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A. Physical Environment:
Physical environment is composed of those conditions that nature
provides for man. It includes, according to MacIver, the earth surface
with all its physical features and natural resources, the distribution of
land and water, mountains and plains, minerals, plants and animals, the
climatic and all the cosmic forces-gravitational, electrical, traditional etc.
that play upon the earth and affect the life of man.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Among this environment may be listed the sun and stars, the winds and
rains, the mountains and the seas, the seasons, the tides and the ocean
currents. The controllable geographical environment, on the other hand,
consists of those elements which are amenable to the direct control of
man and which he can modify. Such are the vast stretches of land which
he brings under cultivation; the rivers and streams which he tames with
dams and embankments and so on.
After him French writers like Le Play, Demolins and Brunhes have been
engaged in studying the relationship between the physical environment
and social phenomena. This emphasis on the relationship between the
characteristics of the physical habitat and social developments has led to
the development of two schools of American Sociology—the Ecological
School and the Regional School.
The Ecological School has been particularly interested in the social and
cultural phenomena associated with various urban areas. Focusing upon
the social effects of locality, ecologists have elaborated the processes
that mark the rural and urban communities.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Physical Necessities:
The topography of a country affects the human habitation, diet, dress
and animal husbandry. According to Brunhes, “If geography is far from
explaining everything in the house, at least the human habitation cannot
be completely understood without an appeal to geography.”
The Eskimo tribes live in snow houses, use animal skins for garments
and utilize the fish and seal for food. Houses in the mountains are made
of wood and stone while those in the plains are built of brick and cement.
The dietary habits also are affected by the topography. Thus rice is the
diet of Bengalese while wheat is the diet of Punjabese. People living in
the mountainous regions wear thick and woollen clothes while those
living in the plains wear cotton clothes.
Occupations:
Man’s occupations also are largely influenced by the geographical
factors. In all the coastal areas of India fishing is the main occupation.
Oil wells are to be found in Assam. The main occupation of Northern
plain is agriculture. There are more sugar mills in Uttar Pradesh because
of the sugarcane crop. The mountainous people rear the sheep.
Physiological characteristics:
The topography affects the colour of the skin, stature, shape and colour
of the hair, shape of the nose, head etc. People of the hot climates have
got darker skin than those living in colder climates. Sample writes,
“Stature is partly a matter of feeding and hence of geographic
conditions.” However, people of different bodily characteristics may be
found in the same environment and of same characteristics may be
found in different environments.
Human Activities:
According to Durkheim, there is a close relation between seasons and
criminal activity. Huttington also is of the opinion that geographical
environment has a great deal to do with the human activity. Extremes of
heat or cold have a deterrent effect on human activity. It seems clear
that a certain moderate temperature is best calculated to evoke human
activity.
The seas are both a barrier and an opportunity for the people. The
power of Spain, Holland and England have arisen not only by historical
circumstances but also by improvements in the techniques of navigation.
The Britishers were able to extend their empire in such an extent that the
sun would never set on it, because she was the mistress of the seas.
Economic Organisation:
The economic organisation of a country is to a large extent determined
by geographic conditions. Sufficient natural resources are necessary for
the economic prosperity of a country. The products of a place are
governed by the raw material available.
Political Organisation:
According to Huttington, “The geographical distribution of minerals is one
of the greatest causes of international troubles and wars.”
Influence of Plains:
Above we have described the influence of geography on human life in
general. Now, we may devote our particular attention to the influence of
plains, hills and deserts on human life. Firstly we consider the influence
of plains.
Population:
The influence of plains on population can be seen from the fact that
greater number of people live in the plains than elsewhere. In the plains
there are greater number of towns and densely populated cities.
Economic life:
As there is a greater density of population in the towns on the plains, we
find major industries there. The economic life of the people living in the
plains is more prosperous and active. Agriculture is their main
occupation. Animal husbandry also can be done better in the plains.
Means of communication:
In the plains there is a wide network of roads and railway lines.
Transport is easier.
Social life:
The standard of living is higher in the plains. The progress of culture is
ensured through the progress of civilization. Art, literature and music
progress. Education also develops easily. The social organisation is
strengthened. Preponderance of agricultural occupations leads to
worship of weather gods. The sense of group cooperation is awakened.
Political life:
The easy means 01 transport and communication affect the political
functioning in the plains. Administrative functions can be smoothly
performed. The work of the police and the army is made easier by the
availability of efficient transport system.
Influence of Hills:
The effect of hills on society is as follows:
Population:
The population in the hilly areas is thinner. The distribution of population
is also uneven. The people live scattered due to the unevenness of the
terrain.
Economic Life:
The economic condition of the people living in the hilly areas is worse
than those living in the plains. The hilly people are generally poor. There
are fewer means of transport and communication which make industrial
growth difficult. The terrain being uneven and rocky, farming also is
made difficult.
Social Life:
The mountainous people are generally religious and orthodox. Absence
of education keeps them conservative. The scattered nature of
population makes it difficult to have a well-knit society. The people are
very busy in earning livelihood. Hence they do not get ample leisure to
develop art and literature.
Due to the extreme cold a number of working days are lost. The people
do not benefit by the modern scientific inventions because of the lack of
developed means of transport and communication. There are few
doctors, teachers and engineers due to lack of education. The people
wear thick and woollen clothes. They usually worship gods and
goddesses.
Political Life:
The mountain-dwellers do not have a well organised political life. The
scattered nature of population and fewer means of transport make it
difficult to give an organised shape to the administration. Poverty and
lack of education do not allow democratic notions to develop.
Influence of Deserts:
In the deserts there is very little rain and there are few rivers. The
climate is very hot.
Social Life:
Due to the excessive poverty and a hard life, the social life of the desert
dwellers is unorganised. They live in caravans. The caravans are their
basic social units. These caravans often conflict with each other and
indulge in loot and plundering.
Political Life:
The establishment of permanent government is a problem in the deserts.
The Government experiences much difficulty in maintaining peace and
order. Due to poverty the Government cannot tax the people very much
and so it is not in a position to provide them with good education and
other social welfare activities.
Huxley also has tried to establish a close relation between climate and
civilisation. According to him, only the hot climate regions and
Mediterranean zones are fit for human habitation. According to Thomas
Heywood, “The world is a theatre, the earth a stage, which God and
Nature do with actors fill.” Brillot Savarin said, “Tell me what you eat and
I will tell you what you are.”
Many kinds of personality and culture are found in every kind of climate.
Moreover, none of the changes that have occurred in a given culture can
be directly related to geographic changes. Social life in an area
sometimes changes without any change in physical environment.
Now it lies in Lancashire and Yorkshire less fertile but rich in mineral
resources and industrial opportunities. Similarly, natural routes of
migration and trade matter less, than of old, as men have learnt to build
railways through mountains and over swamp and to use the unbounded
highway of the air.
Climatic conditions also matter less in so far as men gain control over
the natural disadvantages of certain climates. The Panama Canal Zone
has, for instance, been delivered from malaria through the application of
science. Even the extremes of heat and of cold grow less deterrent as
the arts of warming and cooling dwelling places improve.
The social significance of the economic order is that it is based upon the
principle of ‘division of labour’ that is on the specialisation of functions of
the groups and the areas. This leads to the inter-dependence of not only
of individuals but also of groups and of nations.
There is then no wonder that Karl Marx had asserted that the economic
environment is the primary determinant of all social change. So he had
written in his Das Capital that it is always the immediate relation of the
owners of the conditions of production to the immediate producers in
which we find the hidden foundations of the whole social structure.
Thus to his mind all the great associations, the family, the state, the
church and all the great forms of human culture, art, literature, science
take their shape and character from economic fact. Thus Marxism gives
a materialistic interpretation of history and a predominant and perhaps
exclusive role to the economic environment in shaping society.
These traditions express the culture of the group to which they belong.
Similarly, customs are the way in accordance’ with which members of
the group behave themselves. Again there are ceremonies and rites
which express a kind of religious sanction for the respective acts. There
are laws which the regulations enforced by some are constituted
authority.
Throughout history humans have both affected, and been affected by, the natural world. While a
good deal has been lost due to human actions, much of what is valued about the environment has
been preserved and protected through human action. While many uncertainties remain, there is a
realization that environmental problems are becoming more and more complex, especially as issues
arise on a more global level, such as that of atmospheric pollution or global warming.
Interactions between human society and the environment are constantly changing. The environment,
while highly valued by most, is used and altered by a wide variety of people with many different
interests and values. Difficulties remain on how best to ensure the protection of our environment and
natural resources. There will always be tradeoffs and, many times, unanticipated or unintended
consequences. However, a well-managed environment can provide goods and services that are
both essential for our well being as well as for continued
economic prosperity.