Chapter One 1.1 General

Adama Science and Technology University Civil Engineering Department
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Transportation is movement of people and goods which is under taken to

accomplish basic objectives or tasks required transfer from one to another location.
The pattern of growth of a towns and cities is determined by the transport network
and its efficiency. But, the speed, cost and capacity of available transportation have
a significant impact on the economic activity of the society.
Even though there are various types of transportations like road, railway, air, and
water, road transportation system is the most usable and accessible means due to
the following reasons.
 It is more economical compared to the others
 Gives door to door service
 Construction is flexible
 Covers large area etc.
As road transportation has so much benefit, it has its own negative impacts such as:
 Air pollution(smoke during construction and after construction)
 Noise pollution
 Energy consumption
 Initial cost is high (construction cost) etc.
Road transportation system is essential infrastructure for a nation‘s development
and growth both for public and private sector. It is almost impossible to think of
development without having accessible and safe transportation means.
Senior project on design of asphalt pavement Road Page1

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THIS THESIS WORK

The main objective of this thesis work is to:-
 To develop integration and communication skills in a group project
working.
 To develop problem solving ability on real life project.
 To integrate and use the courses covered in civil engineering through
the five year learning process and exercise engineering software‘s like
Eagle point, AutoCAD, etc….
 To exercise working manuals like ERA, AASHTO, INDIAN, etc...
 To bring the theoretical knowledge in to practical one and solve
societal problems on road accessibility.
 To gain working experience and further knowledge on highway design.
 To work on practical project as partial fulfillment of B.Sc in civil
engineering.
1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
The objective of the project is to connect two Weredas mainly; Toke Kutaye, and
Cheliya Wereda and to facilitate the inter Kebele movement. Specifically, this project
focuses to design short, easy and economical root connecting Babogallo to Babichi
town.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
The project start by describing the main objectives, then root selection and the traffic
analysis The wide area of the project, which is geometric design, will be done by the
support of eagle point software. Earthwork analysis is also manipulated by the
software aid. But, drainage design part is manipulated manually.

1.5 PROJECT BACKGROUND

There was an existing route to connect Babogallo town with Babichi town which
was constructed by resident. This road was not such good for transportation of
goods and people. To overcome this problem, it is decided to design the road project
between these towns which is approximately 10km.
Location
The project is located in Oromia National Regional state in West ShoaZone.The
project alignment starts at babogallo and ends at Babich town in CheliyaWereda and
is reached through Guder-Gedo asphalt road about 40km from Guder.
1.6 TOPOGRAPHY
Topography of the area affects geometric design of a highway. The geometric design
elements strongly depends on the transverse terrain through which the roads
passes.The topography of the project route is classified as flat, rolling, Mountainous
and Escarpment based on Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) Geometric Design
Manual – 2002. Based on the topographic map, the altitude of the area ranges from
2152.698 to 2523.284m.
1.7 VEGETATION AND LAND USE
The vegetation cover along the proposed project road is dominated by pod
carpus species, Eucalyptus tree and bushy grass land. Most of the land in which the
route passes is covered with cultivated land and Grazing Land.
1.8 GEOLOGY
According to the Geological Map of Ethiopia (Mengesha, Second edition 1996), the
project route corridor is generally made up of two types of geological formations,
which are Platue Basalt- Quaternary basal which are characteristically alkaline and
represent the final pulse of basaltic volcanism on the Ethiopian plateau, and Chilalo
Formation-Nc (Lower Part) which developed on both sides of the rift shoulder and
margins. The top part of the project road alignment is characterized dominantly by
silt clay material. Clay soils are also been found.

1.9 METROLOGY AND CLIMATE

Climate is influenced by latitude, altitude, land and water surfaces, mountain
barriers, local topography, and such atmospheric features as prevailing winds, air
masses and pressure centers. Although Ethiopia is located in the tropics,
temperatures vary greatly with altitude and large climate variation, from hot arid to
cool temperate, exist in the country. Generally, the adiabatic lapse rate is about 6oc
decrease per 100 m altitude increase. Based on climatic classifications of Ethiopia,
the vicinity of the project area can be grouped under warm temperate climate.
Table:1 Climatic Classification
Mean
Elevation of
Climatic Annual Mean Annual
Area the Vicinity
Classification Temperature Rainfall (mm)
(meter masl)
(oc)
CWB (Warm
Babogallo- Prevails b/n
Temperate Climate 15 – 20 600 - 2000
Babich 1,750 to 3200
I)
[Source: National Atlas of Ethiopia & Meteorological Services Agency, 1998]
Temperature
Temperature variation can often the binder and affect the performance of bituminous
surface and cement concrete pavement. The nearby project area at Guder Station
show that the temperature ranges from 15°c -20°c.Therefore, as per the Ethiopian
climate classification the area in which the road going to be constructed is
―woinadega‖.
Rainfall
Rainfall causes erosion of shoulders, side slopes and ingress of water in to the
pavement structure and sub grade which affects the performance of the designed
road.The project area is located in the Western Ethiopia with various rivers/streams
watersheds that drain to big rivers as tributaries and finally meet Abay River in this
basin. For almost four months from June to September, it is positioned in south west
Ethiopia and this is when the project area receives its major rainfall.

In March – April as it is returning to the West, it may give the second rain to the area
and continues its journey further east of Ethiopia until the cycle repeats the next
season.
The mean annual rainfall distribution is higher in May, July, August and
September but highest in June, when the project area receives frequent and peak
rainfall prevalence. Rainy season in the project area is therefore expected from
May to September, whereas the rest of months can be considered as dry season
with little rainfall occurrence.

CHAPTER TWO
ROUTE SURVEYING
2.1 GENERAL
Road design, construction and maintenance require an approach depending on
the terrain. The shortest Road alignment is not necessarily the easiest, quickest or
most economical option for construction and maintenance. Frequently; topography,
slope stability, flood hazard and erosion potential are likely to be the most significant
controls in the choice of the most suitable alignment and design of cross section.
Therefore before any alignment of any route and design of the selected route a detail
route survey is needed to understand the terrain, hydrology, and any other important
parameters which affect the alignment of the route. In any road alignment projects
highway surveying of the area is essential and basic for best route and ease of
design and economical route to be found.
2.2ROUTE SURVEY AND ITS CONSIDERATIONS
As mentioned above highway surveying is the base before, during and after any
alignment and design of road. Route surveying include many considerations or steps
in order to carry out. These are:-
 Desk study
 Reconnaissance
 Preliminary survey
 Detail survey or location survey
A. Desk study
Topographical maps of the concerned area provide important features like river,
cultivation areas, valleys, hills together with contour lines. Routes or alignments
could be selected keeping in view of the topographic features and obligatory points
to be touched by the road. In the map villages, water courses, churches and
mosques should be clearly shown.

Thus, each three selected routes it is tried to:-

 Incorporated more villages
 Cross minimum number of water courses
 Not to cross obligatory points like churches and mosques.
 Have recommended grades in different terrain types.
B. Reconnaissance
Generally, in this stage, important data‘s for the previously selected routes will be
collected. The data‘s are:-
 Gradient ,radius of horizontal curve
 Position of hills, lakes, water logged areas, bridge on river
 Number and types of cross drainage
 Types of soil along the route
From the data collected proposed alignments may be altered at few points or may be
completely changed and finally one or more alternative routes may be proposed for
further study.
C. Preliminary survey
The objective of this survey after reconnaissance stage is:
 For details of gradient, curve radius and cross diameter
 Quantity of earth work and materials for construction
 To compare routes with respect to the cost of construction and maintenance
Steps of preliminary survey
 To establish traverse of each alignment
 To survey the topographical features along the routes, collecting hydrological
data‘s, leveling is done to develop longitudinal and cross-sectional drawings
for determining the earth work quantity
 Soil survey should be constructed to check its suitability for road construction,
ground slope, bridge construction, drainage conditions etc.

D. Detail survey (location survey)

The alignment finalized as a result of preliminary survey is first located on the field
and its detail survey is carried out.
These are:-
 Pegging the center line
 Centre line leveling
 Cross section
 Intersecting roads
 Ditches and streams
THE ALIGNMENT OF SPECIFIC ROAD FOR THE PROJECT
In this design project an alternative routes from Babogalo to Babichi road are
suggested. This is done in such a way that three possible routes are enumerated
and the best one was selected based on some of the following criteria and the result
is tabulated in table below.
The possible alternatives are coated by the following criteria
a. The relative length of the alternatives was considered.
b. The average and mean gradient was computed for each route.
Normally the least severe grade alternative is preferred. However,
minimum grade mostly give larger length.
c. Route more closely follow an existing road or track are preferred.
d. A route with least severe terrain type was considered.
e. Route remain longer on the crest of the terrain minimize drainage
structure.
f. Economical route is selected after comparing earthworks.

Table: 1 shows criteria for route selection

Alternative Routes
Parameters Considered Route-1 Route-2 Route-3
1. Gradient in%
1.1 average gradient 6.92 6.42 6.57
1.2 maximum gradient 12.41 12 12.57
1.3 minimum gradient 0.64 1 0.41
2. Length of the routes 10999m 10767.5m 11018m
3.Follow existing fair good poor
road(trail)
4.Terain type (general) Flat, rolling, Flat, rolling, Flat, rolling,
mountainous mountainous mountainous
5.Route which stay long in less good less
crest
6.Route earthwork result - 1711.500m3 -

CHAPTER THREE
TRAFFIC SURVEY AND ANALYSIS
3.1 GENERAL
Traffic survey and analysis is very essential issue in the design of highway
pavements. It is necessary to consider the total number of vehicles and their wheel
loads (axle load). So, the traffic volume has to be properly estimated by considering
current traffic and future growing traffic.
Design Period
Design period determination is the first step towards highway pavement design.
There are factors influencing the determination of design period. The designer
should follow certain guidelines in choosing an appropriate design period, taking into
account the conditions governing the project. Some of the factors include:
 Functional importance of the road
 Traffic volume
 Location and terrain of the project
 Financial constraints
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic
Based on the above list of factors the design period is decided to be 15 years.

3.2 Traffic count data of the project
3.2.1 Vehicle classification

The classification of vehicle is essential aspect of traffic volume evaluation.
Concerning this ERA adopted breakdown for traffic counts under different
categories.
Table: 3.1 Vehicle classifications
1 Small car Passenger cars, minibuses (up to 24-passenger
seats),
taxis, pick-ups, and Land Cruisers, Land Rovers, etc.
2 Bus Medium and large size buses above 24 passenger
seats
3 Medium Truck Small and medium sized trucks including tankers up
to 7
tons load
4 Heavy Truck Trucks above 7 tons load
5 Articulated Truck Trucks with trailer or semi-trailer and Tanker Trailers
Based on the above classification of vehicles, the number of vehicles surveyed on

the project area for seven consecutive days of five 12 hrs. Count and two 24 hrs. count
are shown below.

Table: 3.2 Motorized Traffic
Date Shift CAR 4 S/ L/ S/ M/ H/ T&T REMARK

WD BUS BUS TRUCK TRUCK TRUCK
02/03/2011 Day 5 6 10 3 6 4 4 1 Market
Wednesday day
03/3/2011 Day 7 7 4 2 3 4 3 1
03/3/2011 Night 2 3 3 3 3 4 2 1
04/3/2011 Day 4 4 9 3 3 3 2 0
05/3/2011 Day 6 5 6 2 4 5 2 1 Market
05/3/2011 Night 4 2 4 2 3 3 2 0 day
06/3/2011 Day 6 3 7 3 3 3 4 1
07/3/2011 Day 5 5 6 2 2 4 3 1
08/3/2011 Day 3 4 5 2 3 6 6 0
Table: 3.3 Non-motorized Traffic

Pack Animal Drawn
Date Pedestrian Cycle Remark
Animal Cart
02/03/2011
3058 1032 5 33 Market day
Wednesday
03/3/2011 299 87 2 12
04/3/2011 352 157 4 10
04/3/2011 48 25 0 0
05/3/2011 618 890 3 30
05/3/2011 230 170 2 0 Market day
06/3/2011 166 100 6 16
07/3/2011 257 135 0 8
08/3/2011 877 484 20 11

3.2.2 Type of expected traffic

The expected traffic are initial traffic those use the design road currently or,
more specifically the AADT expected to use the route during the firstyear of opening
the road for service.
The initial traffic data count was not convenient to establish AADT. Therefore the
following steps were followed to convert the traffic count data to AADT.
1. ADT was calculated for Normal Days or for non-market days and market
days
2. Converting 12hr count to 24hr traffic flow data using night factors, which is
calculated 24hr/12hr count.
3. Calculating weighted ADT for the market day and normal day.
4. Obtaining AADT by multiplying the ADT with seasonal conversion factor.
Table: 3.4 Traffic survey for motorised in both direction
CA 4 S/ L/ S/ M/ H/
Date Shift T&T TOTAL
R WD BUS BUS TRUCK TRUCK TRUCK
02/03/2011
Day 5 6 10 3 6 4 4 1
Wednesday
03/3/2011 Day 7 7 4 2 3 4 3 1
03/3/2011 Night 2 3 3 3 3 4 2 1
04/3/2011 Day 4 4 9 3 3 3 2 0
05/3/2011 Day 6 5 6 2 4 5 2 1
05/3/2011 Night 4 2 4 2 3 3 2 0
06/3/2011 Day 6 3 7 3 3 3 4 1
07/3/2011 Day 5 5 6 2 2 4 3 1
08/3/2011 Day 3 4 5 2 3 6 6 0
NF(ND) 1.29 1.43 1.75 2.50 2.00 2.00 1.67 2.00
NF(MD) 1.67 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.75 1.60 2.00 1.00
ADT 7.22 6.55 10.61 5.29 3.79 7.77 6.00 1.14 48.36
There is no historical count data along the project zone. Then the nearby historical
traffic data Gedo - Ambo road from year 2006 to 2008 obtained from ERA is used.

Table: 3.5 Seasonal adjustment factors
Cycle L/Rove M/Truc H/Truc

Car S/Bus L/Bus S/Truck T/T
r k k
1st Cycle 0.80 0.97 0.93 0.99 0.93 0.89 0.90 0.90
2st Cycle 1.02 0.96 1.10 0.96 1.09 1.04 1.03 1.03
3st Cycle 3.33 1.28 0.96 1.17 0.97 1.32 1.32 1.32
AADT is calculated by multiplying ADT with seasonal adjustment factor.
Table: 3.6 The adjusted annual traffic

Vehicle S/ L/ S/ L/ M/ H/
4WD Total
Type Car Bus Bus Truck Truck Truck Truck
ADT 7.22 6.55 10.61 5.29 3.79 7.77 6.00 1.14
SCF 1.02 0.96 1.10 0.96 1.09 1.04 1.03 1.03
AADT 7.36 6.29 11.67 5.07 4.13 8.08 6.18 1.18 49.95
After multiplying with the seasonal factor, the average annual daily traffic will be 50
VPD.
Rural people painstakingly bring their product to market centres over distances of
the order of 10km or more using non-motorized modes of transport. Such non-
motorized modes have the potential for being converted in to motorized modes in
future in view of improvement of the project road. So, there will be the modal shift
where the pedestrians will use the passenger car and the loads carried on animal
back and animal drawn cart will be carried by freight transport.The analysis of
converting non-motorized modes to the motorized one is shown as follows.

Table: 3.7 non- motorised Traffic survey for both direction

Pack Animal
Date Pedestrian Cycle Remark
Animal Drawn Cart
02/03/2011
3058 1032 5 33
Wednesday
03/3/2011 299 87 2 12
04/3/2011 352 157 4 10
04/3/2012 48 25 0 0
05/3/2011 618 890 3 30
05/3/2012 230 170 2 0
06/3/2011 166 100 6 16
07/3/2011 257 135 0 8
08/3/2011 877 484 20 11
24/12 NF(ND) 1.14 1.16 1.00 1.00
24/12 NF(MD) 1.37 1.19 1.67 1.00
Average ND 444.60 223.40 6.40 11.40
Average MD 2519.00 1144.00 7.00 32.00
ADT 1037.19 486.43 6.48 17.14
In modal shift analysis, it is assumed that:-

 The pack animal and animal drawn cart load are carried
by the truck with volume capacity of 3.5 ton.
 The pedestrians walk on foot, use bicycles and animal
drawn cart are assumed to use buses with capacity of less
than or equal to 24 seats.

Freight Transport
The following assumptions were made under this situation.
 Average load carried by pack animal during the market day is
65kg and 55kg for non-market day.
 Besides transporting people, animal drawn cart carry an
average load of 60kg during market day and 200kg in non-
market day.
Average loads carried on market day

= 1144*65kg+32*60kg = 76280kg
Average load carried on non-market day
223.4*55kg+11.4*200kg = 14567kg
The average load carried on market and non-market day is 90847kg.
The truck with the capacity of 3.5 tone is categorized under short trucks with
seasonal adjustment factor of 1.09 as shown in table 3.5.
The no of S/trucks required is 26*1.09 = 28.34
Passenger vehicles
The pedestrians walk on foot, use bicycles and animal drawn cart use passenger
cars with less than 24 seats in newly designed road. The following assumptions were
made:
 All pedestrians walk on foot shift their mode to bus transport.
 80% of passengers using bicycles use bus transport service.
 Average pedestrians use animal drawn cart is 4 person/cart.
The total pedestrians those shift their mode of transport to passenger car is:
=1037.19+80%*6.48+4*17.14=1111
So

Adopting the seasonal variation factor 1.10, the total no of short buses required is 52
vehicle per day.
Table: 3.8 summary of the above analysis
Project vehicle type
S/Bus S/Truck Total

Babogallo-Babichi road
52 29 81
3.2.3TRAFFIC FORECASTING
In order to forecast traffic growth it is necessary to separate traffic into normal
traffic, diverted traffic, and generated traffic.
A. Normal traffic
Normal traffic is a traffic which would pass along the existing road of Babogallo
to Babichi even no new pavement was provided. Assuming general economic
conditions are expected to continue, fixed percentage increase is used in forecasting
the normal traffic. In order to determine the likely traffic volume at road opening year.
the current traffic (base year 2011) will be forecasted with the growth rate shown
below.
Table: 3.9 Traffic forecast rate
Vehicle Type Passenger vehicle Freight vehicle
Growth rate 4.8% 3.9%
AADT (road opening) = AADT (base year)*(1+i) n

Assuming two years of road construction and traffic growth rate shown above, the
volume of normal traffic at road opening year of 2013 is shown in table.
Table: 3.10 Traffic at the base year (2011)
Vehicle 4 S/ S/ M/ H/
type Car WD Bus L/ Bus Truck Truck Truck T & T Total
Total
8 7 64 6 34 9 7 2 137
AADT
Table: 3.11Traffic at the opening of the road (2013)
Vehicle 4 S/ L/ S/ M/ H/
type Car WD Bus Bus Truck Truck Truck T&T Total
Total
9 8 71 7 37 10 8 3 153
AADT
Diverted traffic
Diverted traffic is the traffic that changes the route or mode of transport to the
project road because of the improved road. But, still travels between the same origin
and destination. Where parallel routes exist, traffic will usually travel on the quickest
and cheapest route, although this may not necessarily be the shortest. Thus, the
new road may divert traffic from a parallel and shorter route because higher speeds
are possible on the new road. Diverted traffic is normally forecast to grow at the
same rate as computed normal traffic.

The amount of diverted traffic is assumed to be 15% and 10% of passenger and
freight vehicle respectively.
Table: 3.12 Amount of diverted traffic.
No of vehicle No of diverted
vehicle
Passenger vehicle 85 13
Freight vehicle 52 6
Generated traffic
Generated traffic may arise because of:-
a) Improvement of the facility which enable the modal shift and;
b) Subsequent triggered development of the project area.
After the construction of new road allowing access to an undeveloped area,
there could be large reductions in transport costs as a result of changing mode from
head loading to motor vehicle transport and, in this case, generated traffic could be
the main component of future traffic flow. The generated traffic is assumed to be
13% of the normal traffic. The estimated generated traffic will be 13% of total normal
traffic(137 vpd) which is 18 vpd.
Total forecasted traffic
The total forecasted traffic is the sum of normal diverted and generated traffic
at the first year of opening.
Total = 153+19+18 = 190VPD
The forecasted traffic volume lies in DS5 But; there is uncertainty in forecasting
the exact traffic volume of traffic flow. In this case, the Design Traffic Flow shall
normally be limited to be no more than one Design Class step higher than the
average daily traffic (AADT) in the first year of opening (ERA Geometric
manual,2002).So, the design class is decided to be DS4.

CHAPTER FOUR
DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA
The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the following factors:
the functional classification of the road; the nature of the terrain; the design vehicle;
the trafficvolumes expected on the road; the design speed; the density and character
of the adjoiningland use; economic and environmental considerations. Some of the
major factors those affect design control and criteria are:-
 Road functional classification
 Terrain classification
 Design standards etc.
These factors are usually varied along a route of some length, so the design is not
constant for the whole length of a road. On the contrast, changes in the design are
usually required in order to obtain proper correlation between the road layout and the
above factors, whilst maintaining construction costs at realistic levels.
4.1 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Ethiopian roads Authority classify the roads according to their function. The
functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes. These are:-
 Trunk Roads (Class I)
 Link Roads (Class II)
 Main Access Roads (Class III)
 Collector Roads (Class IV) and
 Feeder Roads (Class V)Trunk Roads (Class I)

A. Trunk Roads (Class I)
Trunk roads link centres of international importance and roads terminating at

international boundaries with Addis Ababa. Although they can have volumes as low
as 100 AADT, trunk roads have a present AADT ≥1000.
B. Link Roads (Class II)
These roads connect centres‘ of national or international importance, such as
principal towns and urban centres‘ to each other. A typical link road has over 400 -
1000 first year AADT, although values can range between 50-10,000 AADT.
C. Main Access Roads (Class III)
Main Access Roads link centres‘ of provincial importance between each other. First
year AADT is between 30 -1000.
D. Collector Roads (Class IV)
These roads link locally important centres‘ to each other, to a more
important centre, or to higher class roads. First year AADTs are between 25-400.
E. Feeder Roads (Class V)
Any road link to a minor centre such as market and local locations is served by a
feeder road. First year AADTs are between 0-100.
Our road is proposed to connect two rural towns and the first AADT is 190 So
depending on the above information the project road falls under the category of class
III.
4.2 TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION
The transverse terrain through which the road passes plays the vital role in the
geometric design of road elements. The transverse terrains are classified into four
classes as per ERA geometric manual 2002.These are:-
 Flat
 Rolling
 Mountainous
 Escarpment

The transverse slope of the project road varies from 0 to 50% along the root corridor.
The transverse slopes of the selected route at different chainage were summarized
as per ERA in the form of table.
Table: 4.1 Types terrain in our selected route

STATION TRAVERSE SLOPE
FROM TO LENGTH ( m) (%) TERRAIN TYPE
0+000 1+500 1500 12.3 rolling
1+500.0 2+050 550 16.2 flat
2+050 3+700 1650 9.25 rolling
3+700 4+400 700 36.3 mountainous
4+400 5+500 1100 14.8 rolling
5+500 8+200 2700 3.26 flat
8+200 10+767.5 2567.5 8.38 rolling
4.3 DESIGN STANDARDS

The design standards to be used for roads relates to road functional classification
and traffic volumes(AADT). The design of the road elements are affected by the
design standards in which it lies. According to ERA geometric manual, 2002 the
design standard of roads range from DS1 to DS10 which associated with bands of
traffic flow. The range of flows extends from less than 20 to 15,000 motorized
vehicles per day (excluding motorcycles), and covers the design conditions for all
single and dual carriageway roads. Although the levels of flow at which design
standards change are based on the best current evidence, the somewhat subjective
boundaries should be treated as approximate in the light of uncertainties inherent in
traffic estimation and future forecasting. So, as it was stated under chapter three,
section (3.2.3) the Babogallo – Babichi road lies under DS4 and the choice of
design parameters depends on the criteria set under this category

4.4 GEOMETRICAL PARAMETER FOR THE DESIGN STANDARDS

The geometrical parameters play important role in the choice of design control and
criteria.. Here are some of the parameters:-
 Design Speed
 Sight Distances
 Gradient
 Min. Horizontal Curve Radius
 Super elevation, Right- of -Way etc.

CHAPTER FIVE
CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
5.1 GENERAL
Road cross section consists of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage
features, and earthwork profiles. The typical cross section elements are different for
rural and town roads. Due to the traffic requirements and characteristics of the
terrain, the cross-section may vary over a particular route. The basic requirements
are, however, that changes in cross-section standards shall be uniform within each
sub-section of the route and that any changes of the cross section shall be effected
gradually and logically over a transition length.
5.1.1. Carriageway
Carriage way is the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including
traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing
lanes, and passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes.
5.1.2. Roadway
Roadway is another type of road cross section element which consists of the
carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing areas.
5.1.3. Earthwork profiles
An earthwork profile includes side slopes and back slopes designed to insure the
stability of the roadway.
5.2 LANE WIDTH
The width of the carriageway is feature of a highway having great influence on
safety and comfort of road users. Provision of adequate lane is important which
lessen wheel concentrations at the pavement edges. The lane width varies based on
the design standards. ERA manual sets the carriage widths for each design
standards (DS1 up to DS10). Babogallo – Babichi road lies under DS4.Accordingly,
the carriage width provided for this road is 6.7m and the lane with is 3.35m.

5.3 SHOULDER
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the
accommodation of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized
traffic, animals, and pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles;
and lateral support of the pavement courses.
Providing adequate shoulder improves roadway safety by preventing edge ravelling,
serving as parking space, better surface for vehicles experiencing emergency repairs
and serve as way for heavy pedestrian flow. The shoulder width provision depends
on the terrain type and volume of traffic using the road. ERA sets the width of
shoulder to be provided to the road for each design standards based on terrain type
for rural roads. Since the Babogallo – Babichi road has flat, rolling and mountainous
terrain; the width of shoulder to be provided varies. According to ERA manual
classification, the shoulder width of 1.5m is provided for flat and rolling while width of
0.5m is provided for mountainous terrain. But, the shoulder is replaced by parking
lanes in urban roads.
5.4 NORMAL CROSS FALL
Normal cross fall (or camber, crown) is the slope provided to the carriage width to
carry surface water away from the pavement structure effectively. The normal cross
fall should be 2.5 % on paved roads and 4 % on unpaved roads. Shoulders having
the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal cross fall while
unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 % steeper than the cross fall of
the roadway. The construction type and material affect precise choice of normal
cross fall on unpaved roads rather than any geometric design requirement. The
normal cross fall of the project road is uniform throughout the route. But, it is decided
to vary the unpaved shoulder slope based on suitability of the site condition.
5.5 SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES
Side slopes are slopes designed to insure the stability of the roadway and
provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.The
selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety considerations,
height of cut or fill, and economic considerations.

5.6 ROADSIDE DITCHES

Road side ditches are structures provided road cross section elements for the
safe disposal of water drained from the road surface and environments. If the water
is not drained away from the pavement properly, the pavement structures will fell
under the normal traffic before their design life. ERA manual sets the minimum depth
and distance of the ditch from the toe of the embankment based on the terrain type
and site soil conditions. Minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m in mountainous
and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere, using a ―v-ditch‖ configuration. The
side slope and back slope of ditches has to be properly set based on the height of
the slope site soil conditions. The detail design dimension of road side ditches will be
dealt in the Drainage Design chapter.
5.7 CLEAR ZONE
Clear zone is an area reserved for minimization of vehicle accident at road
sides, which depends on physical characteristics of the roadside environment.
Elimination of roadside furniture or its relocation to less vulnerable areas is options in
the development of safer roadsides. Lateral clearances between roadside objects
and obstructions and the edge of the carriageway should normally be not less than
1.5 meters.
The project route passes through agricultural land and grazing land which do not
have severe environmental effect on traffic visibility. But, it is decided to put roadside
furniture such as road signs, marker posts and etc. at 2.5m distance from the edge
of the carriageway at the sharp curvatures
5.8 RIGHT-OF-WAY
Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road
width and to enhance the safety, operation and appearance of the roads. The width
of right-of-way depends on the cross section elements of the highway, topography
and other physical controls together with economic considerations. Since, the project
road falls under DS4 and the width of the right- of –way is 50m.

CHAPTER SIX
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
6.1 ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain
is designed to meet the needs of the road users. The principal geometric features
are the road cross-section and horizontal and vertical alignment.
 Horizontal alignment
— Minimum radius of curve
— Minimum stopping sight distance
— Minimum passing sight distance
 Vertical alignment
— Maximum gradient
— Length of maximum gradient
— Minimum stopping sight distance on vertical curves
— Length of vertical curves
 Cross section
— Width of carriage way
— Width of shoulders
— Right of way
— Cross fall, camber and super elevation
Elements of design are influenced by a variety of design controls engineering criteria
like:
 function and classification of the road
 required design speed
 topography of the surrounding land
 projected traffic volume and composition
 traffic safety considerations
 environmental considerations
 capital cost of construction and
 Roadway users etc.

6.2 DESIGN CONTROL FACTORS

The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the different factors. In
order to satisfy the required geometric parameters, we have to closely see the major
design control factors. These are:-
 Topography
 Design speed
 Environmental consideration etc.
6.2.1 Topography
Topography of the area affects geometric design of a highway. The geometric
design elements like cross section, horizontal and vertical alignment strongly
depends on the transverse terrain through which the roads passes. Alignment should
be as directional as possible, but should be consistent with the topography. A flowing
line that conforms generally to the natural contours is preferable aesthetically, to one
with long tangents that slashes through the terrain. In general the number of curves
should be kept to a minimum.
6.2.2 Design speed
Design speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design
element of a highway. It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a
specified section of highway when conditions are so favourable that the design
features govern. The choice of design speed is governed primarily by topography,
traffic volume, function and class of highway, capital cost, aesthetic considerations
etc. All of the geometric design parameters of a road are directly related to the
selected design speed. Different speed standards are assigned for different classes
of the road. It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a
chosen design speed should ensure a safe design.

6.2.3 Environmental consideration

Another design control factor is environmental condition in which the road is to be
designed. The road going to be constructed has many advantages so that it should
provide its function without disturbed by the atmosphere of area. Also aesthetic and
landscaping should affect the geometry of the road. So it should be considered in the
design of the road.
6.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENTS
The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight
section, the circular curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the super elevation
section.
6.3.1 Tangent section
Tangent sections are beneficial in flat terrain but less in rolling or mountainous
from aesthetic point of view and they provide better visibility and more passing
opportunity from safety point of view. However, long tangent sections increase the
danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. ERA manual
sets the maximum length of a tangent section not to exceed 4.0 kilometres. Based
on this, we decided to limit the length of the tangent section of the designed road in
order to satisfy safety and aesthetic values.
6.3.2 Horizontal circular curve parameters and calculation
The circular part of the horizontal alignment is provided to create a smooth
transition between the tangents of different angle. It is one of the important features
which influences efficiency and safety of a highway. When a vehicle moves in a
circular path, it is forced radial out ward by centrifugal force which is
counterbalanced by providing super elevation and the existing side friction
developed between the tires and the road surface. For calculation of the minimum
horizontal radius, R min, for a particular design speed, the following equation shall
be used.
Rmin = Vd/[127(f+e)]
Where:-
Vd = Design Speed (km/h)
e = Maximum super elevation (%/100)
f = Side friction coefficient

6.3.3 Transition curve

a transition curve is a curve of varying radius introduced between a straight and a
circular curve or between two circular curves to facilitate change over from straight to
curve or from one curve to another. as soon as a vehicle enters a curve, it
experiences a centrifugal force which tends to cause derailment, overturning, or side
slipping of vehicles. to avoid this, super elevation is provided which means raising
the outer edge of a curve over the inner one transition curve helps in:-
 providing super elevation
 increase or decrease in curvature gradually determination of
length of transition curve
The length of transition curve is determined by taking in to account the following
a) The ratio of change of centrifugal acceleration.
Ls=0.0215vd3/c*Rc
b) The rate of change of super-elevation.
The higher of the two values is taken as design transition length.
6.3.4 Sight distance
It is distance required so that the driver can easily see and manage his vehicle
without damage and conflict. For highway safety, the designer must provide sight
distances of sufficient length that drivers can control the operation of their vehicles.
since our road is two-lane rural highways, we generally provided such passing sight
distance at frequent intervals and for substantial portions of their length based on era
specification. sight distance includes:-
 stopping sight distance
 passing sight distance
6.3.4.1 Stopping sight distance on horizontal curve
Stopping sight distance is the sum of the distance traversed by the vehicle from
the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes
are applied and the distance required to stop the vehicle from the instant brake
application begins. These are referred to as brake reaction distance and braking
distance, respectively. The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficient
long enough to enable a vehicle travelling at the design speed to stop before
reaching a stationary object in its path.

6.3.4.1.1 Break reaction distance

It is a distance that will be travelled by the driver at the instant he/she sees an
object. ERA states the following formula for determining break reaction distance as:-
D = (0.278) (t) (V)

Where:-
D = break reaction distance (m)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = initial speed (km/h)
6.3.4.1.2 Breaking distance
Braking distance is a distance covered by the driver while applying break at the
instant the driver apply the brake up to stoppage of the vehicle.
D=
Where, f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway.
Again it depends on the curve l
6.3.4.1.3 Stopping sight distance on horizontal curve
Once we have a radius that connects the two sections of road way safely and
comfortably, it is needed to make sure that we have to provide an adequate sight
distance throughout the horizontal curve. Sight distance can be the controlling
aspect of horizontal curve design where obstruction are present near the inside of
the curve to determine the actual sight distance that we have provided, It must be
considered that the driver can only see the portion of the roadway a head, there
should be a length of roadway between the vehicle and the hazard that is greater
than or equal to the stopping sight distance. Because the sight obstructions for each
curve will be different no general method for calculating the sight distance has been
developed.

6.3.4.2 Passing sight distance

Passing sight distance is the minimum sight distance that must be available to
enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle, safely and comfortably,
without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design
speed, should it come into view after the overtaking manoeuvre is started.
And the minimum passing sight distance is calculated as ERA geometric manual
2002 chapter seven page 4. But, for the design purpose ERA manual reduces
distance shown below from normal passing sight distance.
Fig.6.1 passing sight distance

6.3.5 Super Elevation

Super elevating on curves is intended to counter act of the centrifugal force, the
remaining part being resisted by the lateral friction. Also, super-elevating results in
economics in maintenance. This is because skidding and unequal pressure on the
wheels of vehicles, which results from high value of side way force between the tires
and the road way surface, give rise to potholes and necessitate frequent attention to
the surface.
Generally, super-elevation rate e is the raising of the outer edge of the road
along a curve in order to counteract the effect of radial centrifugal force in
combination with the friction between the surface and tires developed in the lateral
direction. Maximum value is controlled by:
 Climatic condition; frequency and amount of snow/icing.
 Terrain condition; flat vs. mountainous
 Area type; rural vs. urban.
 Frequency of very slow moving vehicles
6.3.5.1 Super elevation Runoff
In alignment design with spirals the super elevation runoff is affected over the whole
of the transition curve. The length of runoff is the spiral length with starting point at
tangent to spiral (TS) and the spiral to curve (SC) at the end. The change in cross
slope begins by removing the adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on the
outside of the curve on a length of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent run out).
Between the TS and SC (the super elevation runoff) the travelled way is rotated to
reach the full super elevation at the SC.This procedure is reversed on leaving the
curve.

Fig.:6.2 supper elevation runoff at entrance
Fig.:6.3 supper elevation runoff at exit
6.3.5.2 Tangent run out (crown runoff) section

a) At the entrance of the curve
Length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in out-side cross slope

from normal cross slope rate to zero which is the tangent distance needed to
avoid sudden change. It is computed from geometry of the cross slop and
design supper elevation.

b) At the exit of the curve
Tangent run out (crown runoff) section: Length of roadway needed to Accomplish
change in out-side cross slope from normal cross slope Rate to zero which is the
tangent distance needed to avoid sudden change. It is computed from geometry of
the cross slop and design supper elevation.
6.3.5.3 Shoulder supper elevation
The low side (inner shoulder) super elevation of the curves, match with the roadway
super elevation. On the high side (outer shoulder), the super elevation is set such
that the grade break between the roadway and the shoulder is 8 percent. An
exception to this occurs at a maximum super elevation of 8 percent, where the
resultant shoulder super elevation would be an undesirable flat configuration. To
drain the shoulder the super elevation is set at -1%.
6.3.6 Widening of high way
Extra widening of pavements on curves and embankments is provided for the
following reasons.
 Rear wheels follow front wheels in shorter radius.
 Trailers fitted on trucks, don‘t follow path of trucks wheels.

 In build-up areas in order to have adequate sight distances.
 Psychologically drivers tend to keep greater clearances with vehicles

coming from the opposite direction and might thus move out of a lane
when traversing a curve.
Extra widening is provided for two cases

1. Widening for vehicle operation
W=nL2/2R
2. Extra widening needed for Psychological reason.
W=Vd /10√R

Then total widening needed for n lanes of highway is given by:
We =nL2/2R+Vd /10R1/2
Where:-
n =No of lane.
L = length of the vehicle
R = radius of curvature
Vd = design spe
6.3.7 Horizontal curve design and setting out
Design of curve No. 1
Data required for design.
Terrain type --- Rolling
Design standard --- DS4
Design speed ---70km/hr
Coefficient of friction --- 0.17
Maximum super elevation --- 4%
degree of curvature --- 4%
Chainage of PI ------- 0+278.903
Δ (Delta) = 83005'33"
Curve type ------ simple curve
Calculation of curve elements:-

Minimum radius R min
Rmin = vd2/127(e+ f)
= (70km/h) 2/127(0.04+0.17)
= 183.72m
But Rmin is less than from Rmin recommended in the table 8.5 in ERA geometric
manual so we use the minimum recommended value from table that is Rmin=
215m.So we decided to provide simple circular curve.

Fig.6.4 Simple curve
Tangent length (TL) = R tan Δ/2

= 215m *tan (83005'33"/2)
= 190.53m
E (External Distance) = R (sec Δ/2 – 1)
= 215m (sec (83005'33"/2) – 1)
= 72.3m
L (Curve Length) = Δ * 2π*R/360
= 83005'33"*2π/360 *215m
= 311.8m
M (Middle Ordinate) = R (1- cos Δ/2)
= 215(1-cos83005'33"/2)
= 54.09m
Calculation of chainage of each point
Chainage of PC = chainage of PI – Tangent length
= 0+278.903 - 190.53m
= 0+88.37m

Chainage of PT = Chainage of PC + curve length (L)

= 0+88.37m +311.8m
= 0+400.17m
Chainage of first point on the curve is taken as 0+094.00
Length of the first point = 0+094.00m - 0+088.37m
=5.63m
Number of full cords = 15
Length of final sub cord = 311.8m – (15*20) - 5.63m
= 6.17m
nd
Chainage of 2 point = 0+094.00 + 20m
= 0+114.00m
In similar way the results are tabulated below.
The deflection angle at any point on the circular curve is given by
δ =1719c/R in minute.
Deflection angle for the first point = 1719*5.63/215
=00045'01"
Deflection angle for 2nd point = 1719*25.63/215
= 03024'55
Similarly the reset results are tabulated below.

Table: 6.1 setting out table for simple curve

point Chainage (m) Cord length(m) Total deflection Remark
angle
Pc 0+088.37 0 0 Starting point of curve
1 0+094.00 5.63 00045'01"
2 0+114.00 25.63 03024'55"
3 0+134.00 45.63 06004'50"
4 0+154.00 65.63 08044'44"
5 0+174.00 85.63 11024'39"
6 0+194.00 105.63 14004'33"

7 0+214.00 125.63 16044'27"
8 0+234.00 145.63 19024'22"
9 0+254.00 165.63 22004'16"
10 0+274.00 185.63 24044'11"
11 0+294.00 205.63 27024'05"

12 0+314.00 225.63 30003'59"
13 0+334.00 245.63 32043'54"

14 0+354.00 265.63 35023'48"
15 0+374.00 285.63 38003'43"

16 0+394.00 305.63 40043'37"
17 0+400.17 311.80 41032'57" Finishing point of curve

Widening design for curve one

Extra widening provided for:-
A. vehicle operation
W = nL2/2R,
Where:-
n = No of lane = 2
L = length of the vehicle (for DV4) = 15.2m
R = radius of curvature = 215m
W = 2*(15.2m) 2/2*215m
= 1.07m
B. Psychological reason.
W=Vd/10
Vd = 70km/hr
R = 215m
W= (70km/hr.)/10* m
= 0.48m
We =widening for vehicle operation + Psychological reason
= nL2/2R+vd/10
= 1.07m +0.48m = 1.55m ≈ 1.60m
So, we decided to provide 1.60m widening length; 0.80m on both sides of the road
lane.
Supper elevation design
For simple curves (curves without spiral transition)
At the entrance of the curve supper elevation is attained providing 2/3L into the
tangent and1/3 of L in the curved portion of the road. From ERA geometric manual
2002 table8.5, length of runoff for horizontal curves for 4% maximum supper
elevation is taken.
So; Radius of the curve, R=215m
Design speed, Vd =70km/hr.
Maximum supper elevation, e max = 4%
L = 39m

Then from the table the minimum length of runoff excluding tangent run out is
39m.Hence,
Using the above principle,
= 2/3 of L for tangent portion
= 26m
And,
= 1/3 of L is provided for curved portion
= 13m
The tangent run out can be determined as follow:
Y= W*S
Where:-
Y = the vertical distance b/n the edge to centre of the road
W = lane width = 3.35m
S = cross slope = 2.2%
Y = 3.35m*2.5%
= 0.08m
Then the longitudinal length required (the tangent run out) is determined from y
and design supper elevation, ed.
Lt = y/e
= 0.08m/0.04
= 2.0m (remove adverse crown)
Design of curve No 12
The following are the data required for design.
Terrain type --- Rolling
Design standard --- DS4
Design speed --- 70km/hr
Coefficient of friction --- 0.17
Maximum super elevation --- 8%

Degree of curvature --- 4%

Chain age of PI = 5+226.547
Δ (Delta) = 58014'31.2"
Curve type = combined curve
Calculation of minimum radius Rmin

Rmin = Vd2/127(e+ f)
= (70km/h) 2/127(0.08+0.17)
= 154.33m
But the calculated Rmin is less than recommended Rmin in ERA manual in the table
8.4 so we use the minimum recommended value from table 175m =Rc radius of the
curve. Since the topography at this station is rolling and the radius is short we use
transition curve.
Fig.6.5 Combined curve

Design of transition curve

Length of transition (from Ts to Sc or from Cs to St)
Ls = 0.0215Vd3/(c* Rc)
Where:-
V = 70km/hr
C=72/ (Vd+65) =0.533
Rc = 175m
Ls = 0.0215Vd3/(c* Rc)
= 0.0215*(70km/h) 3/ (0.533* 175m)
= 79.013m
Spiral angle (ф) = L/2R in radians
= 79.013/2*175
= 12056'4.57"
Shift of curve(S) = L2/24R
= 79.0132/24*175
=1.486m
Tangent length of the combined curve = (R+S)*tan Δ/2 + L/2
= (175+1.486m) * tan (58014'31.2"/2) + 79.013/2
=137.822m
Central angle for circular curve = Δ-2ф
= 58014'31.2" – 2*12056'4.57"
= 32022'22.06"
Length of circular curve = πR (Δ-2ф)/180
= π*175(58014'31.2" – 2*12056'4.57")/180
= 98.877m
Length of combined curve =2 L+ π R (Δ-2ф)/180
= 2*79.013+ π*175(58014'31.2" – 2*12056'4.57")/180
= 256.903m

Calculation of chainage at each point on combined curve

Chainage of point of commencement of curve (Ts)
Ts = chainage of PI – tangent length of the combined curve
= 5+226.547 - 137.822m
= 5+088.725
Chainage of point Sc = chainage of Ts + length of transition curve (L)
= 5+088.725+79.013m
= 5+167.738
Chainage of point (Cs) = chainage of Sc +length of circular curve
= 5+167.738+98.877m
=5+266.615
Chainage of point (St) = chainage of Cs + length of transition curve (L)
= 5+266.615+79.013m
= 5+345.628
Setting out entrance transition curve
The chainage of the first point on the curve is taken as 5+090.00
Distance of the second point from firstTs = 095.00m-088.725 = 6.275m
Distance of the third point from firstTs = 6.275m +20m =26.275m
The deflection angle at any point on the transition curve is given by:-
α =573*L2i/ (L*R) in minute.
Deflection angle for the first point (α1) =573*L21/ (L*R)

=573*6.2752/ (79.013*175)
=00001'38"
Deflection angle for the first point (α2) = 573*L22/ (L*R)
= 573*26.2752/ (79.013*175)
= 00028'37"

Table: 6.2 setting out table for entrance transition curve

point Chainage(m) Cord Deflection Remark
length(m) angle
Ts 5+088.725 0 0 Starting point of curve
1 5+095.00 6.275 00001'38"
2 5+115.00 26.275 00028'37"
3 5+135.00 46.275 01028'44"
4 5+155.00 66.275 03002'01"
5 5+167.738 79.013 04018'43" End of transition curve
Check: total deflection angle =1/3* ф = 1/3*12056'4.57"= 04018'43" It is ok!!
Setting out of circular curve

Chainage of point (Sc) = 5+167.738
The chainage of first point on the circular curve is taken as 5+180.00m
Length of initial sub cord = 5+180.00m - 5+167.738
= 12.262m
No. of full cords = 4
Length of final sub cord = 98.877m – (4*20) - 12.262m
= 6.615m
Chainage of 2nd point = 5+180.00m + 20m
= 5+200m

The deflection angle at any point on the circular curve is given by

δ = 1719c/R in minute.
Deflection angle for the first point = 1719*12.262/175
=02000'48"
Deflection angle for 2nd point = 1719*32.262/175
= 05016'54"
Table: 6.3 setting out table for simple curve
Point Chainage(m) Cord length(m) Total deflection Remark
angle
St 5+167.738 0 0 Starting point of
circular curve
1 5+180.00 12.262 02000'48"
2 5+200.00 32.262 05016'54"
3 5+220.00 52.262 08033'22"
4 5+240.00 72.262 11049'49"
5 5+260.00 92.262 15006'17"
6 5+266.615 98.877 16011'15" End of circular curve
Exit transition curve setting out

Chainage at spiral to tangent (St) =5+345.628
Chainage of the first point on the curve is taken as 5+340.00
Distance of the first point from tangency = 5+345.628-5+340.00
=5.628m
Distance of the 2nd point from tangency = 5.628m +20
= 25.628m
In similar way the results are tabulated below
Deflection angle for first point = 573*(5. 628)2/ (79.013*175)
= 00001'19"

Deflection angle for 2nd point = 573*(25.628)2/ (79.013*175)

= 00027'13"
Table: 6.4 Setting out table for entrance transition curve
point Chainage(m) Cord Deflection Remark
length(m) angle
St 5+345.628 0 0 Starting point of curve
1 5+340.00 5.628 00001'19"
2 5+320.00 25.628 00027'13"
3 5+300.00 45.628 01026'16"
4 5+280.00 65.628 02058'29"
5 5+266.615 79.013 04018'43" End of transition curve
Check: total deflection angle =1/3* ф = 1/3*12056'4.57"= 04018'43" It is ok!!
Widening for curve 12

Extra widening provided for:-
A. vehicle operation
W = nL2/2R,
Where:-
n = No of lane = 2
L = length of the vehicle (for DV4) = 15.2m
R = radius of curvature = 175m
W = 2*(15.2m) 2/2*175m
= 1.32m

B. Psychological reason.
W=Vd/10
Where: -
Vd = 70km/hr
R = 175m
W = (70km/hr)/10* m
= 0.53m
We = widening for vehicle operation + Psychological reason
= nL2/2R+vd/10
= 1.32m +0.53m = 1.85m ≈ 2.0m
So, we decided to provide 2.0m widening length; 1.0m on both sides of the road
lane.
Super elevation Design
At the entrance of the curve:
A. Tangent
run out (crown runoff) section: - it is calculated from geometry,
Y= W*S
Where:
Y = the vertical distance b/n the edge to centre of the road
W = lane width = 3.35m
S = cross slope = 2.2%
Y = 3.35m*2.5%
= 0.084m
Then the longitudinal length required (the tangent run out) is determined from Y and
design supper elevation, ed
Lt = y/e
= 0.084m/0.08

inner edge starts to rotate at point where outside cross slope is zero (TS).Hence,
length of runoff section = Spiral length = 67m
At the exit of the curve:

A) Tangent run out (crown runoff) section: It is calculated in similar manner with
that of entrance of the curve. But it is in the reverse direction with that of
entrance curve. So, Length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in
out-side cross slope from zero to normal cross slope is:
Lt = y/e
= 0.084m/0.08
B)Runoff section: spirals the super elevation runoff is affected over the whole
length of the transition curve and it is equal to the length of transition curve at
the exit of the curve.
6.4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS

Vertical alignment of a highway and its effect on the safe and economical operation
of vehicle constitutes one of the most important features of highway design. Vertical
alignment of a highway consists of straight sections of the highway known as grades,
or tangents connected by vertical curves. The design of vertical alignment therefore
involves;
 Selection of suitable grades for the tangent section and
 Design of the vertical curves
The topography of the area through which the road travels has a significant impact
on the design of the vertical alignment. The two major aspects of vertical alignment
are vertical curvature, which is governed by sight distance criteria and gradient.
6.4.1 Vertical curves
6.4.1.1 Crest curve and Sag curve
According to the topography (position of gradient)‘vertical curves are of two types.
1. Crest curve.
2. Sag curve.

1) Crest curve
If the offsets of curve are below the tangent line (grade) the curve is called crest
curve.
This curve occurred;
a) If there is a change in gradient from large positive to small positive.
b) If there is a change in gradient from positive to negative.
c) If there is a change in gradient small negative to large negative.
2) Sag curve
If the offsets of curve are above the tangent the curve is called sag curve.
This curve occurred;
a) If there is a change in gradient from large negative to small negative and,
b) If there is a change in gradient from negative to positive.
c) If there is a change in gradient from small positive to large positive
In this project both curves are applied. Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical
curves have been recommended based on design
Speeds and stopping sight distance requirements. They provide for ride comfort,
appearance, and most importantly, safety. These are shown in Tables9-1 and 9-2 in
ERA manual 2002, respectively, in terms of ―K‖ values.
6.4.1.2 Vertical curve Gradients and grade controls
One of the important considerations in designing vertical alignment is the gradient.
The cost of operation of vehicles the speed of vehicles and the capacity of a highway
are profoundly affected by the grades provided in order to limit the effect of grade on
vehicular operation; the maximum grade on any highway should be selected
judiciously. The selection of the maximum grade for a highway depends on;
 Visibility related to sight distance.
 Cost of vehicle operation
 Cut and fill (earth work)
 Passengers comfort.
 General appearance and
 Existing road intersections & adjacent land use

Fixing of grade for the road

In fixing, the grade of the road the following points where considered to be the
decisive factors
 minimum gradient
 Maximum grade limit
 Critical length of gradient (according to ERA manual 2002
table 9.)
 Phasing of vertical & horizontal curves
 Cut & fill
a) Maximum grade limit

The selection of grade is depends on the economic benefit of the highway, safety,
traffic volume and drainage. The maximum grade limit for the design standard DS4 is
given in ERA geometric design manual 2002(table 9-3) depending on terrain type of
the highway.
b)Minimum Gradient for drainage
The selection of the minimum grade for a highway depends on the drainage
condition of the highway. Longitudinal drainage slope is mostly 0.5%. However, flat
and level gradients on uncurbed paved highways are acceptable when the cross
slope and carriageway elevation above the surrounding ground is adequate to drain
the surface laterally. With curbed highways or streets, longitudinal gradients should
be provided to facilitate surface drainage and 1% for unlined roads
6.4.1.3Critical length of gradient
Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed
or the point at which it has lost a certain amount of speed. Critical length of gradient
is considered to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon which a
loaded truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed. It depends on the
grade of the highway. Generally, critical length is decreased as the gradient increase
and increase as the gradient decrease. (ERA Geometric design manual 2002 table
9.4)

6.4.1.4 Climbing Lane

A climbing lane is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes.
The provision of these lanes:-

 Has the effect of reducing congestion in the through lanes by
removing slower moving vehicles from the traffic stream.
 Has effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient
 Enhances road safety by reducing the speed differential in the

through lane.
The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road standard, speed
and traffic volume. Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic
volumes are greater than400ADT. Thus the application of climbing lanes is limited
particularly to trunk and link roads.
Depending on the above information application of climbing lanes is not necessary
for our road.(Note:- main access road with ADT of 190. )
6.4.4 Sight distance
Sight distance is the length of the highway that‘s visible to a driver. A safe sight
distance is the distance needed by the driver on arterial, or a driver exiting a drive
way or a street, to verify that the road is clear and avoid conflicts with other vehicles.
Sight line must be kept free of objects which might interfere with ability of drivers to
see other vehicles. Features like hills, curves in the road, vegetation, other land
escaping, sins and buildings can reduce sight distance. In design of highway there
are two sight distances which are considered: passing sight distance and stopping
sight distance.
6.4.2.1 Stopping sight distance on vertical curves
To calculate the following points must be considered:-
Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters
Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters

Fig.6.6 stopping sight distance at crest curve
Fig.6.7 sopping sight distance at crest
Brake reaction distance is the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the
driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied and
braking distance is the distance required to stop the vehicle from the instant brake
application begins. So, sum of the two distances is called stopping sight distance.

6.4.2.2 Passing Sight distance on vertical curves

Passing sight distance is the minimum sight distance that must be available to
enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle, safely and comfortably,
without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design
speed, should it come into view after the overtaking manoeuvre is started. The sight
distance available for passing at any place is the longest distance at which a driver
whose eyes are 1.07m above the pavement surface can see the object.Passing sight
distance is considered only on two-lane roads. At critical locations, a stretch of four-
lane construction with stopping sight distance is some times more economical than
two lanes top of an object 1.07m high on the road with passing sight distance.
6.4.3 Design length of vertical curve
A) Design length of crest curves
In determining the length of the curve the following points are taken in to account
 sight distance (both stopping and passing )
 class of highway (DS4)
 terrain type
 minimum curvature
 Aesthetic values
 Passenger comfort
Length of crest curve required for minimum curvature

Lmc = AK
Length of crest curve required for safe stopping sight distance
When sight distance is, Sd>L
Lsd = 2SSD - 200(√H1+√H2)2 /A
Length of crest curve required for safe passing sight distance
Lpd= 2PSD -2(H1+h2+2√H1*H2)/A
Length of crest curve required for aesthetic value
La = Vd2*A/389

Length of crest curve required for passengers comfort

Lc = 30*A
B) Design length of sag curves

The length of the curve is determined by taking the following criteria‘s in to account
 Headlight sight distance
 Passengers comfort
 Drainage control
 Aesthetic
Length of crest curve required for minimum curvature
Lmc = AK
Length of crest curve required for safe stopping sight distance
When sight distance is, SSD >L
Lsd = 2* SSD - 2(h+SSDtan  )/A
Length of crest curve required for safe passing sight distance
Lpd= 2* PSD - 2(h+PSDtan  )/A
Length of crest curve required for aesthetic value
La = Vd2*A/389
Length of crest curve required for passengers comfort
Lc = 30*A
The maximum of the above values is taken as design length for the curve.But if the
computed curve length for the above requirements is less than the minimum curve
length of recommended by ERA 2002, then the recommended value is taken as a
curve length.
Length of curve = max {calculated length, minimum curve length of recommended
by ERA 2002}
Where:-
A = the algebraic difference of the two gradient
K = rate of vertical curvature
SSD = minimum stopping sight distance

PSD = minimum passing sight distance
h = the height from the ground to the eye of the driver, for sag curve, h = 0.6m
Vd=deign speed
 = angle between the ray from the observer‘s eye to the object,for sag
Curve,  = 1O
6.4.4 DESIGNAND SETTING OUT OF VERTICAL CURVES
Design of curve four
The design data are taken from ERA geometric manual 2002, table forDS4.
 Design speed ------ 70km prhr
 Topography --------- Rolling
 Maximum gradient desirable ---- 5%
 Maximum gradient absolute ------ 7%
 Departed gradient ---- G1=11% and G2=12%
 Minimum gradient ----- 0.5%
 Min. stopping sight ----- 110m
 Min .passing sight distance ----- 275m
Here, in this project there is a departure from ERA standards on the maximum
absolute gradient value. The reason of this departure is the grade increment of the
longitudinal ground profile.If it is compelled to fix the longitudinal gradient to ERA
standards for DS4, there will be excavation of huge amount of earth work which will
be uneconomical. As it is described in section 9.3 of ERA geometric manual there
are conditions that, itis possible to consider gradients >10%.It is also stated as the
designer can deviate from these standards in some situations where he/she face
difficulty. The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards
to the Design and Research Division Manager as illustrated in section 2.3 of ERA
geometric manual for evaluation. But it is simply considered as it is approved by
Design and Research Division Manager for academic purpose.

Here are the considerations taken for safety purpose in the design.
 Critical length of the gradient set to the ERA standards to assure user
comfort.
 The climbing lane is provided to reduce the impact of a steep gradient.
 The traffic signs are provided in order to alert the drivers not to drive with
high speed.
Curve data computation
Since the gradient changes from +11% to +1 2%, the vertical curve is a sag curve.
Algebraic difference in grade (A) = 12-11=1%,
Station of PVI is 1+444.00
Elevation of PVI=2262.006m,
Minimum allowable "K" value = 25, ERA geometric manual table 9.2 for V=70km/hr
1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
L=AK ,where K is rate of vertical curvature.
K=25 for sag curve
L= 1.0*25 =25.0m
2. Length required for safe stopping site distance
When SSD > L
L=2SSD - 200(h+ SSDtanα)/A
Where for sag curve, the height from the ground to the eye of the driver, h =0.6
and the angle b/n the ray from the observer‘s eye to the object, α= 1o
Soothe required curve length is:
L=2SSD - 200(h+ SSDtanα)/A
=2*110 - 200(0.6+ 110*tan 10)/1%
= -284.011m
3. Length required for safe passing site distance
Lc=2* PSD- 200(h+PSD tanα)/A
= 2*275 – 200(0.6+ 275tan1°) / 1%
= -530.03m

Here the negative sign indicates that the curve length is visible and no need for
sight distance consideration.
4. Length required for passengers comfort
Lc = Vd2*A /389
= 702*1 /389
=12.596m
5. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)
Lc = 30 *A
= 30*1
= 30.0m
But this maximum length is not greater than the minimum curve length
recommended by ERA (i.e. 200m). Provide, L=200m
Fig.6.8 Sag curve

Determination of the curve elements
Elevation of PVI=2262.006m,
Station of PVC = PVI- L/2
= 1+444.00 - 200/2
=1+344.00m
Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI - G1* (L/2)
=2262.006m - (11/100)*(200/2)
=2251.006m

Station of PVT = PVI + L/2

=1+444.0+ 200/2
=1+544.0
Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI+(G2)(L/2)
=2262.006m + (12/100)*(200/2)
=2274.006m
Curve setting out
Curve elevation= Elev.PVC+X*G1+Y for the first 100m
= Elev.PVT-X*G2+Y for the next 100m
Y=AX2/200L
Where
y = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (m)
x = horizontal distance from the start of the vertical curve (m)
A = algebraic difference in gradients (%)
L = length of vertical curve

Table: 6.5 setting out of sag curve

Station X(m) Tangent Offset(m)
elevation(m) Y=AX2/200L Curve elv
Elev.PVC+X*G1 (D) =C+D REMARK
(A) (B) (C)
1+344.00 0 2251.006 0.000 2262.006 PVC
1+364.00 20 2253.206 0.010 2253.216
1+384.00 40 2255.406 0.040 2255.446
1+404.00 60 2257.607 0.090 2259.697
1+424.00 80 2259.806 0.160 2259.966
1+444.00 100 2262.006 0.250 2262.256
Elev.PVT -X*G2 Y=AX2/200L
1+444.00 100 2262.006 0.250 2262.256

1+464.00 80 2264.406 0.160 2264.566
1+484.00 60 2266.806 0.090 2266.896
1+504.00 40 2269.206 0.040 2269.246
1+524.00 20 2271.606 0.010 2271.616
1+544.00 0 2274.006 0.000 2274.006
PVT
Design of curve 10
Curve data
 Design speed 70 KPH
 Topography rolling
 Maximum gradient desirable 5%
 Maximum gradient absolute 7%
 Gradient G1=3% and G2=2%
 Minimum gradient 0.5%
 Min .passing sight distance(PSD) 275m

Since the gradient changes from +3% to + 2%, the vertical curve is a crest curve.
Elevation of PVI=2493.326
G1=3%, G2= 2%
A = G2 - G1 = |3 – 2|% = |1|% = 1%
Computation of the curve length for curve eleven
1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
L=AK, where K is rate of vertical curvature.
K=31 for crest curve, from ERA table 9.1 of V=70km/hr
L= 1*31= 31.0m
2. Length required for safe stopping sight distance
When SSD> L
L =2SSD- 200(√H1+√H2)2/A
=2(110) - 200((√1.07+√0.15)2/1
= -184.25m
Negative sign indicates that the curve length is visible and no need for stopping
sight distance consideration.
3. Length required for safe passing sight distance
L= 2PSD -200(H1+H2+2√H1*H2)/A
=2*275-200(1.07+0.15+2√1.07*0.15)/1
=145.75m
4. Length required for passengers comfort
L= Vd2*A/ 389
= 702*1/ 389
=12.596m
5. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)
L= 30 *A
= 30*1
= 30m
The maximum of the above values is L=145.75m. But this maximum length is
not greater than the minimum curve length recommended by ERA (i.e. 200m).

Therefore, the length of the curve is taken to be L=200m.
Fig.6.9 crest curve
Determination of the curve elements

Station of PVI =4+429.00
Elevation of PVI = 2493.326m
Station of PVC = PVI- L/2
= 4+429.00- 200/2
=4+329.00
Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI - G1* (L/2)
=2493.326m - (3/100)*(200/2)
=2490.326m
Station of PVT =PVI + L/2
=4+429.00+ 200/2
=4+529.00
Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI + G2* (L/2)
= 2493.326m+ (2/100)*(200/2)
= 2495.326m
Curve setting out
Curve elevation = Elevation of.PVC+X*G1+Y for the first 100m
= Elevation of.PVT-X*G2+Y for the next100m
Y=AX2/200L:

Table6.6 setting out of crest curve

Station X(m) Tangent Offset(m)
elevation(m) Y=AX2/200L Curve elv
Elev.PVC+X*G1 (D) =C-D Remark
(A) (B) (C)
4+329.00 0 2490.326 0.000 2490.326 PVC
4+349.00 20 2490.926 0.010 2490.916
4+369.00 40 2491.526 0.040 2491.486
4+389.00 60 2492.126 0.090 2492.036
4+409.00 80 2492.726 0.160 2492.566
4+429.00 100 2493.326 0.250 2493.076
Elev.PVT -X*G2 Y=AX2/200L
4+449.00 100 2493.326 0.250 2493.076

4+469.00 80 2493.726 0.160 2493.566
4+489.00 60 2494.126 0.090 2493.036
4+509.00 40 2494.526 0.040 2494.486
4+529.00 20 2494.926 0.010 2494.916
4+549.00 0 2495.326 0.000 2495.326 PVT

CHAPTER SEVEN
EARTH WORK ANALYSIS
7.1. Introduction
Earth work is conversion of natural condition to required section and grade.
Earth work in high way design includes determination of cuts and fills, location of
borrow, waste sites, the free haul and over haul distance determination. The most
common item of work encountered in high project is earth work.
Earth work includes:
 Clearing and Grabbing
 Excavation of drainage channels
 Borrows
 Haul & overhaul
 Grading
 Preparation of side slopes
Excavation
There are mainly three types of excavations in the construction of highway.

A. Road ways and drainage excavation
This is the excavating and grading of the road way and ditches including the removal
of all excavated materials and all work needed for the construction and completion of
the cuts, embankments, ditches, approaches, intersections and similar operations of
the work.
B. Excavation for structures
This refers to the excavation of materials in order to permit the construction of pipe
culverts, concrete box culverts, foundation for bridges, retaining walls and practically
all other structures that may be required in particular work

C. borrow excavation
When sufficient materials for the formation of embankments and other elements of
the road way structures is not available for excavation performed within the limit of
the right of way, additional suitable materials is generally taken from the borrow pits.
Excavated materials are usually classified as:

 Common excavation: is largely earth, or with detached boulders.
 Loose excavation: usually refers to rock which can be removed pick and bar,
also the use of power shovels or blasting may be advantageous.
 Solid rock excavation: comprises hard rock in place and boulders that can be
removed only by the use of drilling and blasting equipment.
The estimation of earth quantities deserves a detailed treatment. According to ERA
specification the rate of earth work in it such as:-
 Excavation in borrow area
 Transporting to the site of embankment including all lifting and loads not
greater than 50 meter.
The quantity of work in embankment and cuts are computed by the cross
sectional end area method. The area of earth work in each cross section is
computed by the help of mm paper or Plano meter and also can be calculated by
using software programs.
Basic earth work operations
1) Clearing and garbing (m2): the removal of top soil, trees, bushes and etc.
2) Excavation (m3):the process of loosing and removal of soil and rocks. It can be
done for three reasons. These are:-
— In order to maintain the grades for roads and drainage
— For structure foundation
— For borrow excavation
Classification of excavation
 Rock excavation
 Common excavation
 Borrow excavation

 Unsuitable material excavation: removal and disposal of unsuitable

materials for the road.
3) Embankment /compaction (m3k.hr): densification of fill section of the road.
4) Transporting /hauling: moving excavated material place to place: Unit price of
excavation including the cost of transportation from cut to fill is free haul
7.2. Shrinkage and swell
Materials are swelling during excavation or shrink during compaction in the

construction site. For this reason shrinkage and swelling factors should be included
in estimating the quantities.
Table: 7.1Shrinkage factor for different types of soils are recommended by

ER A
Type of soil Shrinkage factor
Light soil(ordinary ground) 10-25%
Light soil(swamp ground) 20-40%
Heavy soil up to10%
7.3. Estimation of earthwork

The steps involved in the computation of earth work quantities and the development
of the optimal mass haul diagram are:
1) End area calculation
2) Volume calculation
3) Earthwork calculation
4) Preparation of mass haul diagram
5) Balancing earth works using the mass haul diagram
a) End area calculation
Areas of station cross sections are calculated first for earthwork calculations.
Based on the shape of the cross sections, two types of area calculation methods are
adopted.
 Simple geometric method: is calculation method for regular cross
sections likeTrapezoidal &Triangular.
 Coordinate method: is calculation method for irregular cross sections

A = 1/2(y1x2+y2x3+……+ynx1) - (x1y2+x2y3+………xny1)
b) Volume calculation
The volume of earth work from the successive cross sections can be computed by
different formulas like average end area method, (trapezoidal method) or primordial
formula. Since trapezoidal method is simple and widely accepted we have used it to
compute the volume. Since the average end area method is simple and is generally
preferred, we choose this method for this particular project.
Average end area method (trapezoidal method)
V= 0.5 (A1+A2)*L
Where:-
V= volume in m3
A1and A2 = areas of successive cross-section in m2
L= distance between successive cross section in m
We considered the value of L to be 20m
To determine the cost needed for the earthwork first we must quantify the total
volume of cut and fill by considering the swelling factor and shrinkage factor.
— Total volume of cut is the sum of all adjusted volume of cuts from station to
station.
Total adjusted cut=excavation volume *adjusted factor
— Total accumulated fill is the sum of the embankments from station to station
without adjustment.
We assume swelling factor and shrinkage factor indicated above for the soil type
light soil (ordinary ground) 0%and 15% respectively.
The mass ordinate can now be calculated by taking the algebraic sum of the
adjusted excavation and unadjusted embankment from station to station, using ―+‖
for excavation and ―-‖ for embankment.

7.4. Mass haul diagram

It is a graphical representation of the amount of earth work and embankment
involved in a project and the manner in which the earth is to be moved. Mass haul
diagram is a continuous curve showing the accumulated algebraic sum of the cut
(+ve) and fill (-ve) volume from some initial station for any succeeding section. The
horizontal or x-axis represents distance and is usually expressed in meters or
stations. The vertical or y- axis represents the cumulative quantity of earth work in
cubic meter. The quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered positive,
and embankment is negative. To draw the mass haul diagram it is convenient to
tabulate the cumulative volumes of cuts and fill at each station. The mass diagram
allows a high way engineer to determine direction of haul and the quantity of earth
taken from or hauled to any location. It shows ‗‘balance point ‗‘ the station between
which is the volume of excavation.
7.5. Economic haul distance
Where there are long haul distances, it may be more economical to waste and
borrow materials rather than pay for the cost of over hauling.
Let
 Ce=cost of excavation per unit volume
 Cb = cost of borrowing material at borrow pit
 Coh = cost of over hauling per unit volume-station
 Le = economical over hauling distance.
 LT=total haul distance
 F = free haul distance.
So,
— Cost of 1m3 of material to cut and to fill = Ce+Coh
— Cost of 1m3 material from excavate, waste, borrow and place to
fill = Ce+Cb.

The maximum limit of economical length of over hauling Le is obtained at the point
where these two costs are equal.
Ce+Coh*Le= Ce+Cb.
Therefore;
Le ≤ Cb/ Coh. and
LT=Le+F
.

CHAPTER EIGHT
PAVEMENT DESIGN
8.1 General
The road pavement is the actual surface on which the vehicles will travel. Its purpose
is to hold to provide friction for the vehicles and to transfer normal stresses to the
underlying soils (sub grade).Some of the desirable characteristics of pavement are:
 The surface should be impervious so that water doesn‘t get in to the lower
layers.
 It should be hard wearing surface so that abrasion action of wheels
doesn‘t damage the surface.
 It should be structural sound to with stand the stresses exerted on it.
 It should be sufficiently thick to distribute the load and stress to a safe
value to the sub grade soil.
 It should be smooth enough to provide comfort to the road users.
The Design Process
There are three main steps to be followed in designing pavement.
1. Estimating the traffic and cumulative equivalent standard axels that pass
through this road over the design life.
2. Assessment of the sub grade strength of the soil over which the road is to be
built.
3. Selecting the most economical combination of pavement material and layer
thickness that will provide satisfactory service over design life of the road.

8.2 summary of projected traffic

The projected traffic is the traffic volume that is assumed to use the designed road.
This includes normal traffic, diverted traffic and generated traffic.
Table 8.1:- The Annual Average daily traffic at the opening of the road
(AADT1)
Vehicle 4 S/ S/ M/ H/
type Car WD Bus L/ Bus Truck Truck Truck T&T Total
Projected
11 10 89 9 44 12 10 5 190
traffic
8.3 Design lane traffic

In applying pavement thickness in our project we must use the governing lane
which is called design lane traffic. In some cases more trucks will travel in one
direction than in the other, or heavily loaded trucks may travel in on one direction
and empty in the other direction so, in the design of pavement thickness, the
identification of the design lane is important. Moreover it is necessary to determine
the relevant proportion of trucks on the design lane. The amount of traffic volume
determines the number of lanes that has to be provided to the road. So, the design
lane traffic depends on the number of lanes of project road. If the highway has two
lanes either of the two- lanes can be considered as the design lane, whereas for
multi-lane highways we take the outside lane as a design lane.
Our project road is two- way two lane road. So, either of the two-lanes are our
design lane. And the pavement design thickness required for the design lane is
applied to the whole carriageway width.
8.4 Directional Split/distribution
Similar to lane distribution the directional split/ distribution of traffic is important as
ADT normally is the daily traffic in both directions. The cumulative ESA over the
design period are calculated as the products of the cumulative one-directional traffic
volume (T) for each class of vehicle by the mean equivalency factor for that class
and added together for each direction. Then the higher of the two directional values
should be used.

8.5 Equivalency Factor

The equivalency factor for each class of vehicle is given in ERA manual. Also it can
be calculated using the following formula if the axel load survey is conducted.
EF= (Lx/8160) n
Where: - Lx= mass of axel x
n =a power factor that varies depending on the pavement Construction
type and sub- grade but which can be assumed to have a value of 4.5
8160 =the standard axel load in kg
Table 8.2:- Equivalent factors for different types of vehicles
Vehicle Class Average ESAs per Vehicle
Typical Lower Upper

Car (utility,4WD,cars) 0.00 - -
2-axle truck (S/truck) 0.70 0.30 1.10
2-axle bus (S/bus, L/bus) 0.73 0.41 1.52
3-axle truck (M/truck) 1.70 0.80 2.60
4-axle truck(H/truck) 1.80 0.80 3.00
5-axle truck (T&T) 2.20 1.00 3.00
Table 8.3:- Calculation of Cumulative number of traffic volume over the design
period.
Vehicle type Cumulative number of traffic
volume over 15 years
Car 365*11*0.5[(1.048)15-1]/0.048=42673
4 WD 365*10*0.5[(1.048)15-1]/0.048=38794
S/ Bus 365*89*0.5[(1.048) 15-1]/0.048=345260
L/ Bus 365*9*0.5[(1.048) 15-1]/0.048=34914
S/ Truck 365*44*0.5[(1.039) 15-1]/0.039=170691
M/ Truck 365*12*0.5[(1.039) 15-1]/0.039=46552
H/ Truck 365*10*0.5[(1.039) 15-1]/0.039=38794

T&T 365*5*0.5[(1.039) 15-1]/0.039=19397
8.6 Axle loading

The cumulative numbers of ESAs over the design period are calculated as
follows, using the cumulative numbers of vehicles previously calculated and the
equivalency factors.
ESAs = Cumulative number of vehicles * Equivalency factor
Table 8.4:- values of ESA for each vehicle type

Vehicle class Cum. no. of Equivalency 106ESAs
factor
vehicles
Car 42673 0.00 0.00
4 WD 38794 0.00
S/ Bus 345260 0.70 0.24
L/ Bus 34914 0.73 0.03
S/ Truck 170691 0.13
M/ Truck 46552 1.70 0.08
H/ Truck 38794 1.80 0.07
T&T 19397 2.20 0.04
Sum 0.59
8.7 Traffic class of flexible pavement

Accurate estimates of cumulative traffic are very difficult to achieve due to
errors in the Surveys and uncertainties with regard to traffic growth, axle loads and
axle equivalencies. To a reasonable extent, however, pavement thickness design is
not very sensitive to cumulative axle loads. As long as the estimate of cumulative
equivalent standard axles of our designed road is close to the centre of one of the
ranges, any errors are unlikely to affect the choice of pavement design.

Table 8.5:- Traffic class for flexible pavement design, ERA geometric manual
2002
Traffic Class Range ESA*106

T1 <0.3
T2 0.3 – 0.7
T3 0.7 – 1.5
T4 1.5 – 3.0
T5 3.0 – 6.0
T6 6.0 – 10.0
T7 10.0 – 17.0
T8 17.0 – 30.0
Based on the above analysis, the main access road under study would belong to the
traffic class of T2.
Table 8.6:- CBR values of the sub grade taken from tested sample.
CBR values
Station (AASHIO T 193)
2.54 mm 5.08mm
16+150 5 5
17+900 11 12
19+800 5 5
21+600 7 7
23+000 5 4
24+700 7 7
26+600 6 5
The sub grade strength ranges from 5 – 7% except at station 17+900 which will be
safe if we designed with this range. Based on ERA sub grade strength classification
manual, our sub grade material strength lies in S3 which ranges from 5 – 7%.

8.8 Design of pavement thickness

The design of the pavement thickness depends on the traffic class and sub grade
strength of the pavement to be designed. Based on the combination of traffic class
and sub grade strength, we have different combination for the determination of
pavement thickness.
Table 8.7:- Different combination of pavement selection alternatives
fromERAmanual.
All the charts provide alternate pavement structures for all sub grade classes (S1
throughS6).\

Using traffic class and sub grade strength T2 and S3 respectively we have selected
tthree possible layer for our highway from ERA catalogue.
Alternative No. 1 Alternative No. 2 Alternative No.3

From chart 1 from chart 2from chart 8
KEY
Selecting the most suitable pavement layer from the above alternatives
The following preliminary information has been derived from the site investigations.
 Granular sub base materials are available in sufficient quantities and
qualities.
 All other materials entering the composition of the possible pavement
structures are available; there are less transport/construction costs.
In the selection of appropriate pavement layer we must check the availabilities of
nearby materials that are used for the construction of the layers of the pavement and
analysing cost of each alternative. We have no current unit cost for each material, so
we are not able to compare in terms of cost. Simply, depending on the above
information we compare the alternatives in terms of weather the cement or lime
stabilization of road base and sub base is needed or not.
So, alternative No.2 and alternative No.3 needs cement or lime stabilization of road
base and sub base. But from the above information we have concluded that cement
or lime stabilization of sub base or road base materials is not necessary. So,
alternative No.1 is the best alternative from the others.

CHAPTER NINE
HIGH WAY DRAINAGE
The process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-surface water
with in the right of way of the road is termed as highway drainage. This highway
drainage includes interception and diversion of water from the road surface and sub
grade. During rains, part of the rain water flows on the surface and part of it reach
the ground water. There are two type of highway drainage.
1) Surface drainage: it is the removal and diversion of surface water from the road
way and adjoining land.
2) Sub-surface drainage: it is the diversion or removal of excess soil water from the
sub grade.
The importance of highway drainage
The strength of stability of soil mass decreases with increasing moisture content
also depends on the soil type and mode of stress application. Highway drainage is
important because of the following reasons:
 Excess moisture in sub grade soil causes considerable lowering of
pavement strength. So, the pavement is likely to fail due to sub grade
failure.
 In some clay soil, there is variation in volume of sub grade. This
sometimes contributes for pavement failure.
 Sustained contact of water with bituminous pavement causes failure due to
striping of bitumen from aggregate like losing or detachment of the
bituminous pavement layers and formation of potholes.
 Excess water in shoulder and pavement edge causes considerable
damage.
 Erosion of soil from top of subsurface road and slope of embankment cut
and fill side also caused due to surface water.
To have adequate and efficient surface drainage system which runs

longitudinally at both sides of the road, it is necessary to do hydrological and
hydraulics analysis.

In the hydrological analysis for a drainage facility, some of the factors which need
to be recognized and considered on an individual site by site basis include:-
 Rainfall amount and storm distribution
 Drainage area size, shape and orientation
 Slope of terrain and streams Water shed development potential
and
 Types of precipitation(rain, snow, hail or combinations)
Hence the drainage should enable to drain the surface water efficiently peak flows
with an acceptable approach should be known to design the surface drainage
systems.
CROSS DRAINAGE
The stream cross the road way, facility for cross drainage is to be provided. The
water from side drain is often taken by cross drain. Cross drain also used to divert
the water away from the road to water course or valley. When small stream crosses
a road with a linear water way less than about six meter, the cross drainage provided
is called culvert. The commonly used types of culverts are:-
 Slab culvert
 Box culvert
 Arch culvert
 Pipe culvert
In our case, we designed pipe culvert at the place where cross drainage is required.
9.1 Design of surface drainage systems
The design of surface drainage system for a high way may be divided into three
major phases.
Estimation of quantity of water to be drained
Hydraulic design of each drainage element
The comparison of alternatives systems, alternative materials and
other variables in order to selects the most economical system.

9.1.1 Estimation of quantity of water to be drained

Design discharge computation
The rational formulas estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in a
catchment area as a function of the catchment area, runoff coefficient, and mean
rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration (the time required
for water to flow from the most remote point of the basin to the location being
analyzed). The rational formula is expressed as:
Q = 0.00278 CIA
Where: - Q = maximum rate of runoff, m3/s
C = runoff coefficient representing a ratio of runoff to rainfall (from ERA

drainage manual, Table5-3 through 5-5)
I = average rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of

concentration, for a selected return period, mm/hr (from ERA drainage
manual figure 5-8 and 5-8)
A = catchment area of tributary to the design location, ha

Runoff coefficient(c)
Runoff coefficient indicates or tells the permeability or run off generated capacity of
a given water shade. The magnitude of the parameters depends on:-
 Type of the development with the catchments area
 Slope of the catchments area
 Availability of the flow the catchments area depressions, gullies, etc
 Types of soil
 Moisture content of the soil, and
 Intensity and duration of the rain fall

Design of road side ditch from stations 0+000 and 0+240

Design constants
A. Determination of drainage coefficients
Recommended runoff coefficient C for pervious surfaces by selected hydrological

soil grouping and slope ranges (ERA, table 5-7)
Table 9.1 soil type and vegetation cover
Soil type and cover in %
Well drained Fair drained Poorly drained Impervious soil Black cotton
soil (%) soil (%) soil (%) (%) soil (%)
60 25 15 0 0
Vegetation cover in %
Dense Spares Grass land Cultivation Sparse Barren (%)
forest (%) forest (%) (%) (%) grass land
(%)
0 15 15 50 20 0
a) From Land use data of the catchment area C1
According to ERA drainage manual classification, the terrain of the project road
categorized under Escarpment,( >15%) with the slope of 23.6%.So, the values of
drainage coefficient are determined based on land use soil properties.
Well Drained Soil (%) =60% of the surrounding its coefficient of runoff C1‘=0.22
Fair Drained Soil (%) =25% of the surrounding its coefficient of runoff C2‘=0.3
Poorly Drained Soil (%) =15% of the surrounding its coefficient of runoff C3‘=0.4
C1 = , where a, a2 and a3 are percentage of soil

drainage.
=
= 0.267

b) Drainage coefficient for the shoulder and carriageway of the road
These values are taken from table 5-5 of ERA drainage manual, 2002 .Coefficient
for composite runoff are listed in the following table.
So, Coefficients of Asphalt C2 = 0.95 and Shoulder (walks) C3=0.85
B. Determination of rainfall intensity I
 Fallow or minimum tillage cultivation
 Water course slope = 23.6%
 Velocity = 0.65m/s for long water course slope of 23.6% from figure 5.2
of ERA manual.
 Length of the over land flow = 98.41 m
 Length of the main channel = 240 m
 Slope of channel = 9%
 Frequency factor Cf = 1(From ERA drainage manual table5-3)
Time of concentration (Tc) = T0+Tf
Where To is overland flow time and Tf is channel flow time
Since our furthest point is 98.41m on the ground surface, the time required will be
To = 98.41m/0.65m/s = 2.52min .The time required for the flow storm water from the
inlet to the cross drainage (out let) along the channel is calculated as follow.
Flow time through channel (Tf) =
= , Assume, channel flow speed

V=1.0m/s
= 4 min
Therefore Tc = To + Tf =2.52+4 = 6.52min
The return period of road side ditch is 10 year for DS4 (ERA drainage manual,
2002)
The project road is found in B2 rainfall regions (ERA drainage manual figure 5-8). So,
the design value of the rainfall intensity, I, is read from figure 5-11 of ERA drainage
manual using Tc and return period. Hence the value of I = 180mm/hr
Surrounding area A1 = 4273.29m2 = 0.4273 ha

Asphalt area, A2 = 3.35m x 240m = 804m2 = 0.0804 ha
Shoulder area, A3 = 1.5m x 240m = 360m2 = 0.0360 ha

The runoff coefficient should be weighted to reflect the different conditions that exist
within a water shade.
Cw =
= 0.407
Compute the total runoff using the area, runoff coefficient and rainfall intensity
Q = 0.00278CCfIA, Where, Cf = return period coefficient = 1 for 10 yrs.
= 0.00278*0.407*1*180*0.5437
= 0.111m3/sec
Assume flow speed of road side channel is 1m/s.
Q = AV
A= Q/V = 0.111m3/sec /1m/sec = 0.111m2
Design of efficient and economical trapezoidal cross sectional channel
The following criterion applies to roadside channels:-
I. Stone pitching or grouted riprap must be used for channel side slopes
steeper than 2:1.
II. Flexible linings are calculated using the method of allowable tractive
force.
III. The design discharge frequency for permanent, roadside, ditch linings
and for temporary linings is based on ERA drainage manual, Table 2.1.
IV. Channel freeboard shall be 0.3 meters.

For economical trapezoidal section, Area = = =
Where p is wetted perimeter
p= =
=
A= , where m = √3/3 for 600
= (b+0.577y)*y
R = A/P = Y/2 for economical trapezoidal section.
Q = A * V = (b+0.577y)*y x 1/n R2/3S1/2
0.111m3/sec = (b+0.577y)y*1/0.023( y/2)2/3(0.09)1/2 Solving
simultaneously, Y=√(A/√3) =√(0.111/√3)= 0.253 m 0.30m
B = 2/√3y = 0.292m; take b=0.3m
Considering free board height of 0.3 m, the depth of the trapezoidal channel is :-
Y = Ycalculated +free board
= 0.253+0.3m = 0.53m.
Check flow capacity using Manning’s Equation
For a given depth of flow in a channel with a steady, uniform flow, the mean velocity,
V, can be computed with Manning‘s equation:
V = (1/n)R2/3S1/2
Where:- V = velocity, m/s
n = Manning‘s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = slope of the energy grade line, m/m (note: for steady uniform
flow, S = channel slope, m/m)

For efficient and economical trapezoidal channel section,

R = y/2 = 0.2m/2= 0.10 m
V = (1/n) R2/3S1/2 = (1/0.023)*0.12 /3*0.091/2
= 2.8 m/s
Therefore this speed is safe, since the lean of channel stone mortared it cannot
eroded and not exposed to sedimentation.
Determine channel lining as ERA drainage manual
Select a lining and determine the permissible shear stress τp in
Pascal‘s(N/m2) from Table 6-2 and/or Table 6-3,τp for mortared stone
is>958 pa.
Compute maximum shear stress at normal depth as: Τd(Pa) =
9800*yo*S, where :- S = channel slope, m/m
If τd<τp then lining is acceptable, otherwise consider the following options:
 choose a more resistant lining,
 use concrete, gabions, or other more rigid lining either as full lining or
composite,
 decrease channel slope,
 decrease slope in combination with drop structures, and/or
 increase channel width and/or flatten side slopes
Since τp=>958Pa, compute maximum shear stress at normal depth as:
τd (Pa) = 9800*Y*S
= 9800*0.253*0.09
= 223.146pa
Hence, Tp = 223.146pa > 958pa lining stone mortar is safe.
9.2 CULVERT DESIGN

A culvert is a covered channel of relatively short length designed to pass water
through an embankment (e.g. highway, railroad and dam). It is a hydraulic structure
and it may carry flood waters, drainage flows, natural streams below earth fill and

rock fill structures. From a hydraulic aspect, a dominant feature of a culvert is

whether it runs full or not.
Design considerations
First the function of the culvert must be chosen and the design flow conditions (e.g.
Qd, flood level) must be selected. The primary design constraints in the design of a
culvert are:
 The cost must be (always) minimum;
 The afflux3 must be small and preferably minimum;
 Eventually the embankment height may be given or may be part of the design;
 A scour protection may be considered, particularly if a hydraulic jump might
take place near the culvert outlet.
DESIGN LIMITATIONS
Allowable Headwater—is the depth of water that can be ponded at the upstream end
of the culvert that will be limited by one or more of the following:
will not damage up stream property,
not higher than 300 mm below the edge of the shoulder,
equal to an HW/D not greater than 1.5,
no higher than the low point in the road grade, and
Equal to the elevation where flow can be diverted around the culvert.
Generally there are two culverts at stations 0+240 and 9+760.
Hydraulic analysis for pipe culvert at station 0+240
At station 0+240, there is sag curve due to negative grade followed by positive grade
( from grade -9% to +9%). There are two ditches at right side of the road flows
towards to this station. So providing of pipe culvert is necessary.

Discharge calculation
Q10 (Storm from side ditch 0+000 to 0+240) =0.111m3/s
Q10 (Storm from side ditch 0+240 to 1+320) = 0.425m3/s
Design storm frequency for pipe culver span length less than 2m is 10
years.(ERA drainage manual table 2.1)
Storm for pipe culvert Q=0.111+0.425=0.536 m 3/s
The pipe culver is designed large enough to carry the maximum Storm discharge
while flowing half or three fourth or two third full. Generally , the pipes of sizes less
than 0.4m diameter are designed as running half full at maximum discharge and the
pipes greater than 0.4m in diameter are designed as running 2/3rdor 3/4th full at
maximum discharge.
Q = AV
Assume V= 2.5 m/s
For full condition A‘= Q/V = 0.536/2.2
= 0.2144 m2
Assuming D > 0.4m and 2/3rd full pipe flow in the pipe,
A = 3/2*A‘= 3/2*0.2144
= 0.3216 m2
A = D2 /4
D=√ (4*A/) =√ (4*0.3216/) = 0.64 m, use D=0.65 m

Check flow capacity using Manning’s Equation

For a given depth of flow in a pipe with a steady, uniform flow, the mean velocity, V,
can be computed with Manning‘s equation:
V = (1/n)R2/3S1/2
Where:- V = velocity, m/s
n = Manning‘s roughness coefficient (ERA drainage manual )
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = slope of the energy grade line, m/m (note: for steady uniform
flow, S = channel slope, m/m)
A‘= (r2)/3600-1/2r2sin ,r=D/2=0.65/2=0.325 m

0.2144= (*0.3252*)/3600-0.5*0.3252*sin
=232.6 + 57.3sin
By trial and error =2070,Wetted perimeter (P) = *D/3600
= 2070**0.65/3600
=1.174 m
‘
R = A /P = 0.2144/1.174 = 0.183 m, n = 0.012,for concert pipe and s=0.02
V = (1/n) R2/3S1/2
= (1/0.012)*0.1832 /3*0.051/2
= 3.8 m/s, 0 .6 m/s <3.8 m/s<6m/s

Therefore this speed is safe, since the concert pipe cannot be eroded and not
exposed to sedimentation.

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Adama Science and Technology University Civil Engineering Department

Transportation is movement of people and goods which is under taken to

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1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THIS THESIS WORK

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

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1.5 PROJECT BACKGROUND

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1.9 METROLOGY AND CLIMATE

Table:1 Climatic Classification

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Thus, each three selected routes it is tried to:-

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D. Detail survey (location survey)

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Table: 1 shows criteria for route selection

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3.2 Traffic count data of the project

3.2.1 Vehicle classification

Based on the above classification of vehicles, the number of vehicles surveyed on

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Table: 3.2 Motorized Traffic

Date Shift CAR 4 S/ L/ S/ M/ H/ T&T REMARK

Table: 3.3 Non-motorized Traffic

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3.2.2 Type of expected traffic

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Table: 3.5 Seasonal adjustment factors

Cycle L/Rove M/Truc H/Truc

AADT is calculated by multiplying ADT with seasonal adjustment factor.

Table: 3.6 The adjusted annual traffic

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Table: 3.7 non- motorised Traffic survey for both direction

In modal shift analysis, it is assumed that:-

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Average loads carried on market day

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Project vehicle type

S/Bus S/Truck Total

Vehicle Type Passenger vehicle Freight vehicle

Growth rate 4.8% 3.9%

AADT (road opening) = AADT (base year)*(1+i) n

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Table: 3.11Traffic at the opening of the road (2013)

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Table: 3.12 Amount of diverted traffic.

Total forecasted traffic

Total = 153+19+18 = 190VPD

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A. Trunk Roads (Class I)

Trunk roads link centres of international importance and roads terminating at

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Table: 4.1 Types terrain in our selected route

4.3 DESIGN STANDARDS

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4.4 GEOMETRICAL PARAMETER FOR THE DESIGN STANDARDS

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Deflection angle for the first point (α1) =573L21/ (LR)