NATURE OF RELIGION AND BELIEFS

The Nature of Religion

Religion as a ❖ Supernatural dimension: Implies a foundation on a divine revelation or

worldview that revealed faith.
- Acknowledge ❖ Religion acknowledges the supernatural dimension
s the ➢ Belief in a divine being or powers either
supernatural ■ Beyond the individual
dimension ■ Inside the individual
- Has a belief in
a divine being ❖ Transcendent religious worldview: Holds beliefs in a divine power or
or powers power beyond the human dimension
beyond the ➢ Belief in the one god
human and/or ➢ Guides humanity through existence.
dwelling ■ E.g (Semitic faiths):
within the ● Judaism
individual ● Christianity
● Islam

❖ Immanent religious worldview: Belief in a divine being or powers dwelling

within the individual
➢ No belief in a god
■ Instead, overall goal or principal
➢ Reincarnation - gaining of wisdom through several lives.
■ E.g (Indian religions):
● Hinduism
● Buddhism

Characteristics of ❖ Beliefs and believers: Key values of a religion

religion ➢ Sustains a religion
- Beliefs and
believers ❖ Sacred texts and writings: Beliefs are contained within a text.
- Sacred texts ➢ Connects individuals to the supernatural dimension
and writings ➢ All religions have oral and/or written sacred texts
- Ethics
- Rituals and ❖ Ethics: Philosophical or religious reflection on moral beliefs
ceremonies ➢ Moral decision making - What is right and wrong

❖ Rituals and ceremonies: Series of actions and beliefs that took place
➢ Understanding/link to the supernatural

Ways in which a living, dynamic religion is created

❖ Characterised by energy, ambition and new ideas
❖ If religion is not revitalised - stagnates

Contribution of religion to:

❖ Individuals
➢ Personal search for meaning
■ Religion provides answers about origin of life
■ Turned to during time of crisis
➢ Ethical guidance
■ Moral decision making
 ■ Viewpoint in various concerns
● E.g. bioethics, sexual morality, unequal distribution
of wealth
➢ Sense of belonging
■ Sense of community
■ Unites people of similar values and ideals
● Able to express values in supportive environment
➢ Ritual meaning
■ Marks important stages of human experience
■ Ceremonies mark events

❖ Society and culture

➢ Culture
■ Religion expressed through cultural setting
■ Strong influence on culture (dynamic nature)

Australian Aboriginal Beliefs and Spiritualities - The Dreaming

Nature of the ❖ Aboriginal spirituality:

Dreaming ➢ Belief that all objects are living and share the same soul or spirit
■ Kinship with the environment
➢ The soul with return to the Dreamtime and eventually return
through birth
❖ Dreamtime = environment the Aborigines lived in

Nature of the Dreaming

❖ Origins of the universe
➢ Before the Dreaming, there was a pre-existing, formless
substance
■ Ancestor beings existed here
● Appeared in human or animal forms
● Model for living
■ Came from the water and land
■ Travelled over the earth and formed the earth, rocks,
waterholes and other phenomena

❖ Sacred sites
➢ Natural land formations where Ancestral Beings rested after
interactions with creation
■ Reminders of associations with the land
■ Beings are still present in the forms they changed into at
the end of the dreaming
➢ Belief that the past is alive
➢ Responsibilities were linked to the land
■ Totemic relationships
■ Custodial maintenance of sacred sites
■ Rituals and ceremonies held at certain times each year
➢ Custodians/Elders were responsible for sacred sites and objects
■ Encouraged Spirits to continue living there
■ Passed on history and cultural details

❖ Stories of the dreaming

➢ Stories are integral to an individual’s ‘Dreaming’
 ■ Origin of Uluru - the Rainbow Serpent
■ Provides an identity
■ Keeps their culture alive
➢ Part of their education
■ Explains origin of the land, how to behave, etc
■ Provides guidance
➢ Adults pass down stories to younger generations
➢ Cover various themes and topics
➢ Embedded with lore

❖ Symbolism and art

➢ E.g. cave paintings, daily objects (boomerangs) and sacred
objects for rituals
➢ Expression of belief
➢ Representation of their origins/creation
➢ Connection to the Dreaming
■ Part of rituals
■ Connection to the journeys of Ancestral Beings
➢ Art, stories, songs, sacred objects and ceremonies are important
to their belief
■ Not separate from it
➢ Ceremonies

Diversity of the Dreaming

❖ Is a unifying element to their spirituality
❖ Aspects of the Dreaming vary in regions
➢ Different = diverse
➢ Includes:
■ Stories
■ Rituals
■ Totems
■ language

Importance of the Dreaming to their lives

❖ Is reality itself - linked to their identity
❖ Links past and present to their daily and ritual life
❖ Expressed through story, song, art, dance
❖ Connection to the land
❖ Guidance on how to live and act
❖ Connection to a form of life - totems
❖ Educates children on cultures and beliefs
❖ Determines values and beliefs + relationships with the land and
living things

The inextricable ❖ Inextricable: too closely linked to be separated

connection of the ❖ The Dreaming
Dreaming, the land ➢ Always present through the land
and identity ■ E.g. sacred sites, dreaming tracks
➢ Links all parts of the land
❖ The land
➢ Is sacred and alive
■ Presence of ancestral spirits
■ As long as the land lives, so too do the Ancestors
➢ Part of traditional spirituality
■ Part of their identity
■ Aborigines and the land were created by Ancestral Spirits
➢ United with humans through:
■ Ancestor spirits, kinship, totems, etc.
 RELIGIOUS TRADITIONAL STUDIES - JUDAISM

Origins

Abraham and the Life of Abraham

Covenant ❖ A leader, husband and father.
❖ Originally named Abram
❖ Founder of Judaism
❖ Made a covenant with God:
➢ Was asked by God to change his name to Abraham as a sign of
their covenant
■ His wife Sarah changed her name from Sarai
➢ Was told to leave their home and travel to Canaan
■ When they arrived, he built an altar for God
➢ Covenant of circumcision - told to circumcise every Jewish son
when they are 8 days old
➢ Was told by God to sacrifice his first son, Isaac
■ Was obedient and prepared to do so until an angel stopped
him
● He had proved his faith to God, and would therefore
have as many descendants as there are stars in the
sky

❖ Isaac married rebekah and had Jacob.

❖ Abraham’s family was promised land that was passed down

The Covenant and Patriarchs

❖ Patriarchs: Fathers of Judaism
➢ First patriarchs:
■ Abraham, Isaac and Jacob
● Jacob changed his name to Israel
■ Fulfill the Covenant
❖ Covenant: An agreement made between two or more people, usually
involving God.
➢ Relationship where the Hebrews live according to God’s law in
return for his blessing and protection
❖ Abraham’s covenant with God
➢ To keep the Covenant throughout the ages, was told to circumcise
every son.

Moses, the Exodus Story of the Exodus

and the giving of the ❖ The Exodus → Hebrews being liberated
Torah ❖ Hebrews (Israelites) were enslaved in Egypt by the Pharaoh
❖ The Pharaoh ordered the execution of any male born child of the Hebrews
➢ Moses was born at this time
➢ Was adopted by the Pharaoh’s daughter
❖ Moses fled Egypt after killing an Egyptian
➢ Encountered God - was told to free the Israelites
❖ Moses returned to Egypt and asked for the slaves to be freed - refused
❖ Returned with the threat of 9 plagues
➢ E.g. Water turned to blood, locus, etc.
❖ 10th plague - death of the first born
➢ Hebrew were to sacrifice a lamb and smear its blood on their doors
 ➢ Angel of the Lord passed over these houses
➢ Passover - Hebrew houses were passed over
❖ Hebrews were set free after this plague
➢ Escaped by the parting of the Red Sea

Giving of the law at Sinai - 10 commandments

❖ After liberation, The Israelites reached Mount Sinai
❖ Moses received the Law, including the 10 commandments, at Sinai
➢ Part of Sinai Law = the Torah
■ Includes 613 mitzvot
● Governs all aspects of Jewish life

Modern Judaism Progressive

- Conservative ❖ Aka Reform or Liberal Judaism
- Orthodox ❖ Developed in Germany - 1810
- Progressive ❖ Believe the Torah was written by divinely inspired human beings
➢ Not the word of God
❖ Rejected belief in:
➢ a personal Messiah
➢ resurrection of the dead
❖ Synagogues are known as temples
❖ Men and women together during worship
❖ Women can be ordained as rabbis
❖ Focuses on teachings of prophets rather than Moses

Conservative
❖ More traditional than progressive
❖ Prayers in English, while rest of the service is in Hebrew
❖ Believe the Torah and Talmud are of divine origin
❖ Believe the laws are constantly evolving and can be changed to suit
today’s needs
❖ Allows men + women to worship together
❖ Belief in zionism
➢ A movement towards to development and protection of a Jewish
state in Palestine
■ State of Israel - resulted in conflict between Israel and
Palestine.

Orthodox
❖ Believe the mitzvot are the will of God
❖ Worship in Hebrew
❖ Men and women separated during worship
❖ Strict dietary rules
❖ Strictly observe Sabbath
❖ Two groups:
➢ Ultra-Orthodox
■ Hasidic
■ Distinguishable dress - ghetto clothing
● long black coats, black hats and beards
■ Rejects modern world
● Maintain traditional beliefs
➢ Modern Orthodox
■ Immersed in today’s culture
■ Maintain observations of the Torah
 Principal beliefs

Belief in a single ❖ Belief in one god

God who is the ❖ Monotheistic - one God
creator and ruler of ➢ Eternal
the universe ➢ Personal
➢ Source of creation - created the universe and mankind
➢ Yahweh - unutterable name of God
■ Name is written as G-d rather than God
❖ The Jewish people are the chosen people
❖ The body + soul God’s holy gifts
❖ Intervenes in human history
➢ E.g. the Exodus
❖ Able to overcome anything

The concept of a Divinely inspired moral law

moral law ❖ Binds Jews to their God
prescribed by God ➢ Evident through the:
■ Torah
● Believed to contain the divinely inspired moral laws
■ 613 mitzvot
● Commandments found in the Torah
● Cover all aspect of life + worship
● 365 negative - what to restrain from
● 248 positive - rituals to express faithfulness
■ Women
● Exempt from some positive mitzvot
● Demonstrates role of both genders in the home +
synagogue
■ 10 commandments
● Outlines how individuals should interact in order to
not undermine one another’s dignity
❖ Guidelines to live in accordance to God
❖ Guides humanity in ethical choices
❖ Practical observance
➢ Practical religion
■ Lived though observance of God’s revealed law
➢ Law embedded in God’s revelation
■ Must study sources to understand responses to moral
questions

The idea of the ❖ Covenant: agreements between God and the Israelites
Covenant ➢ Cornerstone of Judaism
➢ Signifies relationship between God and his people
■ Proves God’s love for the chosen people
■ Proves his intervention in human history

❖ An obligation:
➢ Social responsibility - light to the rest of the world and Jews
➢ To show devotion and obedience to God
➢ To keep the Torah - fulfills requirements of the Covenant
➢ To act in God’s image
❖ Allows Jews the freedom to choose their destiny under the law, in
 exchange for their obedience
❖ Unites the Jewish population and provides sense of identity
❖ Circumcision - sign of the covenant

Sacred texts and writings

The Hebrew The Hebrew Bible

Scriptures ❖ The Tenach
- The Hebrew ❖ Recording of God’s words to the people of Israel
Bible ❖ Source of Jewish belief and practice
- The Talmud ❖ 3 sections:
➢ Torah
■ First 5 books - Pentateuch
● Books of law
■ Obligations in order to keep the Covenant
■ Embodies divine moral law - Halacha
● Collection of Jewish religious laws from the Written
and Oral Torah
■ Contains the mitzvot

➢ Nevi’im
■ The prophets
■ 8 books
■ Instructions regarding conduct and goals
■ Reminder of duties under the Covenant

➢ Ketuvim
■ Book of proverbs and other writings
■ 11 books
■ Moral and philosophical sayings
● Covers various subjects
■ Teaches and provokes thought
■ Used for festive or commemorative days

The Talmud
❖ Source of law and lore
❖ Includes stories, traditions, customs and laws that interpret the Torah
❖ 2 sections:
➢ Mishnah (repetition)
■ Opinions of the Tannaim (rabbis of 2nd C)
● Interpreted the Torah
■ 6 sections:
● Prayers and agriculture
● Shabbat and festivals
● Marriage + divorce
● Civil + criminal
● Temple
● Ritual cleanliness
➢ Gemara
■ Discussed by Amoraim rabbis
■ Questions and applications to contemporary situations
■ Appears same page as Mishnah
 Extracts demonstrating the principal beliefs
❖ One God
➢ Deuteronomy 6:4
■ “Hear O Israel: The Lord is our God, the Lord alone”
➢ Isaiah 45: 6
■ “There is no one else”

❖ Ethical monotheism
➢ Psalm 83:18
■ “You alone are the Lord, the most high over all the earth”
➢ Deuteronomy 5:11
■ “You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord
your God...”

❖ Covenant
➢ Genesis 17:4
■ “The father of a host of nations”
➢ 613 mitzvot
■ Requirements of keeping the covenant

Core Ethical teachings

The ❖ Provides ethical and moral teachings

Commandments of ❖ If Torah is mastered, the person becomes the embodiment of Torah
the Torah ❖ Mitzvot - how to live one’s life
➢ Guide to ethical conduct
➢ How to maintain the covenant
❖ 10 commandments - how to maintain a relationship with God and others
❖ Halacha - Jewish legal tradition grounded in the mitzvot
➢ Guides believers in right relationships with their God and
family/neighbours
➢ Teaches followers to understand and live by it
➢ Reveals Jewish ethical principles and moral values are the heart of
the religion
❖ Different from Aggadah
➢ The non-legal material of the rabbinic literature.
➢ Various forms e.g. stories, parables, prayers, etc.
➢ Used to explain the Halacha

The Prophetic Social justice and Tikkun Olam - repair of the world
vision ❖ Jewish commitment to social justice and order
❖ Partnership with God
➢ Established when he gave Moses the commandments
➢ When the process of repairing the world began
❖ Today, takes the form of:
➢ Volunteering time for the community
➢ Tzedakah
■ The giving away of material possession
● E.g. a coin
➢ Gemilut Chasidim
■ Deeds of loving kindness
■ The investment of one’s time and energy
The book of the ❖ Advice on how to live
Proverbs - wisdom, ❖ States that wisdom is needed for a virtuous life
righteousness, ➢ Wisdom comes from knowledge
purity and ❖ Wisdom of Proverbs connects with Torah
generosity of spirit ❖ Theme is universal: The wise shall be rewarded with happiness and the
foolish will reap the rewards of their short-sightedness

Importance of ethical teachings in the lives of adherents

❖ Offers ethical guidance on various issues
➢ Allows followers to make informed moral choices according to
principles of the tradition
❖ Halacha - guidance to determine the Torah
❖ Commandments and mitzvot:
■ Positive commandments - “to do”
■ Negative commandments - to refrain from
➢ Principles of righteousness, purity and justice
❖ Prophetic tradition - stresses importance of one’s contribution to the
world
➢ Importance of living a righteous life involving generosity of
spirit

Observance

Shabbat ❖ Day where one refrains from work activities

➢ Allows for reflection of the Jewish religion and their connection to
their God and family
❖ Work activities that can’t be conducted include:
➢ Cooking
➢ driving
➢ Turn lights on
➢ Write
❖ From sunset on Friday evening - the appearance of the 3rd star on
Saturday night.
❖ Preparations begin early - meals are cooked, etc
➢ Challah: special bread baked for the Shabbat
■ Loaves are placed on the Shabbat table and used in the
ritual
➢ Table is set with 2 candles, a glass of wine and 2 loaves of Challah

❖ Elements of the shabbat

➢ The shabbat begins when the candles are lit by the women
■ They then recite a blessing - fulfils mitzvah of lighting the
candles
➢ Evening service at the synagogue
➢ The husband blesses his wife and children
■ Recites kiddush over the wine cup
➢ The challah is distributed and a meal is eaten
■ Meal ends with a prayer (birkat ha-mazon)
➢ Saturday is spent at the synagogue and at home for quiet
reflection
■ E.g. resting, studying the Torah or visiting family
➢ Shabbat is closed with the havdalah prayer
❖ Reminder that creation is God’s gift
 CHRISTIANITY

Origins

The historical and ❖ Originates from Judaism

cultural context in ➢ Jews had been enslaved throughout history
which Christianity ➢ Homeland of the Jews was taken over by the Greek Empire
began ➢ Jews awaited the Messiah
■ Free them of oppression
➢ Sectarianism
❖ During Christ’s life, King Herod Antipas ruled Galilee
➢ Judea was controlled by Pontius Pilate (Roman)
❖ Roman government practised syncretism
➢ Acceptance of all religious beliefs and teachings
■ Clash with Jews - were monotheistic
● Believed in 2 types of people: Jews and Gentiles
(non-Jewish)
❖ Jewish governing system included:
➢ The Pharisees (the People’s party) - conformed to Jewish law
■ Didn’t believe Jesus was the Messiah
➢ Sadducees - wealthy leaders who rejected traditions in favor of
cooperation with the Romans
■ Wanted to preserve ancient Jewish traditions
❖ Population was heavily taxed - tax collectors were “traitors”

Jesus Christ Principal events of his life

Early Life
❖ Descendant of David
❖ Born to Mary + Joseph in Bethlehem
❖ Fled to Egypt with parents to escape King Herod
➢ Returned to Israel after Herod’s death
❖ Found in the temple after the passover
❖ Baptised in the River Jordan by John the Baptist

Public ministry
❖ Ministry began in Galilee
❖ Taught Beatitudes and commandment of love
❖ Performed miracles
➢ Healed, blessed and forgave
❖ Parables
❖ Prophesied himself as the messiah

Journey to death
❖ Fulfilled the scriptures
❖ Palm Sunday - journey to Jerusalem
❖ Last supper - passover with the disciples
❖ Betrayed by Judas and denied by Peter
❖ Crucified - 12 stations of the cross
➢ Dies due to his commitment to bless all people
❖ Was raised on the third day
 Model for Christian life
❖ His life demonstrates the way to live for God and others
❖ Life demonstrates way to eternal life through faithfulness
❖ Gives hope in forgiveness and an afterlife
❖ Was baptised
❖ Followed the scriptures
❖ Social prophet:
➢ Healed by touching those who were seen as unclean
➢ Spoke to women, affirmed Mary’s position as a disciple -
challenged taboos of his time
➢ Challenged the purity society - ate with tax collectors and “rejects”
of society
❖ Deep faith in the divine

The development of 4 major stages

early Christian ❖ Stage 1: Jesus’ death and resurrection
communities ➢ Announced at Pentecost
➢ Beginning of the Church
➢ Death, resurrection + ascension announced
➢ Jesus - Lord and Christ
➢ First Church members - Nazarenes
■ Baptised
■ Broke bread - Eucharist
■ Respect for Apostles’ teachings

❖ Stage 2: Church’s first lesson about expansion

➢ First break - gospel message not tied to Jerusalem
➢ Jews with aramaic background joined with Jews with Greek
background (Hellenist)
■ Conflict
■ Hellenists left Jerusalem
➢ Saul converted → Paul
■ Missionary
■ Helped spread Christianity

❖ Stage 3: Church’s second lesson

➢ Expansion + disagreement - Don’t need to be a Jew to be a
disciple
➢ Paul → Gospel was for all people
➢ Converted didn’t need to be Christian + Jewish
➢ Followers of Jesus were not Jews - not bound by Torah
➢ Christianity diverged from Judaism
➢ Church became universal

❖ Stage 4: The Church expands though Paul’s missionary journeys

➢ Took gospel to Asia + Europe
➢ Established Christian communities
➢ Wrote letters
■ Themes:
● Faith
◆ Salvation = God’s gift
● Grace
◆ God loves us so we become good
● Crucifixion
 ◆ Died for our sins
● Church = body of Christ
● Paul the Apostle

Christianity: ❖ Great schism - 1054

- Anglicanism ➢ Divided Church into:
- Catholicism ■ Christianity
- Orthodoxy ● Western Christian - Rome
- Pentecostalism ■ Orthodox
- Protestantism ● Eastern Christian- Constantinople
❖ Reformation - 16C
➢ Catholic Church split into:
■ Protestant Churches
● E.g. Lutherans, Baptists, Church of England, etc
■ Roman Catholic Churches

Christianity
❖ Anglicanism - Church of England
➢ Separation based on desires for divorce
➢ Progressive
➢ Female bishops
➢ Centrality of bible
➢ 2 sacraments - Baptism + holy communion
➢ 4 services - confirmation, marriage, ordination, funerals
❖ Catholicism
➢ Existed from time of Jesus
➢ Traditional
➢ Guidance of holy spirit

❖ Orthodoxy
➢ Immersion baptism
➢ Use of incense

❖ Pentecostalism
➢ Emphasis Holy Spirit’s gifts - Pentecost + Holy Spirit
➢ Sermons + Scripture
➢ Contemporary

❖ Protestantism
➢ Acknowledge baptism and eucharist as sacraments
➢ Clergy can marry

Principal beliefs

The divinity and ❖ Belief in the divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ
humanity of Jesus ❖ Completely human
Christ ❖ Fully divine
❖ Human person of Christ - through death and resurrection - reveals divine
person of God
❖ Equally both at the same time

The death and ❖ Importance of Jesus’ death + resurrection

resurrection of ➢ Jesus accepted himself to be the anointed one
Jesus Christ ■ Deliver of humankind
 ➢ Brings Atonement: Satisfying of God’s demand for justice
■ Brings humankind to a right relationship with God
➢ Hope for life after death
■ Eternal life
➢ Transhistorical event - occurs beyond limits of time, space and
human understanding

The nature of God ❖ Beliefs of the Holy Trinity

and the Trinity ➢ Central mystery of Christianity - beyond mystery
➢ Divine nature of God shared by 3 persons
■ When 1 acts, so too do the others
➢ Father + Son + Holy spirit
➢ God - Father/ creator
➢ Jesus

Revelation ❖ Understanding of Revelation

➢ Disclosure by God of what was previously unknown
➢ Christianity is a revealed religion:
■ God revealed through will + law to humanity
■ Recorded in Old Testament
■ Prophets spoke of the coming saving revelation
➢ Climax of God’s revelation - life of Jesus Christ + sending of the
Holy Spirit
■ Jesus = agent, process and content of God’s revelation

Salvation ❖ Understanding of Salvation

➢ Forgiveness of sins
➢ Belief that humans require deliverance by God from sin + darkness
■ Sin + darkness introduced due to actions of Adam and Eve
➢ Where humans are saved or brought to fullness of life by God
■ Sent his only son as Messiah
➢ Soul is the core of Christian spiritual life
■ Made in the image of God
■ Souls have inclination towards god
● Impaired by sin
■ Soul endures after death
➢ Grace of God needed for salvation
■ Merciful + forgiving
➢ Last judgement - Christ will come again
■ Second coming - judges all souls - will resurrect into final
state

Sacred texts and writings

Bible ❖ Collection of writings

➢ Divine and human origin
❖ Accepted as authoritative for belief + practice
❖ Aka Scripture or Holy Scripture
❖ Divided into:
➢ Old Testament - 39 books (Jewish tradition)
■ Jewish heritage
■ Jews are God’s chosen people
➢ New Testament - 27 books
■ Gospels
 ● Synoptic gospels
◆ Matthew, Mark + Luke
◆ Jesus’ public ministry
● John’s gospel
◆ Reflections of Jesus as the divine son
■ Acts of the Apostles
■ Letters of early followers of Jesus
■ Revelation of John
❖ No new writings can be added
❖ Importance
➢ Source of beliefs + practices - base
➢ Important in lives of believers
➢ Used in liturgy
➢ Guidelines for Christian behaviour
➢ Teaches nature of God’s ministry + Jesus’ teachings
➢ History
➢ Basis for moral + ethical principles
➢ Traditions
➢ Sense of purpose
➢ Hope for future
❖ Bible beliefs
➢ Jesus is the:
■ Lord
■ Wisdom of God
■ Son of man
➢ Jesus is conceived by the power of the Holy spirit
➢ Holy Spirit was poured out at Pentecost - birth of Church
❖ Everyday lives of believers
➢ Used in basic rituals and sacraments
➢ Used in liturgical cycle of Church
➢ Central to morality and ethics of believers
➢ Acknowledges relationship between God + humanity

Extracts demonstrating the principal beliefs

❖ Divinity + humanity of Jesus Christ
➢ John 1:14
■ “The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us.
We have seen his glory, the glory of the One and Only, who
came from the Father, full of grace and truth”

❖ Death + resurrection of Christ

➢ Luke 9:22
■ “The Son of Man must suffer many things and be rejected
by the elders, chief priests and teachers of the law, and he
must be killed and on the third day be raised to life.”

❖ The nature of the trinity

➢ Matthew 28:19
■ “Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptising
them in the name of the father and of the Son and tf the
Holy Spirit”
 ❖ Revelation
➢ John 2:34
■ “For the one whom God has sent speaks the words of God,
for God gives the spirit without limit”

Core Ethical teachings

The 10 The 10 commandments

commandments ❖ Part of Christian and Jewish ethics
❖ Important laws dictated by God
➢ Given to Moses
❖ Represent relationships with God and fellow humans

❖ Values:
➢ Reverence for human life
➢ Belief in God
➢ Loyalty
➢ Obedience
➢ Respect

New Testament The Beatitudes

ethics ❖ Spoken by Jesus
- The ➢ States that certain people will be blessed with happiness
Beatitudes ➢ Those who are obedience, loyal and devoted to God
- Jesus’ ➢ The less fortunate
commandme ❖ E.g:
nt of love ➢ The patient shall inherit the Earth
➢ Those who are poor in spirit shall be given the kingdom of heaven
➢ Those who are pure of heart shall see God

❖ Values:
➢ Patience
➢ Peace
➢ Justice
➢ Acceptance

Jesus’ commandment of love

❖ Matthew 22:37 - 39
➢ Jesus replied: ‘Love the Lord with all your heart and with all your
soul and with all your mind.’ This is the first and greatest
commandment. And the second is like it: ‘Love your neighbour as
yourself.’
❖ Message → love God, love your neighbour, love one another

❖ Values:
➢ Love
➢ Selflessness
➢ compassion

Importance of ❖ Provides guidance

ethical teachings to ❖ Informed moral choices
adherents ❖ Sense of direction
❖ Foundational principles
❖ Guides the actions of Christians
 Personal devotion

Prayer ❖ Types of prayer

➢
➢ Retreats - focus of Christian involvement in the world
➢ Vocal prayer
■ Use of words - recited, spoken or sung
■ Traditional prayers - Hail Mary, Lord’s Prayer
■ Some include prescribed formula - Rosary
➢ Mental prayer
■ Process of reflection involving the mind, imagination and
will
■ Christians aid for God’s help
■ Meditation - exercising of one’s spiritual memory
➢ Importance:
■ Acknowledges existence of relationship between God +
humanity
■ Allows followers to act in a Christian way
● Directions when feeling alone
● Sense of community
■ Brings believers into contact with the mysteries of their faith
● Way of reaching out to others
 RELIGIOUS TRADITIONAL STUDIES - BUDDHISM

Origins

the historical and ❖ Began 6th century BCE

cultural context in ❖ Powerful kings fought for power
which Buddhism ❖ At Buddha’s birth:
began ➢ Socio-economic status: economic plenty
❖ Born into Shakta tribe
➢ Under influence of Kosala state
❖ Buddha’s father - elected to be king
❖ Social status measured by caste system
➢ Brahmans - Priests
■ Claimed they were gods on earth
➢ Sudras - slaves
➢ Kshatriyas - royal family
❖ Aryan religion - Hinduism
➢ Sacrifice centred
❖ Indigenous Dravidian religion
➢ Solitary spiritual life
➢ Shramanas - wandering holy men

The Buddha Principal events of Buddha’s life - enlightenment

❖ Shakyamuni Buddha
❖ Siddhattha Gotama
➢ Born into kshatryas caste - wealthy family
➢ Raised by aunt, Mahapajapati
➢ Married local princess at 16
❖ Conception:
➢ Mother dreamt of a white elephant at her side
■ Sign he would be a holy man
➢ Another story: Born while mother stood holding a tree
■ Took 7 steps after being born and said “I am the highest in
the world”
❖ The four sights
➢ Left palace at 29
➢ Father had tried to shield him from distressing features of the world
➢ 4 excursions
■ 1st - Encountered old man
■ 2nd - encountered a sick man
■ 4rd - encountered a corpse being carried to a funeral
● Lesson: subject to all three factors
◆ inescapable
■ 4th - encountered a holy man
❖ The search
➢ Sought teachers who could explain how to progress further on
spiritual path
■ Meditation
➢ Thought enlightenment could be won by pushing body to extremes
■ Starved + tormented himself
■ Did not lead to enlightenment
❖ Enlightenment
➢ Entered into jhanas under a Bodhi tree
 ■ Gained insight into nature of reality
● Saw he had been reborn numerous times
● Saw all humans are reborn due to their deeds -
Karma
● Saw nature + origin of suffering

Model of Buddhist life

The formation of Early formation of The Sangha

the Sangha ❖ Assembly of monks and nuns living in a given geographical area
❖ Originally only allowed men to be ordained
➢ Mahapajapati - requested for women to be ordained as nuns
■ After 3rd request, Buddha agreed
■ Female Sangha established
❖ The Sangha grew in the 12 years after Buddha’s enlightenment
➢ Deer Park - 5 monks converted
➢ Originally rejected Buddha before his enlightenment
❖ Grew by word of mouth
❖ Prominent lay figures converted

the early councils, ❖ The First Buddhist Council

including the first
council at Rajagaha
and the second
council at Vesali
➢ 486/483 BCE
➢ Rajgir (then known as Rajagriha)
➢ Importance:
■ Attempted to distinguish authentic word of Buddha
■ Established Buddha’s teachings
■ Established Tripitaka
■ Buddha’s sermons recited + collected into the Sutra Pitaka

❖ The Second Buddhist Council

➢ 386 BCE
➢ Vesali
➢ 600 monks
➢ Importance:
■ Established monkish conduct
■ Condemned 10 illicit practices among monks
● How monks conduct themselves
● Possession of money forbidden
● Reaffirmed correct practices in Sangha

❖ The Third Buddhist Council

➢ C. 251 BCE
➢ Pataliputra
➢ 1000 monks
➢ Importance:
■ Dharma missions were dispatched
■ Decided to send Buddhist monks outside of India
● Internationalisation of religion

Buddhism Theravada Buddhism

- Theravada ❖ Sri Lanka, Thailand
Buddhism ❖ Oldest of three schools
- Mahayana ❖ Beliefs:
Buddhism ➢ Emphasis on monastic life in reaching enlightenment
 - Vajrayana ■ Only men can reach enlightenment - members of Sangha
Buddhism ➢ Focus on Buddha + attainment of enlightenment
➢ Teachings of karma, samsara + Nirvana
➢ Texts: Pali, Tipitaka + Jataka

Mahayana Buddhism
❖ Asia
➢ Beliefs:
■ Buddha is transcendent - godlike figure
■ Mahayana - possible pathway to enlightenment
■ Bodhisattva - one who seeks to become a Buddha
■ Enlightenment can be attained in one lifetime
■ Texts: Tipitaka, Tibetan book of the Dead

Vajrayana Buddhism
❖ Asia
➢ Beliefs:
■ Built on teachings of emptiness + ideologies of Buddhahood
■ Third turning of the wheel
■ Enlightenment can be attained by seeing Buddha as a
teacher
■ Enlightened knowledge comes from images of those
already enlightened
■ Texts: Tantras

Principal Beliefs

The Three Jewels The three Jewels

- Buddha ❖ Three refuges
- Dharma ❖ Treasures of Buddhism
- Sangha ❖ Strengthen one’s devotion to succeeding on the spiritual journey to
enlightenment
❖ Mudra symbol
❖ Three jewels:
➢ The Buddha - an ideal goal
■ Historical + Idea of Buddhahood
■ Reached enlightenment
■ Woke up to the ultimate truth of spiritual nature
■ Saved from Samsara
➢ The Dharma - a direct path
■ Totality of teachings of Buddha
● Law or truth of teachings
■ Taught that ignorance of true nature → misunderstanding of
life experiences -- suffering (Dukkha)
■ Refuge in the Dharma - learning from Buddha’s teachings
➢ The Sangha - supportive community
■ All Buddhists of the world
■ Beneficial to be surrounded by individuals with similar
values + beliefs

The Four Noble ❖ Buddha’s central philosophy

Truths ❖ Central to Dharma
❖ Heart of Buddha’s vision of nature of existence
 ❖ Noble truths:
➢ First Noble Truth -- Life is suffering or disease
■ 3 marks of existence
■ Suffering in the world (Dukkha)
● Inseparable from the self

➢ Second Noble Truth -- The cause of suffering is desire

■ Desires = Tanha
● Desires + wants never satisfied
■ Life is unsatisfactory because everything is temporary
(Anicca)

➢ Third Noble Truth -- The cure for suffering is to overcome

desire
■ Overcoming tanha → freedom/enlightenment, which is
Nirvana
ATTAINMENT OF NIRVANA IS THE OBJECTIVE OF BUDDHISM

➢ Fourth Noble Truth -- The way to overcome Tanha

■ Practice of Buddhism
● Path to overcome desire + freedom from suffering
■ Way to achieve Nirvana - following the eightfold path to
Enlightenment
1. Right Understanding
◆ Realising the Noble path leads to overcoming
suffering
2. Right emotion
◆ Committing yourself to following the path
3. Right speech
◆ Speaking the truth; speaking in a positive
way
4. Right action
◆ Life according to rules + beliefs
5. Right livelihood
◆ Doing helpful work - not harmful
6. Right effort
◆ Kind + positive thinking
7. Right awareness
◆ Awareness of oneself, other people and the
world
8. Right meditation
◆ Training the mind to be calm + positive

The marks of The marks of existence

existence ❖ Characteristics of the ordinary world
- Anicca ❖ First truth - 3 marks of existence
- Duhkka ➢ Dukkha
- Anatta ■ Suffering
■ Existence is unsatisfying
➢ Anicca
■ Impermanence
■ Everything is in a constant state of flux
➢ Anatta
■ No-soul
 ■ Absence of an individual self

Karma, Samsara, Connection between Karma and Samsara

Nirvana ❖ Karma
➢ View that things rise and fall in dependence of each other
➢ Theory of cause + effect
❖ Samsara
➢ Cycle of birth, existence and death
■ Reincarnation
➢ Rebirth
■ Depends on karma
➢ Lives flows into one another
➢ Actions produce an effect in another life (karma)
➢ Existence seen as bondage to a set of ongoing rebirths
■ Caused by Karma

Nirvana
❖ Highest achievable state
❖ When found, puts an end to cycle of rebirth + karma
❖ Enlightenment

Sacred texts and writings

Tripitaka ❖ Tripitaka - Body of Theravadin scriptures

❖ ‘Three baskets’
❖ Three sections:
➢ Vinaya Pitaka
■ Regulations for behaviour of the Sangha
➢ Sutta Pitaka
■ Discussions between Buddha + disciples
■ Buddhist beliefs
● 4 Nobles truths + Eightfold Path
■ ‘Sayings’ of the Buddha -- Dharmapada
■ Stories + Jakata tales - Buddha’s previous lives
➢ Abhidhamma Pitaka
■ Writings on the nature of the universe

Lotus of the Good Lotus of the Good Law

Law ❖ Mahayana Buddhist text
➢ Texts of variant:
■ Prajanaparamita (perfection of wisdom in 100,000 stanzas)
■ Lankavatara Sutra
■ Diamond Sutra
● Focuses on enlightened nature of the mind
■ Platform Sutra
● Methods of sudden enlightenment
■ Lotus Sutra
● Lotus of the Good Law
❖ 28 chapters
➢ Includes parables + stories of Buddha’s past and future lives
❖ Final Dharma (teaching) of Buddha before his enlightenment
➢ Salvation is universally available
❖ Interpretation of the traditional teaching of attaining enlightenment
➢ When it appeared, 3 ways to reach enlightenment:
 ■ Sravaka
● Following the Buddha to liberation
■ The Pratyeka Buddha
● Gaining enlightenment without assistance
■ The Bodhisattva
● Taking on various guises to assist all sentient beings
❖ Taught that first 2 ways to enlightenment didn’t exist
➢ Superior person knows the way to ultimate bliss + wisdom
■ Also helps others to find the way

Tibetan book of the Tibetan Book of the Dead

Dead ❖ Vajrayana text
❖ Credditied to Padmasambhava
➢ Monk who established Buddhism in Tibet
❖ Described experiences one can expect to have after death
➢ During 49 day period before rebirth
❖ Read aloud to dying + deceased to give guidance
❖ Teaches how to recognise heavenly realms
➢ How to move towards reaching enlightenment and Nirvana
❖ Used by advanced Tibetan Buddhists

❖ Sections:
➢ The first Bardo - afterlife realm
■ First moments of death
■ Individual must embrace the experience with love and
compassion for all beings
■ State of liberation - must act in order to remain in the state
● If attained, will remain in the clear light forever
● Often weighed down by karma - not reached
◆ Sends them to second stage

➢ The second bardo

■ Lasts 2 weeks
■ 2 parts:
● Soul encounters ‘The Peaceful Deities’
◆ Reaction determines next step
● Soul meets seven legion of Wrathful Deities
◆ Test for the soul to realise they are disguised
as Peaceful deities

➢ The Third bardo

■ Soul encounters the Lord of death
● Subjects soul to judgement
■ If soul is not liberated after judgement - rebirth
● Given instructions on how to choose a favorable
incarnation
■ Soul born into light of one of the 6 Lokas

Core Ethical Teachings

The Five Precepts ❖ Foundation of a good Buddha life is morality (Sila)

❖ Generosity or giving (dana)
➢ Aspect of moral life
 ➢ Good karma
➢ Reduces selfishness
➢ Decreases sense of self for the giver

The five Precepts

❖ Guidelines for developing correct conduct
❖ How to overcome influence of the three poisons
➢ Greed
➢ Anger
➢ Ignorance
❖ Precepts (Theravadan):
1. Abstain from harming sentient beings
■ All living things
2. Abstain from taking what is not freely given
■ Stealing, accumulation of wealth
■ Be content with what one has
3. Abstain from secual miscondut
■ To be moderate + refined in sensual activities
4. Abstain from false speech
■ Lying, abusive language and gossip
■ To cause no disharmony by speech
5. Abstains from drugs that distort the mind
■ Maintain an alert mind

❖ Sangha follows 5 extra precepts

The Vinaya The Vinaya Pitaka

❖ Regulations for monastic discipline in the Sangha
❖ 227 rules monks must abide by
❖ Contains explanations for various rules
➢ Penalties for breaking them

Importance of ethical teachings

❖ Guides believers how to live their life in accordance to beliefs
❖ Teaches followers to live morally correct life
➢ Allows for peace + harmony with surroundings
❖ Allows emphasis of right speech and action
❖ Teaches importance of harmony and of the community

Personal devotion in the home

Puja Puja
❖ Practices of worship or devotion
❖ Ritual honouring the Buddha
❖ Can be performed privately or publicly at a Buddhist Dharma centre
❖ Purpose:
➢ Show honour, respect + devotion to Buddha
■ Also shown to Guru (teacher) or Bodhisattva
➢ Directs attention away from concerns
■ Focus on Buddha
■ Contemplation of his noble qualities
➢ Reinforces faith and devotion
■ Motivate + enhance individual’s practice of the Dharma
❖ Occurs daily
❖ Involved elements:
➢ Offerings (flowers, candles, incense)
➢ Bowing
➢ Lights
➢ Chanting
➢ Meditation
➢ Relationship
■ Sense of communion with all present

❖ Home puja:
➢ Involves placement of flowers, lights + incense in front of statue or
image of the Buddha

❖ Puja celebrations
➢ Visakha Puja Day
■ Celebrates:
● Birth of Buddha
● Attainment of enlightenment
● Death
■ Public sermon during the day
● Candle lit procession at night

➢ Asalha Puja Day

■ Celebrates:
● Buddha preaching his sermon to 5 disciples after
attaining enlightenment
● Marks worship of the Triple Gems
■ Candle lit procession at night
■ Family activities

➢ Magha Puja day

■ Celebrates:
● 1,250 enlightened monks converging to pay respect
to Buddha without arrangement
■ Similar to Visakha Puja Day
 RELIGIONS OF ANCIENT ORIGIN - NORDIC

Nature of the religion

Origins of the ❖ Ginnungagap - emptiness before the world

universe ❖ First being emerged from the ice - the giant Ymir
❖ A cow emerged with Ymir - licked the salt from the ice mountains
➢ Giant grew stronger by drinking its milk
❖ Cow revealed Buri (god) and his wife
➢ Son named Bor, whose son was Odin
❖ Gods slayed the cruel Ymir
❖ Ymir’s body formed the Earth
➢ Blood = sea, flesh = land, bones = mountains
❖ Odin created the sun and moon
➢ Melted ice - plants grew
❖ Odin created humans - made of fallen ash and elm tree
➢ Tasked with looking after Midgard

Principal beliefs ❖ Yggdrasil - world tree

➢ 9 realms
➢ Axis of Nordic universe
➢ Valhalla - home of heroes who died bravely in battle
■ Feasting hall of the gods
➢ Hel -- land of death
➢ Midgard - human world
■ Surrounded by ocean
● Dwelling place of Jormungandr - World serpent
❖ Ragnarok
➢ End of the world
➢ Preceded by 3 winters
➢ Sun and moon eaten by wolves
➢ Death of most gods - Thor, Odin, Loki, Heimdall
➢ Birth of new world
■ Wickedness and misery will no longer exist
■ Men + Gods live in harmony
❖ Belief in several gods
➢ Ruled from Asgard
❖ Life after death
➢ The afterlife
■ Valhalla
■ Hel
➢ Were buried with item needed after death - weapons, tools, food,
etc

Supernatural ❖ Polytheistic
powers and deities ➢ Worshipped various gods + goddesses
➢ Ruled components of life
➢ Violent in nature
➢ Major Gods:
■ Odin - The allfather
● God of wisdom
■ Thor - god of thunder
● Protects mankind
 ■ Freya - Odin’s wife
● goddess of love and fertility
■ Hel
● Controls Hel
● Loki’s daughter
● Half skeleton

Rituals Relationship between sacred spaces and beliefs

❖ Sacred spaces - environmental locations
➢ Seen as the dwelling places of spirits
➢ Some locations were holy for one God
➢ E.g. meadows, hills, tree groves
❖ Temples - hov
➢ Trials held here - justice was made by the Gods

Rituals
❖ Chieftains made themselves priests
❖ Revolved around pleasing the Gods
❖ Blot - sacrifice to the gods
➢ Ensured fertility and growth
■ Took place during crises or transitions (e.g. birth, burials)
➢ Communal feasting on the sacrificed animal’s meat
➢ Human sacrifice
■ A life for a life
■ Usually criminals
➢ Sacrificial meat
■ Boiled in large cooking pits
■ Blood was seen to contain special powers
● Was sprinkled on the statues of gods, walls, and on
themselves
❖ Burials / death
➢ Buried with items needed in the afterlife
■ Women were buried with home items and jewelry
■ Warriors were sometimes buried with their sacrificed dog or
horse
➢ Wealthiest were buried in ships - carried to the next world
➢ Wooden chambers - less wealthy - buried with necessities
➢

Influences in ❖ Origin story - explains where they came from

society ❖ Relationship with society
❖ Model for human life
❖ Were prayed to during crises and key events in life
➢ Provided wisdom and guidance
➢ Cared for the human race
➢ Offered protection against evil forces
❖ Feasts
➢ Celebrated religious festivals, weddings, etc.
❖ Viking lifestyle based on violent nature of the Gods
➢ Use of rituals to pray to them + ask for help

Human search for ❖ Beliefs help to make sense of the world

meaning ➢ Provides explanations for the unexplainable
■ The creation of the universe, etc
❖ The afterlife
➢ Their purpose in life
■ To die a valiant death in order to reach Valhalla
■ Otherwise sent to Hel (realm of the dead)
❖ Model for human life
❖ Justified their violent lifestyle
 RELIGION IN AUSTRALIA PRE-1945

Religious traditions in Australia pre-1945

arrival and Christianity

establishment of ❖ Arrived with the first fleet
Christianity and ❖ Church of England - established Church
TWO other religious ❖ Anglicans
traditions in ➢ Strong emphasis on personal and public morality
Australia ➢ Introduced into Australia though chaplains
■ Part time court magistrates
➢ Monopoly on marriages + burials
➢ Dominant Christian group
❖ Presbyterians
➢ First service held in 1795
➢ First church - built 1809
➢ Dr John Dunmore Lang - 1st Presbyterian minister
➢ Dr John Flynn - medical + social services to rural Australia
❖ Catholics
➢ Irish catholics
➢ Majority of initial population
➢ Resented

Judaism
❖ 8 Jewish convicts arrived with the first fleet
❖ 1860 - first free settler
❖ Worship began in Sydney approx. 1820
➢ Private homes
❖ First synagogue - 1844
❖ 1817 - Chevra Kadisha
➢ Jewish burial society
➢ Land was allocated for the cemetery in 1820
❖ First Jewish wedding - 1832

Islam
❖ Visits from Makassan fishermen pre settlement
❖ 1860s - cameleers
❖ First Islamic Mosque - 1882

issues related to the Impact of Sectarianism

development of ❖ Sectarianism: A climate of mistrust and bad feeling between various
Christianity in Christian denominations
Australia pre-1945: ➢ Leads to discrimination, persecution and violence
- sectarianism ❖ Obvious between Protestants/Church + Protestants against the Catholics
- social ➢ Church of England - Established church
welfare ■ Leaders were magistrates and Church leaders
➢ Irish Catholics - object of suspicion. Kept apart from other variations

❖ Examples
➢ 1901 Federation - meant to show unity of Australia
■ Catholic Cardinal and Presbyterian Churches didn’t follow
the Church of England Archbishop and leaders
 ➢ Conscription debate
■ Labor Party - against conscription
● Largely supported by Catholics
■ Liberal parties - for conscription
● Largely supported by Protestants
❖ After WWI
➢ Catholics formed their own social organisations - to attract
Catholics away from other groups
■ E.g. Knights of the Southern Cross
➢ Catholics couldn’t apply for some jobs
❖ Sectarianism ended in 1960s

Contribution of Religion to social welfare

❖ Anglican Home Mission Society
➢ 1857 - 1997
➢ Assists parishes, children, families, and the poor
➢ Work e.g.:
■ Little Children’s home - home for infant children under 6
years old
■ Charlton Youth Services
❖ St Vincent de Paul Society
➢ Established 1854 in Melbourne
➢ Assists immigrant population
➢ Assisted the age, homeless and poor
➢ Work:
■ Home visitations
■ Gave financial assistance, food, firewood, offered
counselling
❖ Sydney Rescue work society
➢ 1890 - 1982
➢ Provide care and support to poor families + children
➢ Ran refuges and homes for women + children
➢ Work:
■ Jubilee home for young women arriving in Sydney
■ Training school for midwifery nurses
■ Street mission - provided food + shelter + clothing for the
homeless

the contribution of Role of Church of England in rural and outback areas

ONE religious ❖ Anglicans/ Church of England
tradition in Australia ➢ High Anglicanism
to each of the ■ Remained close to their Catholic roots
following pre-1945: ➢ Low anglican
- rural and ■ More evident differences
outback
communities
Organisatio Efforts Impact on social welfare
- Education
n
- public
morality Bush - St Andrew’s - Covered 180 million ha
Brotherhood mission - 20 brothers became bishops
1897 house – - Responsible for the presence of
High Longreach, Anglicanism in rural areas
Anglican QLD - Pastoral ministry to corners of the
 - Trips to the continent
(brotherhood district
of the Good
Shepherd)

The Bush - Competed - Medical services

Church Aid with Bush - Provides accommodation for
Society Brotherhood young people
1919 Movement - Models of Christian service
Low Anglican and Catholic
Church
- Female - Hostels for
volunteers young people
- Married - Use of
clergy aeroplanes
- Healthcare
services

Australian - Mission to - Brought religious, health, pastoral

Inland shearers + other services
Mission - Use of - Established Flying Doctor’s
1912 aeroplane Service
Presbyterian