Sir Karl Raimund Popper CH FBA FRS [9] (28 de julio de 1902 - 17 de septiembre de 1994) fue un
filósofo y profesor británico nacido en Austria [10] . [11] [12] [13]
Busto de Popper en el
Arkadenhof de la Universidad
de Viena.
Generalmente considerado como uno de los filósofos de la ciencia más importantes del siglo XX,
[14] [15] [16] Popper es conocido por su rechazo de los puntos de vista inductivistas clásicos sobre
el método científico a favor de la falsificación empírica . Una teoría en las ciencias empíricas
nunca puede ser probada, pero puede ser falsificada, lo que significa que puede y debe ser
examinada por experimentos decisivos. Popper también es conocido por su oposición a la
explicación justificacionista clásica del conocimiento, que reemplazó por racionalismo crítico , a
saber, "la primera filosofía de crítica no justificable en la historia de la filosofía". [17]
Vida personal
Familia y formación
Karl Popper nació en Viena (entonces en Austria-Hungría ) en 1902 de padres de clase media alta
. Todos los abuelos de Popper eran judíos , pero no eran devotos y, como parte del proceso de
asimilación cultural , la familia Popper se convirtió al luteranismo antes de que él naciera [18] [19],
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interesó por la filosofía, los clásicos y los temas 1994 (92 años)
Londres , Inglaterra ,
sociales y políticos. [14] Popper heredó tanto la
Reino Unido
biblioteca como la disposición de él. [25] Más
tarde, él describiría la atmósfera de su Nacionalidad austriaco
educación como "decididamente reservada".
alma mater Universidad de viena
[14]
Teoría de la
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miembro del Partido de los Trabajadores Socialdemócratas de Austria , que en ese momento era
un partido que adoptó plenamente la ideología marxista. [14] Después de la batalla callejera en el
Hörlgasse el 15 de junio de 1919, cuando la policía disparó a ocho de sus camaradas
desarmados, se desilusionó por lo que vio como el materialismo histórico "pseudocientífico" de
Marx, abandonó la ideología y permaneció. Un partidario del liberalismo social a lo largo de su
vida. [3]
Trabajó en la construcción de calles durante un corto período de tiempo, pero no pudo hacer
frente al trabajo pesado. Continuando asistiendo a la universidad como estudiante invitado,
comenzó un aprendizaje como ebanista, que completó como oficial. Estaba soñando en ese
momento de comenzar una guardería para niños, para lo cual asumió que la capacidad de hacer
muebles podría ser útil. Después de eso, prestó servicio voluntario en una de las clínicas para
niños del psicoanalista Alfred Adler . En 1922, hizo su madurez a través de una educación de
segunda oportunidad y finalmente se unió a la Universidad como estudiante ordinario. Completó
su examen como maestro de primaria en 1924 y comenzó a trabajar en un club de atención
extraescolar para niños en peligro social. En 1925, fue al recién fundado Pädagogisches Institut y
continuó estudiando filosofía y psicología. Alrededor de ese tiempo comenzó a cortejar a
Josefine Anna Henninger, quien más tarde se convirtió en su esposa.
Vida académica
En 1937, Popper finalmente logró un puesto que le permitió emigrar a Nueva Zelanda, donde se
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Muerte
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principalmente a The Karl Popper Charitable Trust. [32] En octubre de 2008, la Universidad de
Klagenfurt adquirió los derechos de autor de la propiedad.
Popper y su esposa habían elegido no tener hijos debido a las circunstancias de la guerra en los
primeros años de su matrimonio. Popper comentó que esto "fue quizás una decisión cobarde,
pero en cierto modo correcta". [33]
Honores y premios
Otros premios y reconocimientos para Popper incluyeron el Premio de la Ciudad de Viena para
las Humanidades (1965), el Premio Karl Renner (1978), la Decoración Austriaca para la Ciencia y el
Arte (1980), el Premio Dr. Leopold Lucas de la Universidad de Tübingen (1980), Anillo de Honor
de la Ciudad de Viena (1983) y el Premio Internazionale de la Sociedad Italiana Federico
Nietzsche (1988). En 1989, fue el primer galardonado con el Premio Internacional de Cataluña por
"su trabajo para desarrollar valores culturales, científicos y humanos en todo el mundo". [37] En
1992, recibió el Premio de Kyoto en Artes y Filosofía por "simbolizar el espíritu abierto del siglo
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XX" [38] y por su "enorme influencia en la formación del clima intelectual moderno". [38]
Filosofía
El rechazo de Popper del marxismo durante su adolescencia dejó una profunda huella en su
pensamiento. En un momento se había unido a una asociación socialista, y durante unos meses
en 1919 se consideró comunista . [39] Aunque se sabe que Popper trabajó como empleado de
oficina en la sede comunista, no está claro si alguna vez se convirtió en miembro del Partido
Comunista. [40] Durante este tiempo se familiarizó con la visión marxista de la economía, el
conflicto de clases y la historia. [14] Aunque rápidamente se desilusionó con los puntos de vista
expuestos por el marxismo, su coqueteo con la ideología lo llevó a distanciarse de aquellos que
creían que era necesario derramar sangre por el bien de una revolución. Se dio cuenta de que
cuando se trataba de sacrificar vidas humanas, uno era pensar y actuar con extrema prudencia.
El fracaso de los partidos democráticos para evitar que el fascismo se hiciera cargo de la política
austriaca en las décadas de 1920 y 1930 traumatizó a Popper. Sufrió las consecuencias directas
de este fracaso, ya que los acontecimientos posteriores a Anschluss , la anexión de Austria por el
Reich alemán en 1938, lo obligaron a exiliarse permanentemente. Sus obras más importantes en
el campo de las ciencias sociales : La pobreza del historicismo (1944) y La sociedad abierta y sus
enemigos (1945), se inspiraron en su reflexión sobre los acontecimientos de su tiempo y
representaron, en cierto sentido, una reacción a Las ideologías totalitarias prevalecientes que
luego dominaron la política de Europa Central. Sus libros defendieron el liberalismo democrático
como una filosofía social y política . También representaron extensas críticas a las presuposiciones
filosóficas que sustentan todas las formas de totalitarismo . [14]
Popper creía que había un contraste entre las teorías de Sigmund Freud y Alfred Adler , que
consideraba no científicas, y la revolución iniciada por la teoría de la relatividad de Albert Einstein
en física a principios del siglo XX. Popper pensó que la teoría de Einstein, como una teoría
debidamente basada en el pensamiento y el método científicos, era altamente "arriesgada", en el
sentido de que era posible deducir consecuencias que diferían considerablemente de las de la
física newtoniana entonces dominante. La teoría de la relatividad fue parcialmente confirmada
por los experimentos de Eddington en 1919 . [41] Por el contrario, pensó que nada podría, ni
siquiera en principio, falsificar las teorías psicoanalíticas. Llegó a la conclusión de que tenían más
en común con los mitos primitivos que con la ciencia genuina. [14]
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Esto llevó a Popper a concluir que lo que se consideraba ya que las fortalezas notables de las
teorías psicoanalíticas eran en realidad sus debilidades. Las teorías psicoanalíticas se elaboraron
de una manera que los hizo capaces de refutar cualquier crítica y dar una explicación de todas las
formas posibles de comportamiento humano. La naturaleza de tales teorías hizo imposible que
cualquier crítica o experimento, incluso en principio, mostrara que eran falsas. [14] Cuando Popper
más tarde abordó el problema de la demarcación en la filosofía de la ciencia, esta conclusión lo
llevó a postular que la fuerza de una teoría científica radica en que es susceptible de falsificación
y no en realidad falsificada por las críticas que se le hacen. Consideró que si una teoría no puede,
en principio, ser falsificada por la crítica, no es una teoría científica. [42]
Filosofía de la ciencia
Popper acuñó el término "racionalismo crítico" para describir su filosofía. Con respecto al método
de la ciencia, el término indica su rechazo del empirismo clásico, y el clásico relato
observacionalista-inductivista de la ciencia que surgió de él. Popper argumentó fuertemente en
contra de este último, sosteniendo que las teorías científicas son de naturaleza abstracta y
pueden ser probadas solo indirectamente, en referencia a sus implicaciones. También sostuvo
que la teoría científica, y el conocimiento humano en general, es irreductiblemente conjetural o
hipotético, y es generada por la imaginación creativa para resolver problemas que han surgido
en entornos histórico-culturales específicos.
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enfoque realista de Albert Einstein sobre las teorías científicas sobre el universo. La falsabilidad
de Popper se asemeja al falibilismo del siglo XIX de Charles Peirce . En De relojes y nubes (1966),
Popper comentó que deseaba haber conocido el trabajo de Peirce antes.
En All Life is Problem Solving , Popper trató de explicar el progreso aparente del conocimiento
científico, es decir, cómo es que nuestra comprensión del universo parece mejorar con el tiempo.
Este problema surge de su posición de que el contenido de verdad de nuestras teorías, incluso la
mejor de ellas, no puede verificarse mediante pruebas científicas, sino que solo puede falsificarse.
Nuevamente, en este contexto, la palabra "falsificado" no se refiere a que algo sea "falso"; más
bien, que algo puede ser (es decir, es capaz de ser) demostrado ser falso por observación o
experimento. Algunas cosas simplemente no se prestan a ser mostradas como falsas y, por lo
tanto, no son falsificables. Si es así, ¿cómo es que el crecimiento de la ciencia parece resultar en
un crecimiento en el conocimiento ? En opinión de Popper, el avance del conocimiento científico
es un proceso evolutivo caracterizado por su fórmula: [43] [44]
falsificación más rigurosos posibles. Este proceso, eliminación de errores ( ), realiza una
función similar para la ciencia que la selección natural realiza para la evolución biológica . Las
teorías que sobreviven mejor al proceso de refutación no son más verdaderas, sino más "más
problemas cada vez más interesantes ( ) Para Popper, es en la interacción entre las
teorías tentativas (conjeturas) y la eliminación de errores (refutación) que el conocimiento
científico avanza hacia problemas cada vez mayores; en un proceso muy similar a la interacción
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Entre sus contribuciones a la filosofía está su afirmación de haber resuelto el problema filosófico
de la inducción . Afirma que si bien no hay forma de demostrar que saldrá el sol, es posible
formular la teoría de que todos los días saldrá el sol; Si no aumenta en algún día en particular, la
teoría será falsificada y tendrá que ser reemplazada por otra diferente. Hasta ese día, no hay
necesidad de rechazar la suposición de que la teoría es cierta. Tampoco es racional según Popper
hacer, en cambio, la suposición más compleja de que el sol saldrá hasta un día determinado, sino
que dejará de hacerlo al día siguiente, o declaraciones similares con condiciones adicionales.
Tal teoría sería cierta con mayor probabilidad, porque no puede ser atacada tan fácilmente: para
falsificar la primera, es suficiente encontrar que el sol ha dejado de salir; para falsificar el
segundo, uno necesita además suponer que el día dado aún no se ha alcanzado. Popper sostuvo
que es la teoría menos probable o más fácil de falsificar o más simple (atributos que identificó
como lo mismo) que explica los hechos conocidos que uno debería racionalmente preferir. Su
oposición al positivismo, que sostuvo que es la teoría más probable que sea verdad que uno
debería preferir, aquí se vuelve muy evidente. Es imposible, argumenta Popper, asegurar que una
teoría sea verdadera; Es más importante que su falsedad se pueda detectar tan fácilmente como
sea posible.
Popper y David Hume coincidieron en que a menudo existe la creencia psicológica de que el sol
saldrá mañana, pero ambos negaron que haya una justificación lógica para suponer que lo hará,
simplemente porque siempre lo ha hecho en el pasado. Popper escribe: "Abordé el problema de
la inducción a través de Hume. Hume, sentí, tenía toda la razón al señalar que la inducción no
puede justificarse lógicamente". [45]
Racionalidad
Popper sostuvo que la racionalidad no se limita al ámbito de las teorías empíricas o científicas,
sino que se trata simplemente de un caso especial del método general de crítica, el método de
encontrar y eliminar contradicciones en el conocimiento sin medidas ad-hoc. Según este punto
de vista, es posible una discusión racional sobre ideas metafísicas, sobre valores morales e
incluso sobre propósitos. El estudiante de Popper, WW Bartley III, trató de radicalizar esta idea e
hizo la controvertida afirmación de que no solo la crítica puede ir más allá del conocimiento
empírico, sino que todo puede ser criticado racionalmente.
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Para Popper, que era un anti- justificacionista , la filosofía tradicional está engañada por el falso
principio de razón suficiente . Él piensa que ninguna suposición puede ser o debe justificarse, por
lo que la falta de justificación no es una justificación para la duda. En cambio, las teorías deben
ser probadas y escrutadas. No es el objetivo bendecir las teorías con afirmaciones de certeza o
justificación, sino eliminar los errores en ellas. Él escribe: "no existen tales cosas como buenas
razones positivas; ni necesitamos esas cosas [...] Pero [los filósofos] obviamente no pueden creer
que esta es mi opinión, y mucho menos que es correcto ". ( La filosofía de Karl Popper , p. 1043)
Filosofía de la aritmética
La solución de Popper [46] fue una contribución original en la filosofía de las matemáticas . Su
idea era que una declaración numérica como "2 manzanas + 2 manzanas = 4 manzanas" se
puede tomar en dos sentidos. En cierto sentido, es irrefutable y lógicamente cierto , en el
segundo sentido es de hecho cierto y falsificable. De manera concisa, la matemática pura "2 + 2
= 4" siempre es cierta, pero cuando la fórmula se aplica a las manzanas del mundo real, está
abierta a la falsificación. [47]
Filosofía política
En The Open Society and Its Enemies y The Poverty of Historicism , Popper desarrolló una crítica
del historicismo y una defensa de la "Open Society". Popper consideraba el historicismo como la
teoría de que la historia se desarrolla inexorable y necesariamente de acuerdo con leyes
generales conocidas hacia un fin determinado. Argumentó que esta visión es la principal
presuposición teórica que sustenta la mayoría de las formas de autoritarismo y totalitarismo .
Argumentó que el historicismo se basa en suposiciones erróneas con respecto a la naturaleza del
derecho científico y la predicción. Dado que el crecimiento del conocimiento humano es un
factor causal en la evolución de la historia humana, y dado que "ninguna sociedad puede
predecir, científicamente, sus propios estados futuros de conocimiento", [48] se deduce que no
puede haber predicciones ciencia de la historia humana. Para Popper, el indeterminismo
metafísico e histórico van de la mano.
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En sus primeros años, Popper quedó impresionado por el marxismo, ya sea comunista o
socialista. Un evento que sucedió en 1919 tuvo un profundo efecto en él: durante un motín,
causado por los comunistas, la policía disparó a varias personas desarmadas, incluidos algunos
de los amigos de Popper, cuando intentaron liberar a los camaradas de la prisión. Los disturbios
habían sido, de hecho, parte de un plan por el cual los líderes del partido comunista con
conexiones con Béla Kun intentaron tomar el poder mediante un golpe de estado; Popper no
sabía sobre esto en ese momento. Sin embargo, sabía que la doctrina marxista influía en los
instigadores antidisturbios de que la lucha de clases produciría muchísimos más hombres
muertos que la inevitable revolución que se produjo lo más rápido posible, por lo que no tenía
escrúpulos para arriesgar la vida de los manifestantes. su objetivo egoísta de convertirse en los
futuros líderes de la clase trabajadora. Este fue el comienzo de su posterior crítica del
historicismo. [49] [50] Popper comenzó a rechazar el historicismo marxista, que él asoció con
medios cuestionables, y más tarde el socialismo, que asoció con colocar la igualdad antes que la
libertad (en la posible desventaja de la igualdad). [51]
En 1947, Popper cofundó la Sociedad Mont Pelerin , con Friedrich Hayek , Milton Friedman ,
Ludwig von Mises y otros, aunque no estaba totalmente de acuerdo con los estatutos y la
ideología del grupo de expertos. Específicamente, recomendó sin éxito que se invitara a los
socialistas a participar, y que se pusiera énfasis en una jerarquía de valores humanitarios en lugar
de abogar por un mercado libre como lo imagina el liberalismo clásico . [52]
La paradoja de la tolerancia
Aunque Popper era un defensor de la tolerancia, también advirtió contra la tolerancia ilimitada.
En The Open Society and Its Enemies , argumentó:
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Metafísica
Verdad
Ya en 1934, Popper escribió sobre la búsqueda de la verdad como "uno de los motivos más
fuertes para el descubrimiento científico". [57] Aún así, describe en Objective Knowledge (1972) las
primeras preocupaciones sobre la noción tan criticada de la verdad como correspondencia .
Luego vino la teoría semántica de la verdad formulada por el lógico Alfred Tarski y publicada en
1933. Popper escribió sobre el aprendizaje en 1935 de las consecuencias de la teoría de Tarski,
para su intensa alegría. La teoría encontró objeciones críticas a la verdad como correspondencia
y, por lo tanto, la rehabilitó. La teoría también parecía, a los ojos de Popper, apoyar el realismo
metafísico y la idea reguladora de una búsqueda de la verdad.
According to this theory, the conditions for the truth of a sentence as well as the sentences
themselves are part of a metalanguage . So, for example, the sentence "Snow is white" is true if
and only if snow is white. Although many philosophers have interpreted, and continue to
interpret, Tarski's theory as a deflationary theory , Popper refers to it as a theory in which "is true"
is replaced with " corresponds to the facts ". He bases this interpretation on the fact that
examples such as the one described above refer to two things: assertions and the facts to which
they refer. He identifies Tarski's formulation of the truth conditions of sentences as the
introduction of a "metalinguistic predicate" and distinguishes the following cases:
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The first case belongs to the metalanguage whereas the second is more likely to belong to the
object language. Hence, "it is true that" possesses the logical status of a redundancy. "Is true", on
the other hand, is a predicate necessary for making general observations such as "John was
telling the truth about Phillip."
Upon this basis, along with that of the logical content of assertions (where logical content is
inversely proportional to probability), Popper went on to develop his important notion of
verisimilitude or "truthlikeness". The intuitive idea behind verisimilitude is that the assertions or
hypotheses of scientific theories can be objectively measured with respect to the amount of truth
and falsity that they imply. And, in this way, one theory can be evaluated as more or less true
than another on a quantitative basis which, Popper emphasises forcefully, has nothing to do with
"subjective probabilities" or other merely "epistemic" considerations.
The simplest mathematical formulation that Popper gives of this concept can be found in the
tenth chapter of Conjectures and Refutations . Here he defines it as:
Popper's original attempt to define not just verisimilitude, but an actual measure of it, turned out
to be inadequate. However, it inspired a wealth of new attempts. [14]
Knowledge, for Popper, was objective, both in the sense that it is objectively true (or truthlike),
and also in the sense that knowledge has an ontological status (ie, knowledge as object)
independent of the knowing subject ( Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach , 1972). He
proposed three worlds : [58] World One, being the physical world, or physical states; World Two,
being the world of mind, or mental states, ideas and perceptions; and World Three, being the
body of human knowledge expressed in its manifold forms, or the products of the Second World
made manifest in the materials of the First World (ie, books, papers, paintings, symphonies, and
all the products of the human mind). World Three, he argued, was the product of individual
human beings in exactly the same sense that an animal's path is the product of individual
animals, and thus has an existence and is evolution independent of any individually known
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subjects. The influence of World Three, in his view, on the individual human mind (World Two) is
at least as strong as the influence of World One. In other words, the knowledge held by a given
individual mind owes at least as much to the total, accumulated, wealth of human knowledge
made manifest, comparably to the world of direct experience. As such, the growth of human
knowledge could be said to be a function of the independent evolution of World Three. Many
contemporary philosophers, such as Daniel Dennett, have not embraced Popper's Three World
conjecture, mostly due to its resemblance to mind-body dualism .
The creation–evolution controversy in the United States raises the issue of whether creationistic
ideas may be legitimately called science and whether evolution itself may be legitimately called
science. In the debate, both sides and even courts in their decisions have frequently invoked
Popper's criterion of falsifiability (see Daubert standard ). In this context, passages written by
Popper are frequently quoted in which he speaks about such issues himself. For example, he
famously stated " Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory, but a metaphysical research
program—a possible framework for testable scientific theories." Él continuó:
And yet, the theory is invaluable. I do not see how, without it, our knowledge
could have grown as it has done since Darwin. In trying to explain
experiments with bacteria which become adapted to, say, penicillin , it is quite
clear that we are greatly helped by the theory of natural selection. Although it
is metaphysical, it sheds much light upon very concrete and very practical
researches. It allows us to study adaptation to a new environment (such as a
penicillin-infested environment) in a rational way: it suggests the existence of
a mechanism of adaptation, and it allows us even to study in detail the
mechanism at work. [59]
He also noted that theism , presented as explaining adaptation, "was worse than an open
admission of failure, for it created the impression that an ultimate explanation had been
reached". [60]
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What makes the origin of life and of the genetic code a disturbing riddle is
this: the genetic code is without any biological function unless it is translated;
that is, unless it leads to the synthesis of the proteins whose structure is laid
down by the code. But, as Monod points out, the machinery by which the cell
(at least the non-primitive cell, which is the only one we know) translates the
code "consists of at least fifty macromolecular components which are
themselves coded in the DNA ". (Monod, 1970; [61] 1971, 143 [62] )
Thus the code can not be translated except by using certain products of its
translation. This constitutes a really baffling circle; a vicious circle, it seems,
for any attempt to form a model, or theory, of the genesis of the genetic code.
Thus we may be faced with the possibility that the origin of life (like the origin
of the universe) becomes an impenetrable barrier to science, and a residue to
all attempts to reduce biology to chemistry and physics. [63]
He explained that the difficulty of testing had led some people to describe natural selection as a
tautology , and that he too had in the past described the theory as "almost tautological", and had
tried to explain how the theory could be untestable (as is a tautology) and yet of great scientific
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interest:
These frequently quoted passages are only a very small part of what Popper wrote on the issue of
evolution, however, and give the wrong impression that he mainly discussed questions of its
falsifiability. Popper never invented this criterion to give justifiable use of words like science. In
fact, Popper stresses at the beginning of Logic of Scientific Discovery that "the last thing I wish to
do, however, is to advocate another dogma" [65] and that "what is to be called a 'science' and
who is to be called a 'scientist' must always remain a matter of convention or decision." [66] He
quotes Menger's dictum that "Definitions are dogmas; only the conclusions drawn from them can
afford us any new insight" [67] and notes that different definitions of science can be rationally
debated and compared:
I do not try to justify [the aims of science which I have in mind], however, by
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representing them as the true or the essential aims of science. This would
only distort the issue, and it would mean a relapse into positivist dogmatism.
There is only one way, as far as I can see, of arguing rationally in support of
my proposals. This is to analyse their logical consequences: to point out their
fertility—their power to elucidate the problems of the theory of knowledge.
[68]
Popper had his own sophisticated views on evolution [69] that go much beyond what the
frequently-quoted passages say. [70] In effect, Popper agreed with some of the points of both
creationists and naturalists, but also disagreed with both views on crucial aspects. Popper
understood the universe as a creative entity that invents new things, including life, but without
the necessity of something like a god, especially not one who is pulling strings from behind the
curtain. He said that evolution of the genotype must, as the creationists say, work in a goal-
directed way [71] but disagreed with their view that it must necessarily be the hand of god that
imposes these goals onto the stage of life.
Popper contrasts his views with the notion of the "hopeful monster" that has large phenotype
mutations and calls it the "hopeful behavioural monster". After behaviour has changed radically,
small but quick changes of the phenotype follow to make the organism fitter to its changed
goals. This way it looks as if the phenotype were changing guided by some invisible hand, while it
is merely natural selection working in combination with the new behaviour. For example,
according to this hypothesis, the eating habits of the giraffe must have changed before its
elongated neck evolved. Popper contrasted this view as "evolution from within" or "active
Darwinism" (the organism actively trying to discover new ways of life and being on a quest for
conquering new ecological niches), [73] [74] with the naturalistic "evolution from without" (which
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has the picture of a hostile environment only trying to kill the mostly passive organism, or
perhaps segregate some of its groups).
Popper was a key figure encouraging patent lawyer Günter Wächtershäuser to publish his Iron–
sulfur world hypothesis on abiogenesis and his criticism of "soup" theory .
About the creation-evolution controversy itself, Popper initially wrote that he considered it "a
somewhat sensational clash between a brilliant scientific hypothesis concerning the history of the
various species of animals and plants on earth, and an older metaphysical theory which,
incidentally, happened to be part of an established religious belief" with a footnote to the effect
that he "agree[s] with Professor CE Raven when, in his Science, Religion, and the Future , 1943, he
calls this conflict 'a storm in a Victorian tea-cup'; though the force of this remark is perhaps a
little impaired by the attention he pays to the vapours still emerging from the cup—to the Great
Systems of Evolutionist Philosophy, produced by Bergson, Whitehead, Smuts, and others." [75] In
his later work, however, when he had developed his own "spearhead model" and "active
Darwinism" theories, Popper revised this view and found some validity in the controversy:
I have to confess that this cup of tea has become, after all, my cup of tea; and
with it I have to eat humble pie. [76]
Free will
Popper and John Eccles speculated on the problem of free will for many years, generally agreeing
on an interactionist dualist theory of mind. However, although Popper was a body-mind dualist,
he did not think that the mind is a substance separate from the body : he thought that mental or
psychological properties or aspects of people are distinct from physical ones . [77]
When he gave the second Arthur Holly Compton Memorial Lecture in 1965, Popper revisited the
idea of quantum indeterminacy as a source of human freedom. Eccles had suggested that
"critically poised neurons" might be influenced by the mind to assist in a decision. Popper
criticised Compton's idea of amplified quantum events affecting the decision. He wrote:
The idea that the only alternative to determinism is just sheer chance was
taken over by Schlick , together with many of his views on the subject, from
Hume , who asserted that "the removal" of what he called "physical necessity"
must always result in "the same thing with chance . As objects must either be
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conjoin'd or not,... 'tis impossible to admit of any medium betwixt chance and
an absolute necessity".
I shall later argue against this important doctrine according to which the
alternative to determinism is sheer chance. Yet I must admit that the doctrine
seems to hold good for the quantum-theoretical models which have been
designed to explain, or at least to illustrate, the possibility of human freedom.
This seems to be the reason why these models are so very unsatisfactory. [78]
Hume's and Schlick's ontological thesis that there cannot exist anything
intermediate between chance and determinism seems to me not only highly
dogmatic (not to say doctrinaire) but clearly absurd; and it is understandable
only on the assumption that they believed in a complete determinism in
which chance has no status except as a symptom of our ignorance. [79]
Popper called not for something between chance and necessity but for a combination of
randomness and control to explain freedom, though not yet explicitly in two stages with random
chance before the controlled decision, saying, "freedom is not just chance but, rather, the result
of a subtle interplay between something almost random or haphazard, and something like a
restrictive or selective control." [80]
Then in his 1977 book with John Eccles, The Self and its Brain , Popper finally formulates the two-
stage model in a temporal sequence. And he compares free will to Darwinian evolution and
natural selection:
New ideas have a striking similarity to genetic mutations. Now, let us look for
a moment at genetic mutations. Mutations are, it seems, brought about by
quantum theoretical indeterminacy (including radiation effects). Accordingly,
they are also probabilistic and not in themselves originally selected or
adequate, but on them there subsequently operates natural selection which
eliminates inappropriate mutations. Now we could conceive of a similar
process with respect to new ideas and to free-will decisions, and similar
things.
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In an interview [33] that Popper gave in 1969 with the condition that it should be kept secret until
after his death, he summarised his position on God as follows: "I don't know whether God exists
or not. ... Some forms of atheism are arrogant and ignorant and should be rejected, but
agnosticism —to admit that we don't know and to search—is all right. ... When I look at what I
call the gift of life, I feel a gratitude which is in tune with some religious ideas of God. However,
the moment I even speak of it, I am embarrassed that I may do something wrong to God in
talking about God." He objected to organised religion, saying "it tends to use the name of God in
vain", noting the danger of fanaticism because of religious conflicts: "The whole thing goes back
to myths which, though they may have a kernel of truth, are untrue. Why then should the Jewish
myth be true and the Indian and Egyptian myths not be true?" In a letter unrelated to the
interview, he stressed his tolerant attitude: "Although I am not for religion, I do think that we
should show respect for anybody who believes honestly." [9] [82] [83]
Influencia
Popper in 1990
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While there is some dispute as to the matter of influence, Popper had a long-standing and close
friendship with economist Friedrich Hayek , who was also brought to the London School of
Economics from Vienna. Each found support and similarities in the other's work, citing each other
often, though not without qualification. In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have
learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski ." [85]
Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a
collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics , to Popper, and in 1982 said,
"...ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to
his general theory of methodology." [86]
Popper also had long and mutually influential friendships with art historian Ernst Gombrich ,
biologist Peter Medawar , and neuroscientist John Carew Eccles . The German jurist Reinhold
Zippelius uses Popper's method of "trial and error" in his legal philosophy. [87] Peter Medawar
called him "incomparably the greatest philosopher of science that has ever been". [88]
Popper's influence, both through his work in philosophy of science and through his political
philosophy, has also extended beyond the academy. One of Popper's students at the London
School of Economics was George Soros , who later became a billionaire investor, and among
whose philanthropic foundations is the Open Society Institute , a think-tank named in honour of
Popper's The Open Society and Its Enemies . [89]
Crítica
Most criticisms of Popper's philosophy are of the falsification , or error elimination, element in his
account of problem solving. Popper presents falsifiability as both an ideal and as an important
principle in a practical method of effective human problem solving; as such, the current
conclusions of science are stronger than pseudo-sciences or non-sciences , insofar as they have
survived this particularly vigorous selection method.
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He does not argue that any such conclusions are therefore true, or that this describes the actual
methods of any particular scientist. Rather, it is recommended as an essential principle of
methodology that, if enacted by a system or community, will lead to slow but steady progress of
a sort (relative to how well the system or community enacts the method). It has been suggested
that Popper's ideas are often mistaken for a hard logical account of truth because of the historical
co-incidence of their appearing at the same time as logical positivism , the followers of which
mistook his aims for their own. [90]
The Quine-Duhem thesis argues that it's impossible to test a single hypothesis on its own, since
each one comes as part of an environment of theories. Thus we can only say that the whole
package of relevant theories has been collectively falsified, but cannot conclusively say which
element of the package must be replaced. An example of this is given by the discovery of the
planet Neptune : when the motion of Uranus was found not to match the predictions of Newton's
laws, the theory "There are seven planets in the solar system" was rejected, and not Newton's
laws themselves. Popper discussed this critique of naïve falsificationism in Chapters 3 and 4 of
The Logic of Scientific Discovery . For Popper, theories are accepted or rejected via a sort of
selection process. Theories that say more about the way things appear are to be preferred over
those that do not; the more generally applicable a theory is, the greater its value. Thus Newton's
laws, with their wide general application, are to be preferred over the much more specific "the
solar system has seven planets".
The philosopher Thomas Kuhn writes in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) that he
places an emphasis on anomalous experiences similar to that Popper places on falsification.
However, he adds that anomalous experiences cannot be identified with falsification, and
questions whether theories could be falsified in the manner suggested by Popper. [91] Kuhn
argues in The Essential Tension (1977) that while Popper was correct that psychoanalysis cannot
be considered a science, there are better reasons for drawing that conclusion than those Popper
provided. [92] Popper's student Imre Lakatos attempted to reconcile Kuhn's work with
falsificationism by arguing that science progresses by the falsification of research programs rather
than the more specific universal statements of naïve falsificationism. Another of Popper's
students Paul Feyerabend ultimately rejected any prescriptive methodology, and argued that the
only universal method characterising scientific progress was anything goes .
Popper claimed to have recognised already in the 1934 version of his Logic of Discovery a fact
later stressed by Kuhn, "that scientists necessarily develop their ideas within a definite theoretical
framework", and to that extent to have anticipated Kuhn's central point about "normal science".
[93] (But Popper criticised what he saw as Kuhn's relativism. [94] ) Also, in his collection Conjectures
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and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (Harper & Row, 1963), Popper writes, "Science
must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths; neither with the collection of
observations, nor with the invention of experiments, but with the critical discussion of myths, and
of magical techniques and practices. The scientific tradition is distinguished from the pre-
scientific tradition in having two layers. Like the latter, it passes on its theories; but it also passes
on a critical attitude towards them. The theories are passed on, not as dogmas, but rather with
the challenge to discuss them and improve upon them."
In Science Versus Crime , Houck writes [96] that Popper's falsificationism can be questioned
logically: it is not clear how Popper would deal with a statement like "for every metal, there is a
temperature at which it will melt." The hypothesis cannot be falsified by any possible observation,
for there will always be a higher temperature than tested at which the metal may in fact melt, yet
it seems to be a valid scientific hypothesis. These examples were pointed out by Carl Gustav
Hempel . Hempel came to acknowledge that Logical Positivism's verificationism was untenable,
but argued that falsificationism was equally untenable on logical grounds alone. The simplest
response to this is that, because Popper describes how theories attain, maintain and lose
scientific status, individual consequences of currently accepted scientific theories are scientific in
the sense of being part of tentative scientific knowledge, and both of Hempel's examples fall
under this category. For instance, atomic theory implies that all metals melt at some temperature.
The philosopher Adolf Grünbaum argues in The Foundations of Psychoanalysis (1984) that
Popper's view that psychoanalytic theories, even in principle, cannot be falsified is incorrect. [98]
The philosopher Roger Scruton argues in Sexual Desire (1986) that Popper was mistaken to claim
that Freudian theory implies no testable observation and therefore does not have genuine
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predictive power. Scruton maintains that Freudian theory has both "theoretical terms" and
"empirical content." He points to the example of Freud's theory of repression , which in his view
has "strong empirical content" and implies testable consequences. Nevertheless, Scruton also
concluded that Freudian theory is not genuinely scientific. [99] Charles Taylor accuses Popper of
exploiting his worldwide fame as an epistemologist to diminish the importance of philosophers
of the 20th-century continental tradition . According to Taylor, Popper's criticisms are completely
baseless, but they are received with an attention and respect that Popper's "intrinsic worth hardly
merits". [100]
The philosopher John Gray writes in Straw Dogs (2003) that Popper's account of scientific method
would have prevented the theories of Charles Darwin and Albert Einstein from being accepted.
[101]
The philosopher and psychologist Michel ter Hark writes in Popper, Otto Selz and the rise of
evolutionary epistemology (2004) that Popper took some of his ideas from his tutor, the German
psychologist Otto Selz . Selz never published his ideas, partly because of the rise of Nazism ,
which forced him to quit his work in 1933, and the prohibition of referring to Selz' work. Popper,
the historian of ideas and his scholarship, is criticised in some academic quarters for his rejection
of Plato, Hegel and Marx. [102]
Bibliografía
The Two Fundamental Problems of the Theory of Knowledge , 1930–33 (as a typescript circulating as Die
beiden Grundprobleme der Erkenntnistheorie ; as a German book 1979, as English translation 2008), ISBN
0-415-39431-7
The Logic of Scientific Discovery , 1934 (as Logik der Forschung , English translation 1959), ISBN
0-415-27844-9
The Poverty of Historicism , 1936 (private reading at a meeting in Brussels, 1944/45 as a series of journal
articles in Econometrica , 1957 a book), ISBN 0-415-06569-0
The Open Society and Its Enemies , 1945 Vol 1 ISBN 0-415-29063-5 , Vol 2 ISBN 0-415-29063-5
Quantum Theory and the Schism in Physics , 1956/57 (as privately circulated galley proofs; published as a
book 1982), ISBN 0-415-09112-8
The Open Universe: An Argument for Indeterminism , 1956/57 (as privately circulated galley proofs;
published as a book 1982), ISBN 0-415-07865-2
Realism and the Aim of Science , 1956/57 (as privately circulated galley proofs; published as a book 1983),
ISBN 0-09-151450-9
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Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge , 1963, ISBN 0-415-04318-2
Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach , 1972, Rev. ed., 1979, ISBN 0-19-875024-2
Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography , 2002 [1976]. ISBN 0-415-28589-5 ( ISBN 0-415-28590-9 )
The Self and Its Brain: An Argument for Interactionism (with Sir John C. Eccles), 1977, ISBN 0-415-05898-8
Die Zukunft ist offen ( The Future is Open ) (with Konrad Lorenz ), 1985 (in German), ISBN 3-492-00640-X
The Lesson of this Century , (Interviewer: Giancarlo Bosetti, English translation: Patrick Camiller), 1992, ISBN
0-415-12958-3
The Myth of the Framework: In Defence of Science and Rationality (edited by Mark Amadeus Notturno)
1994. ISBN 0-415-13555-9
Knowledge and the Mind-Body Problem: In Defence of Interaction (edited by Mark Amadeus Notturno)
1994 ISBN 0-415-11504-3
The World of Parmenides , Essays on the Presocratic Enlightenment, 1998, (Edited by Arne F. Petersen with
the assistance of Jørgen Mejer), ISBN 0-415-17301-9
After The Open Society , 2008. (Edited by Jeremy Shearmur and Piers Norris Turner, this volume contains a
large number of Popper's previously unpublished or uncollected writings on political and social themes.)
ISBN 978-0-415-30908-0
Frühe Schriften , 2006 (Edited by Troels Eggers Hansen, includes Popper's writings and publications from
before the Logic , including his previously unpublished thesis, dissertation and journal articles published
that relate to the Wiener Schulreform) ISBN 978-3-16-147632-7
Filmografía
Ver también
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Referencias
2. Thornton, Stephen (1 January 2015). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Karl Popper (Winter 2015 ed.).
"Popper professes to be anti-conventionalist, and his commitment to the correspondence
theory of truth places him firmly within the realist's camp".
5. Hacohen, Malachi Haim (2000). Karl Popper – The Formative Years, 1902–1945: Politics and
Philosophy in Interwar Vienna . Prensa de la Universidad de Cambridge. pp. 83–85.
6. Thomas S. Kuhn (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions . Chicago and London:
University of Chicago Press (2nd ed.). pag. 146.
9. Miller, D. (1997). "Sir Karl Raimund Popper, CH, FBA 28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994.:
Elected FRS 1976". Memorias biográficas de los miembros de la Royal Society . 43 : 369–409.
doi : 10.1098/rsbm.1997.0021 .
10. Adams, I.; Dyson, RW (2007). Fifty Major Political Thinkers . Routledge. pag. 196. "He
became a British citizen in 1945".
11. Karl Raimund Popper 1902–1994 John Watkins , Proceedings of the British Academy ,
Volume 94: 1996 Lectures and Memoirs . pp. 645-684 (1997)
12. Watkins, John (1 December 1994). "Karl Popper (1902–1994)" . The British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science . 45 (4): 1089–1090. doi : 10.1093/bjps/45.4.1089 . ISSN 0007-0882
.
13. "Karl Popper (1902–94) advocated by Andrew Marr" . BBC In Our Time – Greatest
Philosopher. Retrieved January 2015.
14. Thornton, Stephen (1 January 2015). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Karl Popper (Winter 2015 ed.).
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15. Horgan, J (1992). "Profile: Karl R. Popper – The Intellectual Warrior". Científico
estadounidense . 267 (5): 38–44. Bibcode : 1992SciAm.267e..38H . doi :
10.1038/scientificamerican1192-38 .
17. William W. Bartley (1964). "Rationality versus the Theory of Rationality" . In Mario Bunge:
The Critical Approach to Science and Philosophy (The Free Press of Glencoe). Section IX.
18. Malachi Haim Hacohen. Karl Popper – The Formative Years, 1902–1945: Politics and
Philosophy in Interwar Vienna. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. pp. 10 & 23,
ISBN 0-521-47053-6
19. Magee, Bryan . The Story of Philosophy. New York: DK Publishing , 2001. p. 221, ISBN
0-7894-3511-X
20. "Eichstätter Karl Popper-Seite" . Helmut-zenz.de. Archived from the original on 10 June
2013 . Consultado el 21 de diciembre de 2012 .
21. Karl Popper: Kritischer Rationalismus und Verteidigung der offenen Gesellschaft. In Josef
Rattner, Gerhard Danzer (Eds.): Europäisches Österreich: Literatur- und geistesgeschichtliche
Essays über den Zeitraum 1800–1980 , p. 293
24. Raphael, F. The Great Philosophers London: Phoenix, p. 447, ISBN 0-7538-1136-7
25. Manfred Lube: Karl R. Popper – Die Bibliothek des Philosophen als Spiegel seines Lebens .
Imprimátur. Ein Jahrbuch für Bücherfreunde. Neue Folge Band 18 (2003), S. 207–38, ISBN
3-447-04723-2 .
26. "Cf. Thomas Sturm: "Bühler and Popper: Kantian therapies for the crisis in psychology," in:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences , 43 (2012), pp.
462–72" . Consultado el 21 de diciembre de 2012 .
27. AC Ewing was responsible for Karl Popper's 1936 invitation to Cambridge (Edmonds and
Eidinow 2001, p. 67).
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28. "Sir Karl Popper Is Dead at 92. Philosopher of 'Open Society ' " . El New York Times . 18
September 1994 . Consultado el 15 de noviembre de 2012 . "Sir Karl Popper, a philosopher
who was a defender of democratic systems of government, died today in a hospital here. He
was 92. He died of complications of cancer, pneumonia and kidney failure, said a manager
at the hospital in this London suburb."
32. "The Karl Popper Charitable Trust" . OpenCharities. 10 de septiembre de 2012 . Consultado
el 21 de diciembre de 2012 .
33. Edward Zerin: Karl Popper On God: The Lost Interview. Skeptic 6 :2 (1998)
37. País, Ediciones El (24 May 1989). "Karl Popper recoge hoy en Barcelona el Premi
Internacional Catalunya" . El País .
38. "Karl Raimund Popper" . Inamori Foundation. Archivado desde el original el 23 de mayo
de 2013 . Consultado el 9 de junio de 2012 .
39. Ian Charles Jarvie; Karl Milford; David W. Miller (2006). Karl Popper: A Centenary
Assessment Volume I . Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 129–. ISBN 978-0-7546-5375-2 .
40. Malachi Haim Hacohen (4 March 2002). Karl Popper. The Formative Years. 1902–1945:
Politics and Philosophy in Interwar Vienna . Prensa de la Universidad de Cambridge. pag.
81. ISBN 978-0-521-89055-7 .
42. One of the severest critics of Popper's so-called demarcation thesis was Adolf Grünbaum ,
cf. Is Falsifiability the Touchstone of Scientific Rationality? (1976), and The Degeneration of
Popper's Theory of Demarcation (1989), both in his Collected Works (edited by Thomas
Kupka), vol. I, New York: Oxford University Press 2013, ch. 1 (pp. 9–42) & ch. 2 (pp. 43–61).
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43. Popper, Karl Raimond (1994). The myth of the framework: in defence of science and
rationality . Editor:Mark Amadeus Notturno. Routledge. pp. 2-3. ISBN 9781135974800 .
44. De Bruin, Boudewijn. "Popper's Conception of the Rationality Principle in the Social
Sciences" . Consultado el 26 de abril de 2018 .
45. Popper, Karl (1962). Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge .
London and New York: Basic Books, Publishers. pag. 42) Retrieved 25 April 2019 – via
Internet Archive.
46. Popper, Karl Raimund (1946) Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume XX.
47. Gregory, Frank Hutson (1996) Arithmetic and Reality: A Development of Popper's Ideas . City
University of Hong Kong. Republished in Philosophy of Mathematics Education Journal No.
26 (December 2011).
49. Hacohen, Malachi Haim (4 March 2002). Karl Popper - the Formative Years, 1902-1945:
Politics and Philosophy in Interwar Vienna . pag. 82. ISBN 9780521890557 . Consultado el
12 de agosto de 2014 .
50. Popper, Karl (15 April 2013). All Life is Problem Solving . ISBN 9781135973056 . Consultado
el 12 de agosto de 2014 .
51. Popper, Karl R. ([1976] 2002). Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography , pp. 32 -37
52. Daniel Stedman Jones (2014), Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of
Neoliberal Politics , p. 40: "Popper argued that some socialists ought to be invited to
participate."
53. The Open Society and Its Enemies: The Spell of Plato by Karl Raimund Popper, Volume 1,
1947, George Routledge & sons, ltd., p. 226, Notes to chapter 7: https://archive.org/details
/opensocietyandit033120mbp ,
54. The Open Society and Its Enemies: The Spell of Plato , by Karl Raimund Popper, Princeton
University Press, 1971, ISBN 0-691-01968-1 , p. 265
55. The Open Society And Its Enemies, Complete: Volumes I and II , Karl R. Popper, 1962, Fifth
edition (revised), 1966, ( PDF )
57. Williams, Liz (10 September 2012). "Karl Popper, the enemy of certainty, part 1: a rejection
of empiricism" . El guardián Consultado el 22 de febrero de 2014 .
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58. Karl Popper, Three Worlds, The Tanner Lecture on Human Values, The University of Michigan,
1978.
63. Ayala, Francisco; Ayala, Francisco José; Ayala, Francisco Jose; Dobzhansky, Theodosius
(1974). Studies in the Philosophy of Biology: Reduction and Related Problems . ISBN
9780520026490 . Retrieved 18 October 2015 .
64. Radnitzky, Gerard; Popper, Karl Raimund (1987). Evolutionary Epistemology, Rationality,
and the Sociology of Knowledge . ISBN 9780812690392 . Consultado el 12 de agosto de
2014 .
69. Niemann, Hans-Joachim: Karl Popper and the Two New Secrets of Life: Including Karl
Popper's Medawar Lecture 1986 and Three Related Texts. Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014.
ISBN 978-3161532078 .
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70. For a secondary source see H. Keuth: The philosophy of Karl Popper , section 15.3 "World 3
and emergent evolution". See also John Watkins: Popper and Darwinism. The Power of
Argumentation (Ed Enrique Suárez Iñiguez). Primary sources are, in particular,
Objective Knowledge: An evolutionary approach , section "Evolution and the Tree of
Knowledge";
In search of a better world , section "Knowledge and the shaping of rationality: the
search for a better world", p. dieciséis;
Knowledge and the Body-Mind Problem: In Defence of Interaction , section "World 3 and
emergent evolution";
The Self and Its Brain: An Argument for Interactionism (with John C. Eccles), sections "The
biological approach to human knowledge and intelligence" and "The biological function
of conscious and intelligent activity".
72. K. Popper: Objective Knowledge , section "Evolution and the Tree of Knowledge", subsection
"Addendum. The Hopeful Behavioural Monster" (p. 281)
74. Michel Ter Hark: Popper, Otto Selz and the Rise Of Evolutionary Epistemology , pp. 184 ff
76. Section XVIII, chapter "Of Clouds and Clocks" of Objective Knowledge .
77. Popper, KR "Of Clouds and Clocks," in his Objective Knowledge, corrected edition, pp.
206–55, Oxford, Oxford University Press (1973), p. 231 footnote 43, & p. 252; also Popper, KR
"Natural Selection and the Emergence of Mind" , 1977.
78. Popper, KR "Of Clouds and Clocks," in: Objective Knowledge , corrected edition, p. 227,
Oxford, Oxford University Press (1973). Popper's Hume quote is from Treatise on Human
Understanding , (see note 8) Book I, Part I, Section XIV, p. 171
79. Of Clouds and Clocks , in Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach , Oxford (1972) pp.
227 ff.
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81. Eccles, John C. and Karl Popper. The Self and Its Brain: An Argument for Interactionism,
Routledge (1984)
83. See also Karl Popper: On freedom. All life is problem solving (1999), chapter 7, pp. 81 ff
84. Kadvany, John (2001). Imre Lakatos and the Guises of Reason . Duke University Press Books.
pag. 400. ISBN 978-0-8223-2660-1 . Retrieved 22 January 2016 . Site on Lakatos/Popper
John Kadvany, PhD
87. Reinhold Zippelius, Die experimentierende Methode im Recht , 1991 ( ISBN 3-515-05901-6 ),
and Rechtsphilosophie , 6th ed., 2011 ( ISBN 978-3-406-61191-9 )
89. Soros, George (2006). The Age of Fallibility . NY: Public Affairs. págs. 16-18.
91. Kuhn, Thomas (2012). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 50th Anniversary Edition .
Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 145-146.
92. Kuhn, Thomas S. (1977). The Essential Tension: Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change .
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pag. 274.
93. KR Popper (1970), "Normal Science and its Dangers", pp. 51–58 in I Lakatos & A Musgrave
(eds.) (1970) , at p. 51 .
95. Popper, Karl, (1934) Logik der Forschung , Springer. Vienna. Amplified English edition, Popper
(1959), ISBN 0-415-27844-9
96. Houck, Max M., Science Versus Crime , Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. sesenta y cinco
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99. Scruton, Roger (1994). Sexual Desire: A Philosophical Investigation . Londres: Phoenix. pag.
201
101. Gray, John (2002). Straw Dogs . Granta Books, London. pag. 22. ISBN 978-1-86207-512-2 .
102. See: "Popper is committing a serious historical error in attributing the organic theory of the
state to Plato and accusing him of all the fallacies of post-Hegelian and Marxist
historicism—the theory that history is controlled by the inexorable laws governing the
behavior of superindividual social entities of which human beings and their free choices are
merely subordinate manifestations." Plato's Modern Enemies and the Theory of Natural Law ,
by John Wild, Chicago, 1964, The University of Chicago Press, 23. See Also: "In spite of the
high rating one must accord his initial intention of fairness, his hatred for the enemies of the
'open society,' his zeal to destroy whatever seems to him destructive of the welfare of
mankind, has led him into the extensive use of what may be called terminological
counterpropaganda ..." and "With a few exceptions in Popper's favor, however, it is
noticeable that reviewers possessed of special competence in particular fields—and here
Lindsay is again to be included—have objected to Popper's conclusions in those very fields
..." and "Social scientists and social philosophers have deplored his radical denial of
historical causation, together with his espousal of Hayek's systematic distrust of larger
programs of social reform; historical students of philosophy have protested his violent
polemical handling of Plato, Aristotle, and particularly Hegel; ethicists have found
contradictions in the ethical theory ('critical dualism') upon which his polemic is largely
based." In Defense of Plato , by Ronald B. Levinson , New York, 1970, Russell and Russell, 20.
Lecturas adicionales
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Watkins, John WN . Science and Scepticism. Preface & Contents. Princeton 1984 (Princeton University
Press). ISBN 978-0-09-158010-0
Jarvie, Ian Charles , Karl Milford, David W. Miller, ed. (2006) Karl Popper: A Centenary Assessment , Ashgate.
Volume I: Life and Times, and Values in a World of Facts . Description & Contents.
Volume II: Metaphysics and Epistemology Description & Contents.
Volume III: Science . Description & Contents.
Bailey, Richard, Education in the Open Society: Karl Popper and Schooling . Aldershot, UK: Ashgate 2000.
The only book-length examination of Popper's relevance to education.
Bartley, William Warren III . Unfathomed Knowledge, Unmeasured Wealth . La Salle, IL: Open Court Press
1990. A look at Popper and his influence by one of his students.
Berkson, William K., and Wettersten, John. Learning from Error: Karl Popper's Psychology of Learning . La
Salle, IL: Open Court 1984
Cornforth, Maurice. (1977): The open philosophy and the open society , 2., (rev.) ed., Lawrence & Wishart,
London. ISBN 0-85315-384-1 . The fundamental critique from the Marxist standpoint.
Edmonds, D., Eidinow, J. Wittgenstein's Poker . New York: Ecco 2001. A review of the origin of the conflict
between Popper and Ludwig Wittgenstein , focused on events leading up to their volatile first encounter
at 1946 Cambridge meeting.
Feyerabend, Paul Against Method . London: New Left Books, 1975. A polemical, iconoclastic book by a
former colleague of Popper's. Vigorously critical of Popper's rationalist view of science.
Hacohen, M. Karl Popper: The Formative Years, 1902–1945 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Hickey, J. Thomas. History of the Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Science Book V, Karl Popper And
Falsificationist Criticism. www.philsci.com . 1995
Kadvany, John Imre Lakatos and the Guises of Reason . Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2001.
ISBN 0-8223-2659-0 . Explains how Imre Lakatos developed Popper's philosophy into a historicist and
critical theory of scientific method.
Keuth, Herbert. The Philosophy of Karl Popper . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. An accurate
scholarly overview of Popper's philosophy, ideal for students.
Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. Central
to contemporary philosophy of science is the debate between the followers of Kuhn and Popper on the
nature of scientific enquiry. This is the book in which Kuhn's views received their classical statement.
Lakatos, I & Musgrave, A (eds.) (1970), Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge , Cambridge (Cambridge
University Press). ISBN 0-521-07826-1
Levinson, Paul , ed. In Pursuit of Truth: Essays on the Philosophy of Karl Popper on the Occasion of his 80th
Birthday. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1982. ISBN 0-391-02609-7 A collection of essays on
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Popper's thought and legacy by a wide range of his followers. With forewords by Isaac Asimov and
Helmut Schmidt. Includes an interview with Sir Ernst Gombrich .
Lindh, Allan Goddard (11 November 1993). "Did Popper solve Hume's problem?". Nature . 366 (6451):
105–06. Bibcode : 1993Natur.366..105G . doi : 10.1038/366105a0 .
Magee, Bryan. Popper . London: Fontana, 1977. An elegant introductory text. Very readable, albeit rather
uncritical of its subject, by a former Member of Parliament.
Magee, Bryan. Confessions of a Philosopher , Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997. Magee's philosophical
autobiography, with a chapter on his relations with Popper. More critical of Popper than in the previous
reference.
Maxwell, Nicholas , Karl Popper, Science and Enlightenment , London, UCL Press, 2017. An exposition
and development of Popper's philosophy of science and social philosophy, available free online.
Munz, Peter. Beyond Wittgenstein's Poker: New Light on Popper and Wittgenstein Aldershot, Hampshire,
UK: Ashgate, 2004. ISBN 0-7546-4016-7 . Written by the only living student of both Wittgenstein and
Popper, an eyewitness to the famous "poker" incident described above (Edmunds & Eidinow). Attempts to
synthesize and reconcile the differences between these two philosophers.
Notturno, Mark Amadeus. "Objectivity, Rationality, and the Third Realm: Justification and the Grounds of
Psychologism". Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 1985.
Notturno, Mark Amadeus. On Popper . Wadsworth Philosophers Series. 2003. A very comprehensive book
on Popper's philosophy by an accomplished Popperian.
Notturno, Mark Amadeus. "Science and the Open Society". New York: CEU Press, 2000.
O'Hear, Anthony. Karl Popper . London: Routledge, 1980. A critical account of Popper's thought, viewed
from the perspective of contemporary analytic philosophy.
Parusniková, Zuzana & Robert S. Cohen (2009). Rethinking Popper . Description and contents.
Saltador.
Radnitzky, Gerard, Bartley, WW III eds. Evolutionary Epistemology, Rationality, and the Sociology of
Knowledge . LaSalle, IL: Open Court Press 1987. ISBN 0-8126-9039-7 . A strong collection of essays by
Popper, Campbell, Munz, Flew, et al., on Popper's epistemology and critical rationalism. Includes a
particularly vigorous answer to Rorty's criticisms.
Richmond, Sheldon. Aesthetic Criteria: Gombrich and the Philosophies of Science of Popper and Polanyi .
Rodopi, Amsterdam/Atlanta, 1994, 152 pp. ISBN 90-5183-618-X .
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Schilpp, Paul A. , ed. The Philosophy of Karl Popper . Description and contents . Chicago, IL: Open
Court Press, 1974. One of the better contributions to the Library of Living Philosophers series. Contains
Popper's intellectual autobiography (v. I, pp. 2–184, also as a 1976 book ), a comprehensive range of
critical essays, and Popper's responses to them. ISBN 0-87548-141-8 (vol.I). ISBN 0-87548-142-6 (Vol II)
Schroeder-Heister, P. "Popper, Karl Raimund (1902–94)," International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences , 2001, pp. 11727–11733. Resumen.
Shearmur, Jeremy . The Political Thought of Karl Popper . London and New York: Routledge, 1996. Study of
Popper's political thought by a former assistant of Popper's. Makes use of archive sources and studies the
development of Popper's political thought and its inter-connections with his epistemology.
Shearmur, Jeremy (2008). "Popper, Karl (1902–1994)" . En Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). Karl Popper
(1902–1994) . La enciclopedia del libertarismo . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE ; Instituto Cato . pp. 380–81. doi :
10.4135/9781412965811.n234 . ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4 . LCCN 2008009151 . OCLC 750831024 .
Stokes, G. Popper: Philosophy, Politics and Scientific Method . Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998. A very
comprehensive, balanced study, which focuses largely on the social and political side of Popper's thought.
Stove, DC , Popper and After : Four Modern Irrationalists . Oxford: Pérgamo. 1982. A vigorous attack,
especially on Popper's restricting himself to deductive logic.
Tausch, Arno (2015). "Towards New Maps of Global Human Values, Based on World Values Survey (6)
Data". doi : 10.2139/ssrn.2587626 . SSRN 2587626 .
Weimer, W., Palermo, D., eds. Cognition and the Symbolic Processes . Hillsdale, Nueva Jersey: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates. 1982. See Hayek's essay, " The Sensory Order after 25 Years", and "Discussion".
Zippelius, Reinhold, Die experimentierende Methode im Recht , Akademie der Wissenschaften Mainz. –
Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1991, ISBN 3-515-05901-6
Enlaces externos
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Singer, Peter (2 May 1974), "Discovering Karl Popper" , The New York Review of Books , 21 (7) ,
retrieved 21 January 2016
History of Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Science , BOOK V: Karl Popper Site offers free
downloads by chapter available for public use.
A science and technology hypotheses database following Karl Popper's refutability principle
Popper , BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Worrall, Anthony O'Hear & Nancy Cartwright ( In
Our Time , Feb. 8, 2007)
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