best fit for us, for now we will focus on informally
drawing a line of best fit. In other words, we know that our line is 60
not the exact line of best fit, but it will be a nice estimate. Consider 50
the scatter plot to the right.
Wife's Age
40
In this scatter plot there are 24 couples represented and it 30
appears that there is a positive linear association between their 20
ages. Generally speaking it looks like the older the husband is, the
10
older the wife is. If we wanted to informally draw a line of best fit
in this scatter plot, we would look for a place where we the line 0
would roughly split data in half and have the same general rate of 0 20 40 60 80
change (or slope) as the data. Husband's Age
Now consider the three scatter plots below. Which line of best fit seems most appropriate? The first
attempted line of best fit does appear to cut the data roughly in half, but it definitely doesn’t match the rate of
change that the data seems to represent. The second attempted line of best fit seems to match the rate of change
but doesn’t roughly cut the data in half. The third one is our best option for an informal line of best fit.
80 80 80
70 70 70
60 60 60
50 50 50
40 40 40
Wife's Age
Wife's Age
Wife's Age
30 30 30
20 20 20
10 10 10
0 0 0
0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100
Husband's Age Husband's Age Husband's Age
First Attempt
Second Attempt Third Attempt
378
80 Now for the sake of comparison, let’s see the actual line of best fit that
70 Excel comes up with. It looks like our line of best fit is very close to the true
60 line of best fit.
Wife's Age
50
40 Before drawing in the line of best fit on a given data set, it may be useful
30 to lay down a pen or pencil on the scatter plot and try to arrange the pen
20 where the line of best fit should be. Once you have visualized where the
10 line of best fit should be, then draw it in.
0
0 50 100
Husband's Age
Extrapolating with the Line of Best Fit

To extrapolate means to estimate or predict an answer in an
80
unknown situation. We can use the line of best fit to make these predictions
70
from the data. For example, using the above line of best fit, how old would 60
we expect the wife to be of a husband that was 45 years old? We don’t have
Wife's Age
50
a data point there, so we don’t know what the answer to this would be, but 40
we can extrapolate using the line of best fit. Go to 45 years old on the husband 30
axis and go up to the line of best fit. Note that the line of best fit is at a height 20
of 42 years old for the wife meaning this would be a good estimate for how 10
old we would expect the wife to be. 0
0 50 100
If the wife were 60 years old, Husband's Age
80
how old would we expect the husband
70
60
to be? This time go to the height of 60 on
the wife axis and travel over to the line of
Wife's Age
50
40 best fit. It appears to be at about 65 years
30 old on the husband axis, so we would
20 expect the husband to be near that age.
10
0 Notice that these are only estimates and would not necessarily be
0 50 100 exactly what we would find in real life, but it is useful as a guideline.
Husband's Age
379
The Equation of the Line of Best Fit
Since we have a line of best fit, we know that a line can be expressed as an equation. In fact, we are most
familiar with the slope intercept form of an equation. We can use this line to extrapolate data further, learn more
about the rate of change, and more. Let’s look at some data taken from sets of twins where they were studying if
there was an association between the size of a person’s skull and his or her IQ.
First of all, notice that all the data is clustered

Does a Big Head Make between the 50 cm and 60 cm mark, so Excel decided it would
be beneficial to use a broken axis on this graph. Secondly,
You Smarter? notice that Excel has drawn in the line of best fit and given us
140 the equation for that line.
130
At first glance it appears that there may be no
120
association between the size of your skull and your IQ. The
IQ
110
line of best fit is nearly flat suggesting either a constant
100 association or no association at all. However, because of the
90 broken axes, this is misleading.
80
analysis. The slope of 0.9969 is very close 1 and the -

50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 Let’s first approximate the equation for ease of
Head Circumference in cm
best fit to be 45.

y = 0.9969x + 45.05 intercept is very close to 45, so let’s approximate the line of
What does the slope mean in this context? The slope is approximately 1, which means that for every one
centimeter increase in skull size we would expect a one point increase in IQ. So maybe there is something to that
old “egg head” comment, as mean as it is.
What does the -intercept mean in this context? The -intercept is about 45, which tells us that no matter
the size of a person’s head, their IQ is very unlikely to drop below 45. Even a skull size of zero centimeters in
circumference would supposedly have an IQ of 45, but we know this isn’t possible.
What would be the expected IQ if a person had a head circumference of 80 cm? In our equation, the
represents the IQ and represents the head circumference. Simply plug in and solve like this: 80 + 45 = 125
to see that the expected IQ would be about 125. If a person had an IQ of 150, what would we expect their head
circumference to be using our line of best fit? 150 = + 45 and then subtract 45 from both sides to see that =
115 +O. That’s a big head!
380
140 This final graph shows the surface area of the brain compared to IQ.
approximately 143. This means that the IQ goes down one for
If we rounded the slope and intercept, the equation of the line of best fit is

130
120 D0
every additional 50 cm2 in surface area. In context that means that the more
IQ
110
100 of your brain that is “exposed”, the lower your IQ.
90
80
1500 2000 2500
y = -0.022x + Brain SA in cm2
142.96
381
How Good is the Line of Best Fit?
Now that we have an equation of the line of best fit, we can judge how good that line is by using two tools:
residuals and the correlation coefficient. Residuals are the measure of the difference between the expected values
from the proposed line of best fit and the actual data points. We then plot those residuals on a scatter plot to get
a visual representation of good the line of best fit is. Consider the following scatter plot showing a sample of a
person’s height versus their wingspan and the proposed lines of best fit from two different students.
Height 63 63 64 64 64.5 65 65.5 65.5 66 67 67 67 67 67.5 69 69 70 70 72 72 72 73 74 75

Wingspan 62 62 61 64 61.5 66 64.5 65.5 69 67 69 65 69 65 67 68 68 74 74 70 76 70.5 76 77
goes through the points 64,62) and

Notice how Ben’s line of best fit
Ben's Proposed LOBF
(74,78). Using those two points, we
80
can get the equation of Ben’s line of
best fit as 1.6 − 40.4 where is
78
the height and is the wingspan.

76
74
Wingspan
72
70
68
66
64
62
60
60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80
Height
Carrie’s line of best fit goes

Carrie's Proposed LOBF through the points 66, 62 and
72, 74 giving us the line of best fit
equation as = 2 − 70.
80
78
76
74 Now we can calculate the
Wingspan
72 residuals by subtracting the actual data

70 outputs minus the expected outputs
68 using first Ben’s then Carrie’s equation
66
and the original heights as inputs. This
64
62 will gives us the table of residuals on the
60 following page.
60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80
Height
382
Height 63 63 64 64 65 65 66 66 66 67 67 67 67 68 69 69 70 70 72 72 72 73 74 75
Ben's
Residuals -1.6 -1.6 1 -2 1.3 -2.4 -0.1 -1.1 -3.8 -0.2 -2.2 1.8 -2.2 2.6 3 2 3.6 -2.4 0.8 4.8 -1.2 5.9 2 2.6
Height 63 63 64 64 65 65 66 66 66 67 67 67 67 68 69 69 70 70 72 72 72 73 74 75
Carrie's
Residuals -6 -6 -3 -6 -2.5 -6 -3.5 -4.5 -7 -3 -5 -1 -5 0 1 0 2 -4 0 4 -2 5.5 2 3
Plotting those on a number line where the value is the input or -value (the height in this case) gives us
the following two residual plots.
Ben's Residuals Carrie's Residual

8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76
-2 -2
-4 -4
-6 -6
-8 -8
Notice how Ben’s residuals are closer to zero? This means his line of best fit is better than Carrie’s because
the actual data points are farther away from the Carrie’s line of best fit than from Ben’s line of best fit. Secondarily,
notice that Carrie’s residuals follow a pattern of being below the axis and then above. A good line of best fit will
have a more random distribution of the residuals telling us again that Ben’s line of best fit is better than Carrie’s.
While this is a complicated computational procedure, what we’ll expect you to be able to do is plot residuals or look
at residual plots to determine the better proposed line of best fit.
Correlation Coefficient
Once we have the actual line of best fit as calculated by Excel, we can determine how well it models the
and finally spits out a number between negative one and one. If 4 is positive, it’s a positive association, and if it’s
data using what is called the correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient utilizes a lot of complex calculations
negative there is a negative association. The closer the value is to one (or negative one for negative correlations),
the better the proposed function of best fit actually matches the data. So if we have a high correlation coefficient
from a linear best fit function, we know that a line would be a good type of function to use as a best fit model.
Otherwise, we might use a non-linear function of best fit.
In our height vs. wingspan data we get a correlation coefficient of about 4 S 0.8, which is very high. (By
the way, we use 4 to represent the correlation coefficient.) This tells us that it’s a great candidate to use a line of
best fit rather than another type of function. We’ll go over in class how to actually get technology to give us the
correlation coefficient, but many technologies will give you 4 (as we used above) instead of 4.
To make sure a particular function is absolutely the best option, it should have both a good residual plot
and a high correlation coefficient.
383
Drawing a Function of Best Fit
Finding the true function of best fit is quite an involved task if
we do it by hand. While programs like Excel will automatically draw
in a function of best fit for us, for now we will focus on informally
drawing a non-linear function of best fit. In other words, we know
that our parabola or exponential function is not the exact function of
best fit, but it will be a nice estimate.
Consider the scatter plot to the right from the previous

section. We’ll put a quadratic function of best fit on the data and then
the irrational number G.

an exponential function of best fit. The exponential function will use
Risk % vs. BAL Risk % vs. BAL

100 100
3274.8x2 y = 1.0248e21.33x
% Risk of an Accident
80 y= - 304.32x + 4.3388
80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-20
Blood Alcohol Level Blood Alcohol Level
Notice that the quadratic of best fit actually has

Risk % vs. BAL negative values some point, which is impossible in this
100 context. The exponential fits much better in this case,
80
which should make sense based on your knowledge of
y = 411.4x - 15.349 exponential function behavior.

60
40 If we asked Excel to give us the actual line of best
fit for this same data, notice how it doesn’t really fit at
20
all. We could not use this to extrapolate, or predict,
0
further data as it would be so far off. In fact the line of
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-20 best fit also gives us negative values at the beginning of
-40 the data.
Blood Alcohol Level
Looking back at the exponential best fit function,
from a BAL of 0.175? Using the graph we might guess around 42% − 43% risk of an accident.
we could use that function to extrapolate data. For example, approximately what percent risk would we expect
384
Data Used
Brain data came from: http://lib.stat.cmu.edu/datasets/IQ_Brain_Size
Husband and wife data came from: http://www.statcrunch.com/5.0/viewreport.php?reportid=10183
Brain
Head Surface Brain Body Husband's Wife's
Circumference Area Volume Weight IQ Couple Age Age
54.7 1913.88 1005 57.607 96 1 25 22
54.2 1684.89 963 58.968 89 2 25 32
53 1902.36 1035 64.184 87 3 51 50
52.9 1860.24 1027 58.514 87 4 25 25
57.8 2264.25 1281 63.958 101 5 38 33
56.9 2216.4 1272 61.69 103 6 30 27
56.6 1866.99 1051 133.358 103 7 60 45
55.3 1850.64 1079 107.503 96 8 54 47
53.1 1743.04 1034 62.143 127 9 31 30
54.8 1709.3 1070 83.009 126 10 54 44
57.2 1689.6 1173 61.236 101 11 23 23
57.2 1806.31 1079 61.236 96 12 34 39
57.2 2136.37 1067 83.916 93 13 25 24
57.2 2018.92 1104 79.38 88 14 23 22
55.8 1966.81 1347 97.524 94 15 19 16
57.2 2154.67 1439 99.792 85 16 71 73
57.2 1767.56 1029 81.648 97 17 26 27
56.5 1827.92 1100 88.452 114 18 31 36
59.2 1773.83 1204 79.38 113 19 26 24
58.5 1971.63 1160 72.576 124 20 62 60
21 29 26
22 31 23
23 29 28
385
Lesson 9.5
9.5
Draw an informal function of best fit on the given scatter plot and explain why you chose that type of function.
1. 2.
Daily Study Time Math Grade

80 100%
Daily Study Time (minutes)
70 95%
60 90%
Math Grade
50 85%
40 80%
30 75%
20 70%
10 65%
0 60%
0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6
Age Daily TV Time (hours)
3. 4.
Total Worth in Millions How Well Can We See Stars?

20.00 100
90
Millions of Dollars after 50 Years
15.00 80
70
Visibility %
60
10.00
50
40
5.00 30
20
0.00 10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
-5.00
Monthly Payment at 10% Return Distance from Earth in AUs
386
5. 6.
$20,000 at 10% per Year Age vs. Sleep

3.00
14
2.50 12
Total Worth in Millions of $
Daily Sleep (hours)

2.00 10
8
1.50
6
1.00
4
0.50
2
0.00 0
0 20 40 60 0 5 10 15 20
-0.50
Years Invested Age (years)
7. 8.
Age vs. Weight Ultrasonic Response of Metal

Detectors
200
180 100
Ultrasonic Response (as %)
160 90
Weight (pounds)
140 80
70
120
60
100
50
80 40
60 30
40 20
20 10
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years) Distance from Metal (in meters)
387
Determine whether the drawn function of best fit is accurate or not. Explain why you think your position is true.
9. 10.
40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
11. 12.
40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
388
13. 14.
350 350
300 300
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
15. 16.
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
-2 -2
-4 -4
-6 -6
-8 -8
389
The equation of the line of best fit is: .
8
Use the given graph of the line of best fit or equation of the line of best fit to answer the following questions.
17. Using the graph only, about how much would you
Age vs. Weight expect an 18 year old to weigh?
200
180
160
18. Using the equation only, about how much would you
Weight (pounds)
140
120
expect an 18 year old to weigh?
100
80
60
40 19. Using the graph only, if a person weighed 80 pounds,
20 how old would you expect them to be?
0
0 5 10 15 20
Age (years)
20. Using the equation only, if a person weighed 80
pounds, how old would you expect them to be?
21. What is the rate of change (slope) of the line of best fit? What does the slope represent in this context and
does that make sense?
22. What is the initial value (-intercept) of the line of best fit? What does it represent in this context and does
that make sense?
390
questions. The equation of the line of best fit is: 9. + 9i.
Use the given graph of the function of best fit or equation of the function of best fit to answer the following
23. Using the graph only, about how high would you expect
Baseball Height w/ Upward the baseball to be after 5 seconds?
Velocity of 45 Meters/Sec
120
100 24. Using the equation only, about how high would you
Height in Meters
80
expect the baseball to be after 5 seconds?
60
40
25. Using the graph only, how long had the ball been in the
20 air if it were 100 meters high?
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time in Seconds
26. Using the equation only, how long had the ball been in
the air if it were 100 meters high?
27. What does the + value in the quadratic equation represent in this situation?
28. What does the @ value in the quadratic equation represent in this situation?
29. What does the ? value in the quadratic equation represent in this situation?
391
The following data about weekly allowances at various ages was used to create the given scatterplot. Four
students estimated the line of best fit for this data. Plot the given residuals calculated from each student’s line
of best fit and determine which student had the best line of best fit.
Age 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15
Allowance 2 5 0 5 10 5 10 15 15 20 20 25
4.1 − 41
Allowance by Age Abby’s LOBF:
30
= 4.5 − 41
25 Bennett’s LOBF:
20
Allowance
= 4 − 43
Courtney’s LOBF:
15
10
= 5 − 45
Drew’s LOBF:
5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Age
30. Abby’s Residuals from LOBF = 4.1 − 41 Correlation Coefficient: 4 S 0.860

Age () 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15
Abby’s
Residuals -2 -5 4.1 -0.9 -1.8 3.2 2.3 -2.7 1.4 -3.6 0.5 -4.5
Abby's Residuals
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2 10 11 12 13 14 15
-4
-6
-8
-10
392
31. Bennett’s Residuals from LOBF 4.5 − 41 Correlation Coefficient: 4 S 0.742
Age () 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15
Bennett’s
Residuals 2 -1 8.5 3.5 3 8 7.5 2.5 7 2 6.5 1.5
Bennett's Residuals
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2 10 11 12 13 14 15
-4
-6
-8
-10
32. Courtney’s Residuals from LOBF = 4 − 43 Correlation Coefficient: 4 S 0.758

Age () 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15
Courtney’s
Residuals -5 -8 1 -4 -5 0 -1 -6 -2 -7 -3 -8
Courtney's Residuals
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2 10 11 12 13 14 15
-4
-6
-8
-10
393
33. Drew’s Residuals from LOBF 5 − 45 Correlation Coefficient: 4 ≈ 0.643
Age () 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15
Drew’s
Residuals 3 0 10 5 5 10 10 5 10 5 10 5
Drew's Residuals
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2 10 11 12 13 14 15
-4
-6
-8
-10
34. Which person’s line of best fit do you think is the best based off your residual plots and their
corresponding correlation coefficients? Explain why you think so.
35. Using technology (Excel), calculate the correlation coefficient (4 ) of the line of best fit for the original
data set. What does that mean?
36. If a function of best fit had a correlation coefficient of 4 ≈ 0.02, what would that mean?
37. If a function of best fit had a correlation coefficient of 4 S 0.92, what would that mean?
38. If a function of best fit had a correlation coefficient of 4 S 0.41, what would that mean?
394
9.6 Two-Way Tables
Sometimes we need to compare two sets of data where the data is a yes/no type answer. In this case a
scatter plot doesn’t make sense since we don’t have numerical data. We use what is called a two-way table to
analyze this type of data.
Constructing a Two-Way Table

To construct a two-way table, we first need some data. Let’s look at the following fictional table where we
asked a class of 22 students a series of questions:
Anne Brad Cathy Devin Edith Frank Gabby Hannah Ignus Jake Koty
Democrat/ D R R R D D R R R D D
Republican?
Do you eat Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y N N
McDonald’s
weekly?
Want higher Y N N N N Y N N N Y N
taxes?
Do you own N Y Y N Y Y N Y Y N N
smartphone?
Lisa Mo Nancy Opy Peggy Quira Ron Shela Toni Ula Vanna
Democrat/ D D D R R D R D R D D
Republican?
Do you eat N Y N Y N N N N Y N N
McDonald’s
weekly?
Want higher N Y Y N N N Y N N Y Y
taxes?
Do you own Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
smartphone?
Now that we have our data, we will consolidate some of it into a two-way table. Let’s first compare the students’
political view to their eating habits at McDonald’s. A two-way table for this comparison would look like this:
Democrat Republican How did we fill this out? We counted the number
Eat McD’s 3 7 of Democrats that eat at McDonald’s weekly, the number of
weekly Republicans that eat at McDonald’s weekly, the number of
Don’t eat 9 3 Democrats that don’t eat at McDonald’s weekly, and the number
McD’s weekly
of Republicans that don’t eat at McDonald’s weekly. Each of
those numbers we filled in the table in the appropriate place. Obviously one of the advantages of the two-way
table is the fact that it takes up so much less space than the original data. We could make a similar two-way table
comparing political affiliation with tax views or comparing tax views with owning a smart phone.
395
Analyzing a Two-Way Table
There are many things that a two-way table can tell us. Let’s look at another example of how the U.S. House
of Representatives voted on a recent bill that would force the national budget to be balanced.
Democrat Republican How many Democrats voted on this bill? If 25 voted in

In favor 25 236 favor of the bill and 161 voted against, that means that a total of
Against 161 4 186 Democrats voted on this bill. In essence we are finding the
frequency of being a Democrat by adding the numbers in the
Democrat column. Frequency is how often something occurs.
Similarly we can see how many Republicans voted on this bill, which is 240. How many total representatives
voted on this bill? We can find this by adding all the numbers together. This means that 426 representatives in
total voted on this bill. Since there are 435 representatives (we know this from our social studies class), we can
then ask why the remaining 9 representatives didn’t vote. Call them and ask.
We can also see that 261 voted in favor of the bill and 165 voted against the bill by adding the numbers in
the rows. While this is a majority vote, it is not the required 290 votes needed to pass, so ultimately this bill failed.
At times it may be more useful to look at the relative frequency instead of the frequency. Relative
was 261, it might be more useful to know that the relative frequency is { S 0.61. So about 61% of the House
frequency is the ratio of the frequency to the total number of data entries. So while the frequency of in favor votes
{
voted in favor of this bill and a vote of or 66. 6±% was needed for the bill to pass.

C
Are there any other conclusions we can make based on the information in the two-way table? For example,
is there evidence that one party supported the bill over the other? It appears from the data table that there is a
positive association between being a Republican and being in favor of the balanced budget bill. It appears that
there is a negative association between being a Democrat and being in favor of the balanced budget bill. Notice
that this doesn’t mean that the Republicans are positive (or correct) and Democrats are negative (or wrong). Instead
the positive and negative refer to the association or correlation in the data.
396
Lesson 9.6
9.6
Use the data set to answer the following questions. For this data set a class of middle school students was
asked what they thought was most important in school: good grades or popularity.
Boy or B B G G G B G B B G G B G B G B B G G B
Girl
Grades or P G G P G P G G P G G P G P P P G G G P
Popularity
Girl
Grades or P G P G G P G P P G G G G P P P G P G G
Popularity
1. Construct a two-way table of the data.
Grades Popularity
Boys
Girls
2. What is the frequency of students who believe grades are more important?
3. What is the relative frequency of students who believe grades are more important?
4. What is the frequency of students who believe popularity is more important?
5. What is the relative frequency of students who believe popularity is more important?
6. What is the frequency of girls who believe grades are more important?
7. What is the relative frequency of girls who believe grades are more important?
8. What is the frequency of boys who believe popularity is more important?
9. What is the relative frequency of boys who believe popularity is more important?
10. Based on this data, do you feel there is relationship between a student’s gender and what they think is most
important in school? What is that relationship and what evidence do you have that it exists?
397
Use the data set to answer the following questions. For this data set a class of middle school students was
asked what hand was their dominant hand.
Girl
Right or L R R L R L R R R R L R R R R R L R L R
Left
Girl
Right or R R L R R R L R L R R R L R R L R R L L
Left
11. Construct a two-way table of the data.
Right-handed Left-handed
Boys
Girls
12. What is the frequency of students who are right-handed?
13. What is the relative frequency of students who are right-handed?
14. What is the frequency of students who are left-handed?
15. What is the relative frequency of students who are left-handed?
16. What is the frequency of girls who are right-handed?
17. What is the relative frequency of girls who are right-handed?
18. What is the frequency of boys who are right-handed?
19. What is the relative frequency of boys who are right-handed?
20. Based on this data, do you feel there is relationship between a student’s gender and whether or not they are
right-handed? What is that relationship and what evidence do you have that it exists?
398
Use the two-way tables representing surveys middle school students took to answer the following questions.
Survey 1: Prefer Spicy Prefer Mild Survey 2: Prefer Spicy Prefer Mild
Salsa Salsa Salsa Salsa
Boys 255 45 Right-handed 280 170
Girls 68 132 Left-handed 43 7
22. What is the relative frequency of students who prefer spicy salsa? Is it the same on both two-way tables?
23. How many boys were surveyed?
24. How many girls were surveyed?
25. What is the relative frequency of boys who prefer spicy salsa?
26. What is the relative frequency of girls who prefer spicy salsa?
27. Do you think there is a relationship between gender and salsa preference? What is that relationship and
what evidence do you have that it exists?
28. How many right-handed students were surveyed?
29. How many left-handed students were surveyed?
30. What is the relative frequency of right-handed students who prefer mild salsa?
31. What is the relative frequency of left-handed students who prefer mild salsa?
32. Do you think there is a relationship between a student’s dominant hand and salsa preference? What is that
relationship and what evidence do you have that it exits?
399
Review Unit 9: Descriptive Statistics
The following table shows the fall MAP scores for students. Answer the following questions using the table.
210 225 208 245 232 219 253 228 218 230 234 241 240 221 235 218 227 261
1. Construct a histogram for the above data set using appropriate scale for the y-axis and appropriate x-axis
intervals for the frequency.
2. Construct a dot plot for the above data set in the space above.
3. Construct a box and whisker plot for the above data set in the space above.
4. What are the mean and median of the above data set?
5. What are the range and interquartile range of the above data set?
6. What is the standard deviation of the above data set?
7. What can you tell about a data set of test scores with a mean of 228 median of 230, range of 35, and standard
deviation of 4?
8. What could be a mean and median of a data set of test scores where a third of the class scored above 250, but
the rest of the class scored around 225? Justify each choice in writing.
400
The following table shows the free throw percentages from two different teams. Answer the following
questions using the table.
Team 1 .714 .807 .671 .817 .676 .733 .730 .750 .710 .794 .615 .500 .500 .815 .790 .735
Team 2 .819 .721 .672 .694 .750 .623 .619 .636 .875 .500 .900 .710 .650 .450 .500 .621
9. What are the mean, median, range, interquartile range, and standard deviation for Team 1?
10. What are the mean, median, range, interquartile range, and standard deviation for Team 2?
12. What sort of centers and spread would you expect from a team that all shot relatively near 0.750?
spread out from 0.600 to 0.800?

13. What sort of centers and spread would you expect from a team whose free throw percentages were evenly
Construct a scatter plot for the following data set using appropriate scale for both the - and -axis.
14. This table shows the age of students slept and their scores on the MAP test.
Score
MAP
Age
Anna 8 180
Bob 10 200
Carly 11 215
Damien 12 220
Esther 9 195
Franco 15 235
Georgia 13 230
Hank 14 235
Innya 13 225
Jacob 14 225
401
Use the following scatter plot to answer each question. The scatter plot shows the number of years each person
invested ten thousand dollars versus the end value of that investment in thousands of dollars.
15. Does this scatter plot represent a

Remaining Student Loan Debt positive association, negative association,
or no association? Why?
on a $30,000 Loan
35000
Mike
30000 Jazmin
Gonzo 16. Which person paid off their debt?
Eloise Amanda
Remaining Debt
25000 Fifi About how long did it take?

Donna
Katy
20000 Leonard
15000
Chuck
10000 Hannah 17. Does this appear to a linear or non-
5000 Isildor linear association? Why?
0 Brady
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Years Since Graduating College 18. Which person is the outlier in this data
set? Why?
Draw an informal line of best for the given scatter plots.
19. This scatter plot shows the age in years versus 20. This scatter plot shows the hours of TV watched
the height in inches of a group of children. per week versus the GPA on a 4.0 scale for a group
of students.
80 4
70 3.5
60 3
Height in Inches
50 2.5
GPA
40 2
30 1.5
20 1
10 0.5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15
Age Hours of TV Watched per Week
402
Explain why the drawn line of best fit is accurate or why not.
21. This scatter plot shows the amount copper in 22. This scatter plot shows the hours a cubic foot of
water in ppm versus plant growth in cm over three ice was exposed to sunlight versus the amount of ice
months. that melted in cubic inches.
10 10
9 9
Ice Melted in Cubic Inches

8 8
Plant Growth in cm
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 20 40 60 0 2 4 6 8
Cu in Water (ppm) Hours of Sunlight
approximately iV . .

8
The scatter plot shows the price of a gallon of milk from 2001 to 2012. The equation of the line of best fit is
$4.50 23. Predict what price of a gallon of milk would have been in 2005
using both the equation and the graph.
$4.00
$3.50 Equation Work: Graph Prediction:
Avg Price of Milk
$3.00
$2.50
$2.00
$1.50
$1.00
$0.50
approximately $3.00 using both the equation and the graph.

$0.00 24. Predict what year it would have been when a gallon of milk cost
0 5 10 15
Years since 2000
Equation Work: Graph Prediction:
403
Using the same scatter plot and equation of the line of best fit of iV . , answer the following
8
questions.
25. What does the slope of this equation mean in terms of the given situation? In other words, explain what the
rise and run mean for this problem.
26. What does the -intercept of this equation mean in terms of the given situation? In other words, explain
what the -intercept means when considering the price of a gallon of milk and the year.
27. A function of best fit has a correlation coefficient of 4 S 0.901. What does that tell us?
28. A function of best fit has a correlation coefficient of 4 S 0.029. What does that tell us?
29. Plot the two sets of residuals on the number lines.
x 1 2 3 4 5 x 1 2 3 4 5
Nate’s -1 -0.5 2 1 2 Nancy’s 0 0.5 -1 0.5 1
30. Which person’s line of best fit works better and why do you think so?
404
Answer the following questions about two-way tables.
31. Construct a two-way table from the following data about whether or not students own an iPhone and
whether or not they own an iPad.
Own an
iPhone?
Y N Y Y N Y N N Y Y Y N N Y N N Y N Y N
Own a iPad?
Y N Y N N Y Y N Y N Y Y N Y N N Y Y N N
32. Do you think there is a relationship between owning an iPhone and owning an iPad? Based on the data, why
or why not?
Answer the following questions using the given two-way table.

Support Year-Round Do Not Support Year-
School Round School
Students 250 2150
Teachers 80 70
33. How many teachers were surveyed?
35. How many people support year-round school?
36. How many teachers do not support year-round school?
37. How many students do not support year-round school?
38. As a percent to the nearest hundredth (two decimal places) what is the relative frequency of the teachers
compared to all those surveyed?
39. As a percent to the nearest hundredth (two decimal places) what is the relative frequency of the students
who support year-round school compared to all students?
40. As a percent to the nearest hundredth (two decimal places) what is the relative frequency of the teachers
who do not support year-round school compared to all teachers?
405
Quarter 4 Review
1. Name the following polynomials by both degree and the number of terms:
a. C 2 4
b. 5 2
c. 5 D
a. 2 3 1 3 4
2. Perform the following polynomial operations:
b. 5 C 7 5 3 6 3
c. 2 33 2
d. 2 4 5
3. Graph the following functions:
a. 6 5 b. 4 3
a. 5 14
4. Find the zeros of the following quadratics:
b. 2 8 8
c. 16
d. 3 9
406
a. 4 3
5. Find the vertex of the following quadratics:
b. 6 7
c. 3 12 9
6. Knowing the parent function is , describe the following transformations

a. F 3 8
b. F 2 4
c. F 4
a. 6 3 4
7. Solve the following quadratic equations:
b. 3 2 14 6
c. 3 5 14
d. 3 2 8 0
e. 5 + 25 = 10
f.2 − 12 + 20 = 2
8. A man stood at the top of the St. Louis arch 630 feet in the air and threw a penny toward the ground at a
speed of 94 feet per second.
9. A man stood at the top of the St. Louis arch 192 meters in the air and threw a penny up into the air at a speed
of 20 meters per second.
10. Solve the following systems of equations:

= − 5 − 6
a. µ
= −2 + 4
= 2 − 4 + 10
b. µ
= − + 6 − 1
= + 4 − 2
c. µ
= − 2 − 2
407
11. Solve the following inequalities:
a. + 6 + 5 / 0
b. − 3 − 28 g 0
c. 2 − 8 + 8 k 0
12. Graph the following inequalities:
a. f + 2 − 8 b. / + 5 + 6
a. = 16 +O, h = 63 +O
13. Find the length of the missing leg of the right triangle:
b. = 18 O, F = 82 O

F
c. h = 7 ), F = 25 )
h
a. (−4, 0 and 8, 5
14. Find the distance between the given points:
b. 7, −2) and (8, −10
15. Maria lives 9 km north and 12 km east of a park. How far will she have to bike if she bikes directly to the park
and back?
16. A national park is 3 miles wide and 4 miles long. The park director is planning to add a trail through the
diagonal of the park. If the gravel for the trail costs $1000 per mile, how much should the director budget for the
trail?
408
4 1; g 2
17. Graph each of the following:
a. () = 2| + 4| b. Ã 3Ä 1 c. µ
2 5; k 2
a. 3| 2| 6 0
18. Solve the following:
b. |− + 1| + 5 = 10
c. À2 + 4Á = 12
d. 3Ã − 1Ä = 15
−2 + 8; f 4
3 40; / 4
e. = 0 when = µ XBox 360 Achievements
− 3; g 3

f. = −2 when = »
− 4 7; / 4
100
Number of Achievements Unlocked
90
80
19. Use the following scatter plot to answer the next two 70
questions. It shows the hours of video games students have 60
played versus the number of achievements they have unlocked. 50
a. What type of associations (positive, negative, none, 40
30
linear, non-linear) does this graph show?
20
b. Are there any outliers?
10
c. Which would be the best prediction for number of
0
played 12 hours of video games each week using

achievements unlocked for a student who has
0 10 20 30 40 50
the line of best fit equation 12 or the

C Weekly Hours of Video Games Played
graph?
20. Give an example of two variables that have a negative association.

21. Give an example of two variables that have a positive association.
22. Answer the following questions using the given two-way table:
Support School Do Not Support

Uniforms School Uniforms
Students 237 1928
Teachers 91 15
a. How many students were surveyed?
b. How many people support school uniforms?
c. What is the relative frequency of students surveyed who do not support school uniforms?
409

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8TH

By Mr. Bright and Ms. Hittinger

Brain Image courtesy of Master Isolated Images at http://www.freedigitalphotos.net

Unit 2: Linear Functions Unit 6: Solving with Quadratics

Unit 7: Pythagorean Theorem

1.2 Graphing Functions

1.3 Rate of Change and Initial Values

1.4 Other Function Qualities

1.5 Contextualizing Function Qualities

1.6 Sketching a Piecewise Function

3. Input: Type of an individual bird (robin, finch, etc.) 4.

5. 1, 3, 9, 27, 81 … 6. Give an example of a function in words explaining the

7.    4  7 8. Input: Teenager’s identity

9. 3 10. 2

13. What does the point on the graph represent?

15. 16.   3

Domain: Any because Domain: The inputs Domain: 3 0 because

Input: A person’s identity Input: A person’s age

16. Input: Store’s name, Output: Number of letters in the name.

17. Input: Person’s age, Output: Yearly salary.

18. Input: Amount of food eaten, Output: A dog’s weight.

19. Input: Person’s name/identity, Output: That person’s birthday.

20. Input: Person’s age, Output: Height.

22. Input: Time studied for test, Output: Test score.

23. 0,1,2,3,4,5 … 24. 0, 1 67 0, 1 67 2, 3, 4, 5 …

25. 0,1,0,1,0,1 … 26. 1,1,1,1,1,1 …

27. 0 67 1, 0 67 1, 0 67 1, 0 67 1, 0 67 1, 0 67 1 … 28. 0,1,1,2,3,5 …

Evaluate the given functions at the given inputs.

31. −2 32. 10 33. −3 34. 0

35. ℎ−2 36. ℎ−8 37. ℎ4 38. ℎ0

39. :2 40. :−2 41. :4 42. :1

) 2 1 0 1 2 Notice we plotted five points:

@ −8 4 If we choose @ = 1 as an input, we’ll have to graph the point A1, B

Notice that choosing multiples of 4 for our inputs allowed integer

11.  √  7 12.    4

Graph form of a function

+?<FG :G7);+?HH      7  2.5 4.5 3

1.  =  − 2  7 2.  C  10 3.  2  7

13. 14. 15.

16. 17. 18.

Definition of a Linear Function

ℎ) = −) − 2  4 +L 2M =  C

Decreasing Linear Functions

Qualitative Data: Maximum and Minimum

We can do the same thing for a minimum. We say there is a minimum at

Sometimes we have what are called local maximums or minimums. For

Local max:  S 5 Local min:  S 5

10. 11. 12.

14. Give two examples of a linear function in table form.

15. Sketch two examples of a linear function in graph form.

16. Give two examples of a non-linear function in equation form.

17. Give two examples of a non-linear function in table form.

18. Sketch two examples of a non-linear function in graph form.

19. 20. 21.

22. 23. 24.

25. 26. 27.

28. 29. 30.

31. 32. 33.

34. 35. 36.

40. 41. 42.

The Common Cold

What domain make sense in this context? The inputs that

What are all the possible population sizes? There could be

7. 4 7 8. Input: Teenager’s identity

9. 3 10. 2

15. 16. 3

31. −2 32. 10 33. −3 34. 0

35. ℎ−2 36. ℎ−8 37. ℎ4 38. ℎ0

39. :2 40. :−2 41. :4 42. :1

) 2 1 0 1 2 Notice we plotted five points:

@ −8 4 If we choose @ = 1 as an input, we’ll have to graph the point A1, B

11. √ 7 12. 4

+?<FG :G7);+?HH 7 2.5 4.5 3

1. = − 2 7 2. C 10 3. 2 7

ℎ) = −) − 2 4 +L 2M = C

Local max: S 5 Local min: S 5

Temperature in Fahrenheit

Average Temperature ()

7. 6,3,0, 3, 6 … 8. 2, 4, 6 67 8, 8 67 16, 10 67 32 …

10. = − 3 5 11. √ 6 3 12. Input: Number of students in

13. 3 14. 6

15. 3 16. 2

17. = √ + 8 18. 5

19. 20. = C − 2

23. = − − 5 2 24. 5 3

Height in feet

3. 4. 2, 1.5, 1, 0.5, 0, 0.5, 1 …

5. Watch batteries cost $2.50 for three batteries 6. ) 2) 5

Rate of Change: _ ROC in Context: __________________________________

Initial Value: IV in Context: ________________________________

Time in Hours