Transformers and Rectifiers

What you´ll learn in Module 1.1

 After studying this section, you should be able to:

 Describe the principles of transformers used in basic power supplies.
 • Primary and secondary voltages.
 • Isolation.
 Describe the principles of rectification used in basic power supplies.
 • Half Wave.
 • Full Wave.
 • Bridge.

The Transformer

Fig. 1.1.1 Typical Input Transformer

In a basic power supply the input power transformer has its primary
winding connected to the mains (line) supply. A secondary winding,
electro-magnetically coupled but electrically isolated from the primary
is used to obtain an AC voltage of suitable amplitude, and after further
processing by the PSU, to drive the electronics circuit it is to supply.

The transformer stage must be able to supply the current needed. If

too small a transformer is used, it is likely that the power supply's
ability to maintain full output voltage at full output current will be
impaired. With too small a transformer, the losses will increase
dramatically as full load is placed on the transformer.

As the transformer is likely to be the most costly item in the power

supply unit, careful consideration must be given to balancing cost with
likely current requirement. There may also be a need for safety
devices such as thermal fuses to disconnect the transformer if
overheating occurs, and electrical isolation between primary and
secondary windings, for electrical safety.

The Rectifier Stage

Three types of silicon diode rectifier circuit may be used, each having a
different action in the way that the AC input is converted to DC. These
differences are illustrated in Figs. 1.1.2 to 1.1.6

Half Wave Rectification

Fig. 1.1.2 Half Wave Rectification

 Fig. 1.1.3 Full Wave Rectification

Fig. 1.1.4 The Bridge Rectifier

Fig. 1.1.5 Current Flow on the Positive Half Cycle

 Fig. 1.1.6 Current Flow on the Negative Half Cycle

A single silicon rectifier diode may be used to obtain a DC voltage from

the AC input as shown in Fig 1.1.2. This system is cheap but is only
suitable for fairly non-demanding uses. The DC voltage produced by
the single diode is less than with the other systems, limiting the
efficiency of the power supply, and the amount of AC ripple left on the
DC supply is generally greater.

The half wave rectifier conducts on only half of each cycle of the AC
input wave, effectively blocking the other half cycle, leaving the output
wave shown in Fig. 1.1.2. As the average DC value of one half cycle of
a sine wave is 0.637 of the peak value, the average DC value of the
whole cycle after half wave rectification will be 0.637 divided by 2,
because the average value of every alternate half cycle where the
diode does not conduct, will of course be zero. This gives an output of:

Vpk x 0.318

This figure is approximate, as the amplitude of the half cycles for which
the diode conducts will also be reduced by about 0.6V due to the
forward voltage drop (or Forward Junction Potential) of the silicon
rectifier diode. This additional voltage drop may be insignificant when
large voltages are rectified, but in low voltage power supplies where
the AC from the secondary winding of the mains transformer may be
only a few volts, this 0.6V drop across the diode junction may have to
be compensated for, by having a slightly higher transformer secondary
voltage.

Half wave rectification is not very efficient at producing DC from a

50Hz or 60Hz AC input. In addition the gaps between the 50 or 60Hz
diode output pulses make it more difficult to remove the AC ripple
remaining after rectification.

Full Wave Rectification

If a transformer with a centre tapped secondary winding is used, more

efficient full wave rectification can be used. The centre-tapped
secondary produces two anti-phase outputs, as shown in Fig 1.1.3.

If each of these outputs is ‘half wave rectified’ by one of the two

diodes, with each diode conducting on alternate half cycles, two pulses
of current occur at every cycle, instead of once per cycle in half wave
rectification. The output frequency of the full wave rectifier is therefore
twice the input frequency. This effectively provides twice the output
voltage of the half wave circuit, Vpk x 0.637 instead of Vpk x 0.318 as
the ‘missing’ half cycle is now rectified, reducing the power wasted in
the half wave circuit. The higher output frequency also makes the
smoothing of any remaining AC ripple easier.

Although this full wave design is more efficient than the half wave, it
requires a centre tapped (and therefore more expensive) transformer.

The Bridge Rectifier

The full wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes arranged in a bridge
circuit as shown in Fig. 1.1.4 to give full wave rectification without the
need for a centre-tapped transformer. An additional advantage is that,
as two diodes (effectively in series) are conducting at any one time, the
diodes need only half the reverse breakdown voltage i.e the 'Maximum
Working Peak Reverse Voltage (VRWM)' capability of diodes used for
half and conventional full wave rectification. The bridge rectifier can be
built from separate diodes or a combined bridge rectifier can be used.
 The current paths on positive and negative half cycles of the input
wave are shown in Fig. 1.1.5 and Fig. 1.1.6. It can be seen that on
each half cycle, opposite pairs of diodes conduct, but the current
through the load remains in the same polarity for both half cycles.

Overview: What is soldering and when should you use it?

 Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and then
flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point.
 Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
 The metal to be soldered is heated with a soldering iron and then solder is melted into the
connection.
o Only the solder melts, not the parts that are being soldered.
o Solder is a metallic "glue" that holds the parts together and forms a connection that
allows electrical current to flow.
 You can use a solderless breadboard to make test circuits, but if you want your circuit to last for
more than a few days, you will want to solder the components together.

PCB Design – How To Create Circuit Boards

To create a PCB Design you need to draw holes, pads and wires for
your circuit. Then you send this drawing to a manufacturer or you etch
it yourself.

Sounds hard? Don’t worry, there are many free tools out there that will
help you do this.

Bonus: Download a free eBook that will show you step by step how to
design your own circuit boards – and get them made cheaply.

Starting with schematics

Before you start drawing wires and stuff, you need to know what
circuit you want to build. So you need to find or design schematics for
your circuit. And you need a PCB design software. Then you are
ready to begin the process.

Start by drawing your schematic diagram into the software you have
chosen.
PCB design process
Preparing the board layout
Now it’s time to draw the board. You need to transfer your schematic
diagram into a drawing of your printed circuit board.

Drawing PCB’s is artwork. Take your time, and make sure it looks
good. Follow the design guidelines for drawing circuit boards.

Most PCB software will have tools that will help you draw your board
from the schematic. I can’t cover them all, but I’ve written a PCB
design tutorial for Eagle to help you learn.
Things To Think About
Will you put the circuit board in a box? Remember that tall
components might need to be laid down flat to fit. With a drawing of
your components placed on your board, print it out on a sheet of
paper. Use this paper version of your board to test that it will fit the
box and that your connectors will fit.

Getting your PCB manufactured

When you are done drawing your board, it is time to get your PCB
design ready for manufacturing.

This basically means you need to check your board for errors and
convert your board layout to Gerber files. Then, choose a cheap PCB
manufacturerand get your board made.

I highly recommend Seeed Studio’s Fusion PCB service. You can get
your board made for as low as
$1: https://www.seeedstudio.com/fusion_pcb.html
Detailed Instructions

This article is an introduction to circuit board design. I really

recommend you to learn this stuff as it will help you tremendously in
building projects. It’s because of this knowledge that I am now able to
build stuff like quadcopters, LCD screens and other cool gadgets.
Edgefx Kits Official Blog

Electrical and Electronic Components Used in Projects

Electrical and Electronic Components

There are numerous basic electrical and electronic components are normally found in
numerous circuits of peripherals like hard disks, mother boards, etc… Several circuits
are designed with numerous components like resistors, capacitors, inductors,
transistors, transformers, switches and fuses etc. Therefore, this article offers a quick
info concerning different types of electronic and electrical components that are utilized
in various electronic and electrical projects, embedded systems. Let us see each and
every part in detail with diagrams. Resistors, inductors, transformers, battery, fuse.Major
Electrical and Electronic Components

The major electrical and electronic components utilized in electrical and electronic
projects like resistors, capacitors, fuses, transistors, integrated circuits, relays, switches,
motors, circuit breakers, etc. In several circuits, these components are used to build the
circuit that is classified into 2 classes such as active components and passive
components.

Active and Passive Components

Active components are nothing but, a component that provides and controls energy.
Passive components may be outlined as; a component that responds to the flow of
voltage and either dissipates or store energy.
Resistor

Resistors

A resistor is an electrical component that restricts the flow of a current in a circuit. The
electrical device may also be used to afford a particular voltage to a semiconductor.
Once current flows through the resistor, the resistor absorbs the voltage and
degenerates within the form of heat. Resistors might have variable or mounted
resistances that may be found in thermistors, photo resistors, trimmers, potentiometers
and hamsters. The current flow through a resistor is directly proportional to the voltage
across the resistor terminals. The relationship is pictured by Ohm’s law. Ohm’s law
states that dissipation due to the resistance and the units of resistance is ohms.

Ohms law V=IR from this equation, we are able to get I=V/R
Where, ‘V’ is that the voltage of the conductor, ‘I’ is the current through the conductor
and ‘R’ is the resistance of the conductor.

Capacitor

Capacitor

A capacitor is a two terminal linear passive component that is made from 2 conductive
plates with an insulator between them. The main function of a capacitor is that, it stores
voltage once an electrical charge is forced onto its terminals from a power supply. It
maintains the charge even when getting disconnected from the power supply. In a
timing circuit, a capacitor is employed with a resistor and can also be used as a filter to
permit the AC signals and block the DC signals.

The stored electrical charge is Q=CV

Where, “C” is the capacitive reactance and ‘V’ is the applied voltage.
Thus, the current flow through a capacitor is I= C dv/dt

When a DC current is applied across a capacitor, a positive (+) and negative (-) charge
builds on a set of terminals. The charge stays till the capacitor is discharged. Once an
AC current is applied across a capacitor, a positive and negative charge forms on a set
of plates during the part of the cycle when the voltage is positive. When the voltage
goes negative (-) in the second half of the cycle, then the capacitor releases
before charged current, and then charges the opposite way.

Microcontroller

Microcontroller

A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit that assembles all

the options which are found within the microprocessor. So as to serve different
applications, it has a high concentration of on chip amenities like RAM, ROM, timers I/O
ports, serial port, interrupt and clock circuit. These are used in numerous automatically
controlled devices like remote controls, medical devices, automobile engine control
systems, power tools, toys, workplace machines, and different embedded
systems. Microcontrollers are used in different electronic project circuits

Inductor

Inductor
An inductor or coil or a reactor is a two-terminal passive electrical component,
commonly operate of an inductor is that, it stores voltage within the form of magnetic
energy. Generally an inductor includes of a conductor, component wound into a coil that
works on the principle of Faraday’s law of inductance. Once a current flows through the
coil from the left side to the right side, the coil produces a magnetic field within the
clockwise direction. The inductance of the inductor is denoted by ‘L’

L== (µ.K.N2.S)/I.

Where,

‘L’ is an inductance
‘K’ is a Nagaoka constant
‘µ’ is a Magnetic permeability
‘N’ is the number of turns of the coils
‘S’ is the Cross section area of the coil
‘I’ is the Length of the coil in axial direction

Transformer

Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device and it consists of 2 coils of wire that are joined by
an iron core. It offers the much required capability of changing the current and voltage
levels simply. The main function of the transformer is that to increase (step-up) or
decrease (step-down) AC voltages. The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction, that is, mutual inductance between 2 circuits that is
linked by a common magnetic flux. Transformer converts an electrical energy from one
circuit to another circuit with the help of mutual induction between the 2 windings
without electrical connection between them, and also converts power from one circuit to
another} circuit without changing the frequency however with a different voltage level.

In a step up transformer, secondary winding contains a lot of winding than the first coil.
Returning to a transformer, it has more windings in the primary than the secondary
winding. These are one of the main reasons we use AC current in our homes and not
DC. DC voltages can’t be modified using transformers. Transformers are out there in
several sizes within the market nowadays, starting from little ones to an outsized one.

Battery

Battery

A battery is an electrical device that is employed to convert chemical energy into voltage
through electrochemical discharge reactions. These are composed of one or more cells
where each cell having an anode (+), the cathode (-) and the solution. The anode and
the cathode are preserved to an electric circuit. Batteries are classified into 2 varieties
they are primary or disposable batteries and secondary or rechargeable batteries,
whereby the primary batteries don’t seem to be reversible whereas the secondary
batteries are reversible.

Fuse

Fuse

A fuse is a material or a bit of wire which is employed to protect the components from
destruction due to excessive current flowing through them. When excessive current
flows through the circuit, the wires get heated up and get broken. As a result, the
current stops flowing. When the fuse melts due to overflow of current then, the part of
the fuse absorbs some energy. The absorbed energy is given by I2t

Where, ‘I’ is the peak value of the current interrupted

‘t’ is the time taken to clear the fault.

When the fuse blows, it offers a signal that there is some reasonably fault within the
circuit. Every type of fuse is designed for an accurate quantity of current. A fuse
includes of the main parts a set of contacts, metal-fuse part, connection and support
body. A fuse element is made of Zn, copper, silver, aluminum or alloys to afford sure
characteristics. That may be swallowed by air or material

Diode/LED (Light Emitting Diode)

LED

A diode is a device, which is made from semiconductor material that allows current to
flow in one direction; it blocks the current that tries to travel against the flow in a wire.
These devices are often used in several electronic circuits that convert AC to DC. An
LED is the alternative of the diode, once a current is applied to an LED; it emits light at a
specific frequency. LEDs are utilized in varied applications like keyboards, hard disks,
TV remote controls, and these devices are largely helpful as standing indicators in
computers also as battery-operated electronics Transistors

Transistors
 Transistor

The transistor is a device, which consists of 3 terminals, fabricated from semiconductor

material that controls the flow of voltage or current and acts as a switch for electronic
signals. There are 2 varieties of transistors PNP and NPN, most circuits tend to use
NPN semiconductor. Transistors are designed in numerous shapes and the 3 terminals
of the semiconductor specifically, the base (B), emitter (E) and collector(C).
Where,the base terminal is responsible for activating the transistor, emitter terminal is
the negative lead and collector terminal is the positive lead.

Integrated Circuit

Integrated Circuit

The short sort of a form of integrated circuit is IC and sometimes it is additionally known
as a chip. The integrated circuit is a semiconductor device, where numerous resistors,
capacitors, and transistors are fabricated. It will operate as a microprocessor, microchip,
amplifier, and timer. An IC is classified as either linear or nonlinear depending on its
application. Linear ICs or analog integrated circuits have continuously variable O/P
which depends on the level of i/p signal. These linear ICs are used as audio frequency
and radio frequency amplifiers. Digital ICs operate at only some defined states, instead
of over a continuous vary of signal amplitudes. The applications of integrated circuits
involve in computers, modems, computer networks and frequency counters. The basic
structure of digital integrated circuits is logic gates, which work with binary knowledge.
Relays

Relays

Relays are switches, that are used to control the circuits by employing a low power
signal. The relays comprise of a magnet, a coil, a series of electrical contacts and a
spring. First relays were used as amplifiers in long distance telegraph circuits. There is
no electrical connection between the two circuits within the relay, because that is
connected through the magnetic connection. Relays are used to perform logical
operations in telephone exchanges and computers etc.

Switches

Switch

A switch is an electrical device which is employed to interrupt the circuit, interrupting the
current and to provide the current from one conductor to a different conductor. The
switch works with ON and OFF mechanism. Switches are classified into four varieties
like (SPST) single pole single throw, (SPDT) single pole double throw, (DPST) double
pole single throw and (DPDT)double pole double throw.
Motors

Motors

A motor is an electrical device and the main function of the motor is that, it converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy. The motor contains rotor, stator, bearings,
conduit box, enclosure and eye bolt. Electrical motors are all everywhere, from common
machines to our most complicated computers. These motors are competent for the
tasks which they perform when compared to pneumatic or hydraulic alternatives. Motors
are categorized into different types like, AC inductance motors, DC motors, stepper
motor, three phase induction motor, brushless magnet electric motor, brushed DC
motor, and switched reluctance motor.

Circuit Breakers

Circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device which is operated automatically,

which are used to defend an electric circuit from damage caused by overload or short
circuit the most functions of the circuit breaker is to interrupt current flow and determine
a fault condition. It includes of two contacts like moving & mounted contacts. Moving
contact is employed to interrupt and create the circuit victimization stored energies in
the kind of spring or compressed air. Mounted contact includes a spring that holds the
moving contact when closing. These devices accommodate two coils, closing and
tripping coil. Wherever closing coil is used to shut the circuit and tripping coil is
employed to trip the circuit.

Online Sites for Electrical and Electronic Components

Online Stores

Here is the list of the online stores where you can place an order to buy these
components and project kits. These online stores provide completely different choice to
place associate order like money on delivery and debit cards or Mastercard payments.
Additionally to the current, these online stores deliver the elements and kits by traveler
services like communicating, DTD, FedEx etc.

 http://www.edgefxkits.com/
 http://kitsnspares.com/
 http://www.freetronics.com/collections/kits
 http://www.jameco.com/
 http://in.element14.com/
 http://robokits.co.in/shop/
 http://embeddedmarket.com/
 http://www.canakit.com
 http://www.onlinetps.com/
 http://www.ventor.co.in/
 http://uk.farnell.com/
 http://www.bhashatech.com/
 http://hobby2go.com/
 http://www.dnatechindia.com/
 http://potentiallabs.com/
 http://www.tenettech.com/
 http://www.anandtronics.com/
 http://www.nex-robotics.com/
 http://in.mouser.com/
 http://www.mathaelectronics.com/
 http://www.digibay.in/
 http://www.ebay.com/bhp/electronic-components-kit
 http://www.simplelabs.co.in/There

Therefore, these are a number of the essential electrical and electronic components
employed in implementing various electronic and electrical projects. We believe that you
might have got fulfilled with this text and believe that you just have gotten an inspiration
concerning these elements. Excluding this, if you have got any doubts relating to this
text or testing these elements in a very sensible circuit and their aggregation
procedures, you can give your feedback by commenting within the comment section
below.

List of electrical and electronic measuring

equipment
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

Below is the list of measuring instruments used in electrical and electronic work.

Name Purpose

Ammeter (Ampermeter) Measures current

Capacitance meter Measures the capacitance of a component

Curve tracer Applies swept signals to a device and allows display of the response

Cos Phi Meter Measures the power factor

Distortionmeter Measures the distortion added to a circuit

Electricity meter Measures the amount of energy dissipated

ESR meter Measures the equivalent series resistance of capacitors

Frequency counter Measures the frequency of the current

 Name Purpose

Leakage tester Measures leakage across the plates of a capacitor

LCR meter Measures the inductance, capacitance and resistance of a component

Microwave power
Measures power at microwave frequencies
meter

General purpose instrument measures voltage, current and resistance (and

Multimeter
sometimes other quantities as well)

Network analyzer Measures network parameters

Ohmmeter Measures the resistance of a component

Displays waveform of a signal, allows measurement of frequency, timing, peak

Oscilloscope
excursion, offset, ...

Psophometer Measures AF signal level and noise

Q meter Measures Q factor of the RF circuits

Signal analyzer Measures both the amplitude and the modulation of a RF signal

Signal generator Generates signals for testing purposes

Spectrum analyser Displays frequency spectrum

 Name Purpose

Creates constant-amplitude variable frequency sine waves to test frequency

Sweep generator
response

Transistor tester Tests transistors

Tube tester Tests vacuum tubes (triode, tetrode etc.)

Wattmeter Measures the power

Vectorscope Displays the phase of the colors in color TV

Video signal generator Generates video signal for testing purposes

Measures the potential difference between two points in a circuit.

Voltmeter
(Includes: DVM and VTVM)

VU meter Measures the level of AF signals in Volume units

Introduction to Checking Components

Book: Components of electronic devices
Table of Contents

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So you've put a circuit together and as far as you know everything appears to be
ok, but it doesn't work as expected. Even worse, it refuses to give any signs of life.
What do you do? First, check the circuit for mechanical failures, like non-connected
wires, broken vias on the board (these are holes on the printed circuit board that
have a metal coating down the length of the hole to connect one side of the board
to the other), bad battery contacts inside the case, broken pins on a component,
cold solder joints, etc. If this doesn't come up with a result, you should compare
values of components with the schematic. You may have put a component in the
wrong place, or read values the wrong way. Maybe you forgot k in front of Ohms.
Maybe you connected the supply to the wrong pin of an IC. The next step is to test
each component on the board. Start troubleshooting by measuring DC voltages at
certain points of the board, and comparing these values to the schematic. So, by
knowing the operation of the circuit you start the process of elimination to find the
“suspect” component. If there are several “suspects”, and this is not a rare
occurrence in complex devices, the testing is divided into groups of components.
You start checking in reverse soldering order, this means you start with
components last soldered, because those are the most sensitive components on the
circuit like integrated circuits, transistors, diodes, etc. The fastest and simplest
method to troubleshoot is to use an “ohm-meter.” In most cases you don't have an
ohm-meter by itself as it is usually aded to an ammeter and voltmeter in one
instrument, called AVO meter or multimeter. The safest and most accurate method
is to desolder the component from the board when testing it, because other
components could lead to a wrong diagnosis, so you have to be very careful when
testing in-circuit. Ok, you should know something about multimeters now. There
are two kinds: analog and digital. Analog ones are items of the past, and since they
use a needle to tell you values, it can be difficult determining the right value. Digital
meters, on the other hand have a display. You should go for this type, although
both come in different sizes and with different ranges. Their price is from several
dollars, to several hundreds of dollars for really good professional types. Two
instruments are shown in 11.1.