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SITING, DESIGN,
OPERATION AND
REHABILITATION OF
LANDFILLS
BEST PRACTICE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Publication 788
October 2001
Landfills have served a key role in the management of solid wastes and are likely to continue to be an important
component of the waste management system for at least the next 10 years. The implementation of the waste
management hierarchy of waste avoidance, waste reduction, waste reuse, waste recycling and finally waste disposal
has resulted in significant diversion of waste from landfill. This will continue, however, landfills will continue to
underpin our waste management strategies until waste disposal is replaced by these measures. In the interest of
intergenerational equity, today’s landfills should not leave an environmental legacy for our children to address.
Furthermore, for as long as landfilling remains part of our waste management strategy, best practice measures must
be adopted to ensure that landfills are acceptable to the public.
The elimination or minimisation of adverse environmental effects from wastes in general, and landfills in particular, is
being dealt with by Government on two fronts. Hazardous wastes are being managed within the framework
established by the Industrial Waste Management Policy (Prescribed Industrial Waste), and are not dealt with in this
guideline. Potential adverse environmental effects of municipal wastes and non-hazardous industrial wastes are
being managed using a raft of measures – one of which is ensuring that waste disposal to landfill has no adverse
environmental effects.
Environmental impacts associated with the operation of a landfill site include adverse impacts on air quality through
odour and dust, unsightly litter, increased traffic, potential adverse impacts on surface water and groundwater, and
potential impacts from birds and vermin.
The first and most important consideration in the prevention of environmental impacts from landfill is selecting an
appropriate landfill site. Once an appropriate site has been selected, it is critical for landfill operators to adopt best
practice in:
• landfill rehabilitation.
The underlying philosophy of best practice environmental management (BPEM) guidelines is continual improvement.
Regional waste management planners, landfill designers and operators are encouraged to adopt and implement this
BPEM as well as adopting the philosophy of continual improvement to ensure a high level of protection for the
environment in keeping with community expectations.
This document should be used in the planning for works approval or licensing of future landfill sites. It also applies,
where appropriate, to existing licensed sites. This guideline is not mandatory for landfills that serve less than 5,000
i
people, and are accordingly not licensed. However, this document should be used as a guide for how the operation
of such landfills might be improved to meet community expectations.
EPA will be pleased to receive comments on this guideline from the waste management industry, industry and the
public. Comments will, where appropriate, be incorporated in future editions.
BRIAN ROBINSON
CHAIRMAN
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 REHABILITATION........................................................................................................................... 61
7.1.1 Site afteruse........................................................................................................................ 61
7.1.2 Settlement and final surface profile ......................................................................................... 62
7.1.3 Landfill Cap ......................................................................................................................... 63
7.2 AFTERCARE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 67
TABLE OF FIGURES
TABLE 4: LANDFILL LINER PERFORMANCE STANDARDS AND INDICATIVE LINER DESIGN ................................ .... 21
TABLE 5: PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT GEOMEMBRANE TYPES (FROM FROBLER & SADLIER, 1997) ........................ 24
TABLE 10: MODELLED GROUNDWATER IMPACTS RESULTING FROM VARIOUS LINER SEEPAGE RATES ................. 75
1 INTRODUCTION SEPPs are SEPP (Waters of Victoria), SEPP
(Groundwaters of Victoria) and SEPP (Air Quality
Historically, landfills were commonly located on the An additional element to this policy framework is the
fringe of urban development in quarries that provided implementation of best practice. Best Practice
the materials used in constructing our buildings and Environmental Management Guideline for Siting,
roads. As cities developed, the urban fringe moved Design, Operation and Rehabilitation of Landfills is a
beyond the landfills bringing residential and source document for best practice environmental
commercial development within close proximity of the management (BPEM) measures for landfills. It gives
landfill. This brought about a conflict in land uses, direction on the best practice siting, design,
with landfills considered to be incompatible with these performance and rehabilitation standards for landfills
uses. This land use conflict has resulted in a ground commensurate with the risk they pose to the
swell of community concern about the need for environment, and provides a guide for the measures
landfills as well as their siting and design standards. required to meet legislative objectives. Finally, it
This has been reflected in the regulatory response of provides a framework of environmental management
the government in proclaiming the Industrial Waste objectives, required outcomes and suggested
Management Policy (Waste Minimisation) declared on measures that may be used to achieve or surpass the
29 October 1990 and the State Environment objectives, encouraging innovative solutions rather
Receiving Municipal Wastes) declared on 1 July 1991. In the context of the guideline, both the objectives
These policies establish a framework where landfilling and required outcomes are mandatory and reflect the
of waste is the least preferred waste management minimum requirements of policy and community
option, and where it is expected that every expectations. The suggested measures are the
opportunity will be taken to remove material from the default means of achieving the required outcomes,
waste stream through the management hierarchy – and while strong arguments are required to implement
‘Avoid, reduce, reuse, recycle’. While this alternatives, the suggested measures are not
least the next few decades to manage wastes which This guideline aims to provide existing and future
are not yet able to be viably removed from the waste operators of landfills, planning authorities and
stream. In this context, these policies, in conjunction regulating bodies with:
with the remainder of the State environment
• information on the potential impact of landfills on
protection policies (SEPPs) establish the framework to
the environment and how this is to be assessed;
ensure that the landfills that we do use are designed
to minimise their risks to the environment. The key
1
• a clear statement of environmental performance • The broader community so that a wider
objectives for each segment of the environment; understanding can be reached of the standards
and that they can demand of landfills in Victoria.
2
2. WASTE MANAGEMENT Exemptions) Regulations 1996 and are subject to the
FRAMEWORK works approval provisions of the EP Act:
When making decisions regarding the management of • land disposal facilities for solid wastes (including
all wastes, including municipal and industrial wastes, solid industrial wastes) except premises, with
the following hierarchy must be followed at all times: solely land discharges or deposits, used only for
This hierarchy is expressed in Environment Protection Prescribed Industrial Waste as defined in the
Act and cuts across all aspects of waste management, Industrial Waste Management Policy (Prescribed
Accordingly, where a generator has exhausted all A works approval must be obtained before a landfill
possibilities for waste avoidance and reduction, then can be constructed. Those landfills, apart from
the alternatives for reuse, recycling and reclamation municipal landfills serving a population less than
should be investigated. The landfill operator can 5,000 people, are also subject to the licensing
assist in this process by providing facilities for the provisions of the Environment Protection Act. The
sorting of waste. Disposal to landfill should only be licence sets the performance objectives of the
considered as a last resort when options further up operating landfill, defines operating parameters and
3
The EP Act regulates the discharge or emission of • SEPP (Control of Noise from Commerce, Industry
waste to water, land or air by a system of works and Trade) No. N-1 1989; and
approvals and licences. The EP Act also specifically
• SEPP (Groundwaters of Victoria) 1997.
controls the emission of noise, the disposal of rubbish
2.2.3 Industrial Waste Management Policies
and the transportation of waste. The acceptable
environmental quality standards and conditions for Section 16(1A) of the EP Act requires that the
discharging waste and identification of beneficial management of industrial waste must be in
uses of the environment are specified in the relevant accordance with the provisions contained within
State environment protection policies (SEPPs). In declared industrial waste management policies
addition, the EP Act also allows for the development (IWMPs). The key IWMP is the IWMP (Waste
of industrial waste management policies (IWMPs) for Minimisation), which establishes a framework to
the management of wastes from industry and promote the adoption of industry practices, processes
industrial premises. and technologies which will minimise the generation
2.2.2 State Environment Protection Policies of industrial waste. The IWMP (Waste Minimisation)
applies to all premises generating industrial wastes.
State environment protection policies (SEPPs) set out
The IWMP (Prescribed Industrial Waste) establishes a
policies of the Government to manage environmental
framework for the management of Prescribed
pollution. Policies establish the environmental quality
Industrial Wastes. It guides the generators of
that must be attained and maintained to protect
Prescribed Industrial Waste on issues that must be
designated beneficial uses (ie. amenity, health,
taken into account in deciding on suitable
ecosystem protection). Policies typically set
management options for Prescribed Industrial Wastes.
quantitative, ambient, environmental (eg. air, water,
This guideline is not relevant to the management of
soil) objectives, and specify measures that must be
Prescribed Industrial Wastes covered under that
implemented to minimise the risk of activities causing
policy with the exception of low hazard Prescribed
their ambient standards to be exceeded.
Industrial Wastes (Category C) as defined by the
Activities that result in environmental quality
policy.
objectives being exceeded are causing pollution and
may be subject to EPA enforcement action. 2.3 Best Practice Framework
The key SEPPs are: This document is intended to provide guidance for
• SEPP (Siting and Management of Landfills how landfill operators can meet the environment
Receiving Municipal Wastes) 1991 [currently protection objectives of the regulatory framework.
• SEPP (Ambient Air Quality) 1999; from legislation and must be achieved. The suggested
4
measures are suggestions for how to achieve the
objectives and required outcomes.
5
3. CLA SSIFICATION OF As is detailed in Table 1, landfills are classified
LANDFILLS according to the wastes accepted by the landfill and
the number of people served by the landfill. This
This BPEM applies to municipal and non-hazardous
guideline deals with four types of waste:
waste landfills, considered to be a waste disposal
• municipal waste;
facility at which solid, non-hazardous waste from
municipal and/or industrial sources is permanently • solid inert waste;
deposited on or in the ground. This BPEM does not
• Category C prescribed industrial waste
include facilities for:
(prescribed industrial wastes that pose a low
• hazardous wastes; hazard or only exhibit offensive aesthetic
properties); and
• temporary storage of waste;
• fill material.
• uncontaminated soils; or
The classification of a landfill is the most stringent
• contaminated soils placed in accordance with the
based on the wastes received or proposed to be
Best Practice Environmental Management
received at the landfill. This classification is then used
Guideline for the Management and Disposal of
throughout this BPEM to determine the design,
Waste Soils (currently released in draft form).
construction, operation and maintenance of the
landfill necessary to protect the beneficial uses of the
environment.
2 • Putrescible waste, solid inert • Reflects the best available technology for a municipal
waste and fill material. landfill in siting, design, construction, operation,
maintenance and after-care.
• Specifically licensed category C
prescribed industrial waste (to • Operated in accordance with an appropriate
be described in a guideline for management system that ensures adequate
the classification of prescribed supervision, control on waste receipt, safe handling,
industrial wastes). record keeping and placement of prescribed waste in
accordance with the requirements for that waste.
1 Type 1 is defined in the IWMP (Prescribed Industrial Waste) as a ‘prescribed industrial waste containment facility’. Since this
BPEM does not deal with such facilities, a type 1 landfill is not included in the table.
6
Type 2 Waste Accepted Description
3 • Solid inert waste, fill material. • Reflects commonly available technology for a
municipal landfill in siting, design, construction,
operation, maintenance and after-care.
2 Type 1 is defined in the IWMP (Prescribed Industrial Waste) as a ‘prescribed industrial waste containment facility’. Since this
BPEM does not deal with such facilities, a type 1 landfill is not included in the table.
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4. BEST PRACTICE SITING EPA will require this section of the guideline to be
CONSIDERATIONS implemented in each RWMP at its next review. Where
a landfill is not provided for in a RWMP, or is to be
The appropriate siting of a landfill is the primary
developed before the next review of the relevant
environmental control, so a preliminary investigation
RWMP, this section is to be implemented in the
of all possible landfill sites should be conducted to
developmental stage of the landfill. This section
identify those sites with the best potential to be
should also be implemented by planning authority in
developed for landfilling.
their planning around current or future landfill sites.
The objective of this section is to establish the means
and criteria for identifying and ranking those sites that 4.1 Screening for Potential Landfill Sites
are the most appropriate for future landfills, because Screening for potential landfill sites starts with a list of
these are the ones that require the fewest all possible sites. As a minimum, this should include
engineering and management controls to meet the all extractive industry sites in the Region, but may also
objectives of all State Environment Protection Policies. include undeveloped sites which may be suitable for
An investigation of the sites that have the best trench-and-fill or mound landfills (see section 4.1.2).
potential for landfilling is conducted in two steps: The hierarchy of aspects to be considered when
screening for potential landfill sites is:
• a broad approach to identify all potential sites for
new facilities from a broader group of all possible 1. Community needs;
the development of new landfills should be in These are discussed in detail below.
accordance with this ranking.
Once a list of potential landfill sites has been derived
EPA may refuse to issue a works approval for a landfill from a list of all possible landfill sites, this list should
if the site is not provided for in the relevant RWMP, or be ranked to indicate the preferred order of
not provided for within a reasonable time frame. development of potential sites as landfills.
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4.1.1 Community Needs • being readily contactable and flexible in dealing
with community concerns; and
A landfill should not be located where it is not needed
for the disposal of a community’s waste. Regional • listening to all community concerns and ensuring
Waste Management Groups are responsible for a considered response is provided to all
waste management facilities for both the public and Further information on successful consultative
private sectors, and ensure that a reliable system of programs can be obtained from EPA publication 520
waste management, including landfill airspace, is Ten Steps to Successful Community/Industry
maintained within the Region. Consultation, (November 1996).
It is also important to liaise with the community very 4.1.2 Landfill Type
early in the planning stage, as this enables early
When screening for potential landfill sites, an
identification of the issues that are important to the
important aspect is the type of landfill to be
local community and environment, and as a result,
developed. The four basic types of landfills and the
has a significant result on the siting, design and
hierarchy of their preference for use is discussed
operation of the landfill. It also unlocks the significant
below:
amount of local knowledge contained by the
community, enabling insights into how better 1. the area method where an existing hole such as a
environmental outcomes may be achieved. Full former quarry is filled;
community engagement is expected of any project
2. the trench-and-fill method where a hole is dug
that may impact upon the community.
and back filled with waste using the excavated
One of the key aspects that a community may expect material as cover;
to be addressed is the visual impact of the operation.
3. the mound method where most of the landfill is
The clever use of natural screening to reduce the
located above the natural ground level; and
visual intrusiveness of landfill operations is one way
4. the valley or change of topography fill method
of ensuring that the landfill fits in with the general
where a natural depression is filled.
community. This should be considered at a very early
stage, and where necessary, particular care should be The most appropriate landfill type for a region will be
used to construct bunds for visual screening, noise determined based on local conditions as identified in
barriers and landscaping. the environmental assessment, however the preferred
types are the area method and the trench-and-fill
Best practice measures for community consultation
method.
include:
The area method is preferred because it achieves an
• recognising that local knowledge may provide
additional outcome of rehabilitating an existing hole.
useful insights leading to better environmental
It is also generally easier to manage litter and
outcomes;
9
leachate (contaminated water that has percolated dust, an adequate separation (buffer) distance should
through or drained from a landfill) from the site. be maintained between the landfill and sensitive land
uses. Sensitive land uses include houses, schools,
Trench-and-fill landfills are a good landfill type where
hospitals, airports and market gardens.
there are no suitably located holes, or where the
trench-and-fill alternative achieves better Buffer areas are not an alternative to providing
environmental outcomes. They also enable the appropriate management practices, but provide for
operator to determine exactly how the hole is to be contingencies that may arise with typical
configured on the ground, thus enabling the best management practices. Where this buffer is not
possible design of the landfill. available, management practices need to be
significantly increased to provide the same level of
Mound landfills are to be avoided because their
protection to sensitive land uses. While buffers have
exposed nature requires significant litter controls, as
traditionally been used to protect residential amenity,
well as presenting a significant visual impact on the
the buffer for a landfill may also protect different
landscape. Further difficulties attached to these
segments of the environment such as water courses
landfills are leachate seeps from the side of the
or different sensitive uses such as airports.
landfill and the potential for the landfill cap to slip.
identifies the buffer distances recommended to
Valley fill landfills are to be avoided as they have
protect the environment and to prevent any amenity
inherent environmental problems such as unstable
reduction in sensitive areas. Buffer distances are
slopes, water infiltration and leachate seepage. Due
measured from the activities capable of causing a
to the open nature of these landfills and shallow
nuisance to the nearest sensitive land use.
placement of waste, they consume a greater amount
of soil for cover and capping than an equivalent
volume landfill in a disused quarry.
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Table 2: Recommended buffer distances Subject to an evaluation demonstrating that the
environment will be protected and the amenity of the
Type of landfill site Recommended buffer
sensitive areas will not be adversely affected, lesser
distances
buffer distances may be applied subject to a risk
Type 2 100 metres from surface assessment that considers design and operational
waters. measures. As part of a risk management approach,
500 metres from dwelling. additional design or operational measures will be
required to ameliorate the risks associated with a
1,500 metres from an
reduction of the buffer distances identified in .
aerodrome for piston-
engined propeller-driven Land within buffer areas may be used for purposes
aircraft3. that are not adversely affected by landfilling. It is
preferred that this land is owned or at least under the
3,000 metres from an
control of the landfill operator. Planning overlays
aerodrome for jet aircraft2.
should include the buffer area to ensure that it is
Type 3 100 metres from surface maintained through the life of the landfill.
waters. Contingency plans should also be developed to show
200 metres from dwelling. how the landfill could be developed and operated to
ensure that the amenity of the affected land would
1,500 metres from an
still be preserved.
aerodrome for piston-
engined propeller-driven For landfills with an anticipated lifespan exceeding 10
11
Act 1989 as a Groundwater Supply Protection Any landfill that places waste below the watertable
Area; or will require significantly greater engineering and
management controls to ensure ongoing protection of
• below the regional watertable.
groundwater.
The Department of Natural Resources and
Where the watertable is elevated, the region may
Environment administer a groundwater database
need to consider a shallow landfill with the bulk of the
containing information on more than 135,000
waste above ground. Where the most appropriate site
boreholes throughout Victoria. This database contains
for a landfill is in a hole that extends below the
information on the location of boreholes, water levels
watertable, the base of the landfill should be raised to
and some chemical analysis information on
above the watertable using a sub-base material that
groundwater quality. The data can be used to
will attenuate contaminants. The sub-base material
estimate the depth to and quality of groundwater, its
between the base of the liner and the watertable (that
general flow direction and utilisation; however these
is, in the unsaturated zone) should be made of a
estimates must be verified by local field testing.
natural or imported fine-grade soil with a cation
Landfills below the regional watertable are not
exchange capacity of about 10 mEq/100g. This cation
generally considered to be best practice because
exchange capacity allows the sub-base to remove
landfilling below the regional watertable is to
some contaminants from leachate seeping through
effectively place the landfill directly in the segment of
the base of the liner, and further minimises the risk of
the environment to be protected (groundwater).
groundwater pollution from the landfill.
Therefore the risks of detrimental impacts on
Recommended minimum thicknesses for this
beneficial uses of groundwater are much higher.
attenuation zone are tabulated in Table 3.
Where such a site must be landfilled, a groundwater
The most preferred site for a landfill is one that
extraction system should be installed to keep
reduces the risk of groundwater pollution by providing
groundwater below the landfill, or the leachate level
a natural unsaturated attenuation layer beneath the
within the landfill should be maintained at least five
liner for contaminants that may leach through the
metres below the watertable (as discussed in section
liner. This means that sites with naturally attenuating
5.3.4). These systems are strongly discouraged
soils, such as sites in clayey areas, are preferred to
because of the continual and effectively perpetual
those that do not have such soils, such as sites in
requirement to:
sandy areas.
• Maintain and operate pumps;
12
Table 3: Minimum separation of wastes from Landfills should not be located in a 1-in-a-100 year
watertable floodplain (that is, where there is a one per cent
chance in any year that the site will flood) unless it
Waste accepted Minimum thickness of
can be demonstrated that the facility will be protected
attenuation zone
from flooding and erosion by flood waters.
Putrescible waste (Type 2 metres
Tipping areas for putrescible landfills should be
2 landfill)
located more than 100 metres from surface waters. A
Solid inert waste (Type 0 metres solid inert landfill may be located within 100 metres of
3 landfill) surface waters if an assessment demonstrates there
Fill material, potential Below watertable is no interaction between groundwater and the
Since leachate can be toxic to aquatic organisms and 4.1.6 Flora and fauna protection
5
cause eutrophication of the waterways, it must be
The development of landfills may impact on the flora
managed so that it cannot escape to surface waters.
and fauna of the local area. The potential impacts on
Accordingly, landfilling should not occur in:
flora and fauna are:
• wetlands protected under Ramsar and JAMBA
• clearing of vegetation;
treaties;
• loss of habitat and displacement of fauna;
• marine and coastal reserves listed in Schedule 4
• loss of biodiversity by impacts on rare or
of the National Parks Act 1975;
endangered flora and fauna;
• water supply catchments proclaimed under the
• potential for spreading plant diseases and
Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994;
noxious weeds;
• land liable to flooding if determined to be so
• litter from the landfill detrimentally impacting on
liable by the responsible drainage authority; and
flora and fauna;
• within 100 metres of surface waters.
• creation of new habitats for scavenger and
predatory species;
4
Selected solid inert wastes, or hard wastes, contain
• erosion; and
negligible plastic, steel and biodegradable material, including • alteration of water courses.
woody material.
5
Particular areas where landfilling should not occur
Nutrient enrichment of a water body.
are:
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• critical habitats of taxa and communities of flora A transportation study may reveal the need for
and fauna listed under the Flora and Fauna additional road infrastructure, such as freeway
Guarantee Act 1988; and interchanges, turning lanes or signals.
• areas where landfilling is likely to have a The availability of services such as reticulated water,
significant impact on threatened species and sewerage and power will influence the facilities
ecological communities as identified in the provided for staff at the landfill and perhaps indicate a
Environment Protection and Biodiversity need to provide additional services, such as water
Conservation Act 1999, except with the approval storage for fire-fighting purposes.
of the Commonwealth Environment Minister.
4.1.8 Geological Setting
A survey of the site and collection of comprehensive
As the decomposition and stabilisation of waste may
baseline environmental data are essential steps in the
take many decades, landfills should be constructed in
assessment of potential impacts from proposed
areas where the land on which the landfill will be
landfilling operations. The nature and extent of this
placed is stable, thereby enabling the long-term
data should be site-specific, taking into account the
integrity of the landfill cap and liner system to be
size of the proposed operation and the risks posed to
assured
adjacent sensitive areas. This includes potential
impacts from scavenger birds on aircraft safety and One potential impact on this stability is earthquakes.
water supplies, as well as impacts from predatory While Australia is considered a seismically stable
animals, such as feral cats, on surrounding native continent, it does not mean that no large-scale
fauna. An expert in the field should be consulted for earthquakes will occur, only that they are infrequent.
an assessment of potential impacts from scavenger A reasonable degree of assurance of the long-term
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slopes. In an area that has been subject to subsurface Required outcomes
mining, it must be demonstrated that the ground will
• Use regional waste management planning to
not collapse.
identify the sites within or adjacent to the region
Where a landfill is located within a karst region, which are best suited for future landfilling.
characterised by sinkholes, caves and possibly large
• Develop landfill sites in the sequence specified in
water springs, special attention must be given to the
the relevant regional waste management plan.
investigation of the stability of the area and the
containment of leachate. In general, karst regions are • Ensure that sufficient buffer is available for the
A further factor to consider is the mineralogy of the • Consider the most appropriate landfill type to
area in which the landfill is to be built. In particular, meet the requirements imposed by local
substrate should be assessed to minimise the • Ensure that the landfill is sited to protect surface
potential for differential movement of the liner waters, groundwater and flora & fauna.
resulting from changes in the moisture content of the
Suggested measures
substrate. A further aspect to consider when
assessing the local mineralogy is the suitability of the • Consider natural features which will reduce the
To identify and rank those sites that require the • Avoid locating a landfill in areas of potable
fewest engineering and management controls to meet groundwater, groundwater recharge areas or
the objectives of all State Environment Protection groundwater supply protection areas.
Policies.
• Provide an unsaturated attenuation layer to the
landfill liner.
15
• Where the proposed landfill site extends below
the watertable, backfill the site to above the
watertable.
16
5. BEST PRACTICE DES IGN 5.1 Environmental Assessment
section of the guideline for all new cells. local surface waters;
17
§ permeability; • Landfill gas and odour control, including:
18
years to fill, after which they are immediately means that less supervision of the tipping area is
rehabilitated. In the case of a large area fill landfill, required and that waste sorting is also encouraged.
this will require the establishment of independent Transfer stations should be designed according to
cells. In the case of trench-and-fill landfills, each Guide to Best Practice at Transfer Stations, published
trench should be sized to ensure that it is filled within by EcoRecycle Victoria.
two years. Larger excavations for trench-and-fill
The gradient of internal haul roads, the external road
landfills must be filled on a cellular basis.
network and availability of services will influence the
Where an area fill or large trench-and-fill excavation is positioning of the transfer station, recycling facilities,
to be filled as a series of cells, prudent location of site office, weighbridge, gatehouse, staff facilities,
these cells may help to: plant maintenance or storage area and the vehicle
wash.
• stabilise a batter or embankment;
Best practice for a type 2 landfill is to have a
• screen the landfill operation from view;
gatehouse at the entrance to the site or at a point that
• reduce groundwater flow into the site;
cannot be bypassed when travelling to the landfill.
• shed clean stormwater into the stormwater The gatehouse is the first line of active measures to
system; vet the incoming waste stream to detect non-
conforming wastes and divert materials to the
• reduce the need to relocate facilities such as
recycling area. There should be facilities such as a
leachate dams;
viewing platform, elevated mirrors or video camera
• minimise the need to constantly construct roads
which allows the gatehouse attendant to readily
within the site; and
scrutinise the incoming waste load.
• avoid active landfilling near areas being
A weighbridge is commonly installed at major landfill
developed for residential purposes.
sites to facilitate accurate record keeping for the
For a trench-and-fill landfill, the trenches should be: purposes of invoicing clients, landfill levy
documentation and monitoring waste disposal rates.
• aligned perpendicular to the prevailing wind to
reduce litter; and
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5.3 Liner and leachate collection system
Required outcomes makes contact with the aquifer beneath the landfill
has minimal detrimental impact on groundwater. A
• Site layout and filling sequence planned to
further function of the liner is to retard the lateral
ensure that landfill cells are open for the
movement of landfill gas from the landfill and the
minimum period of time and site operations are
infiltration of groundwater.
optimised.
The design objective of the liner and leachate
• Minimisation of public access to the tipping face
collection system is to protect the beneficial uses of
and, where appropriate, assurance that waste
all groundwater, including that directly beneath the
received at the landfill can be vetted and
landfill.
recycled.
In accordance with SEPP (Groundwaters of Victoria), if
Suggested measures
EPA is satisfied that all practicable measures have
• Each independent tipping area to be sized so that been taken to prevent pollution of groundwater, EPA
it can be filled within two years for subsequent may designate an attenuation zone where some or all
rehabilitation. of the water-quality objectives are not required to be
• Type 2 landfills to install and operate a achieved. Implementing all of the required outcomes
gatehouse, weighbridge and waste transfer within this guideline may be considered by EPA to
20
• sub-base. • geotextile.
3 Uses commonly
available technology
to control seepage to
an amount not
exceeding
1,000L/ha/day.
integrity of the sub-base that lies beneath. The sub- soil) at the base of a quarry, it is likely to be well-
base must be well-consolidated, with minimal consolidated. Where the sub-base has been installed
settlement, in order to supply a firm platform for the prior to the liner and leachate collection system, it
compaction of the clay layer, to protect the needs to be installed in such a manner that it is
geomembrane from excessive strains and to ensure geotechnically stable. One method of providing this
that the drainage system drains effectively throughout stability is to install and compact the sub-base in thin
the life of the landfill. The sub-base should also offer layers.
21
Using solid inert waste or slimes (washings from sand- 5.3.2 Clay Layer
mining operations) for a sub-base is not best practice
The ability of clay to retard water movement and
because of the inherent problems in constructing a
absorb exchangeable cations makes it a suitable
stable liner on such a sub-base. These problems,
natural material for a low-permeability liner. To meet
which include the very high moisture content and the
the performance standards of the whole liner, the clay
acid-generating properties of many slimes, result in a
component needs to be at least one metre thick, with
sub-base that is difficult to travel across, much less
a hydraulic conductivity of less than
compact a liner upon.
1 x 10-9 m/s using both fresh water and
These problems may be resolved by drying the slimes 50,000 ppm NaCl solution. Australian Standard AS
to the point where the material is stiff enough to 1289.6.7.1 – 1999 gives details on how hydraulic
compact upon. In drying slimes, any potential for acid conductivity testing should be performed.
generation must be addressed.
Some of the properties of the soil measured to
If solid inert waste is used, it should be limited to determine its suitability as a low-permeability liner are
crushed and compacted hard waste (rock, bricks and particle size distribution and plasticity (described by
concrete with no timber, plastic or steel). This will the soil plasticity index) and cation exchange
ensure that the sub-base is sufficiently stiff to build a capacity. Properties for clays suitable for a low-
liner on. permeability liner are discussed in Appendix 2 – ‘Clay
properties’.
All plans for the construction of a sub-base must be
verified and approved by a geotechnical engineer. To A further factor to be considered is the potential for
provide assurance of the quality of construction of the desiccation and subsequent cracking. Montmorillonite
sub-base, construction of the sub-base must be clays, found in the northern and western suburbs of
included in the Construction Quality Assurance (CQA) Melbourne and the western district, are high-plasticity
plan (see section 5.4), verifying that it is fit for its clays and can form good liners; however, they are
22
required to overcome the effects of the imperfections sharp objects penetrating the geomembrane. By
within individual lifts. placing the geomembrane immediately on top of a
clay liner, the seepage rate at a defect through the
A further factor is the thickness of the liner and the
geomembrane is governed by the performance of the
number of lifts used, with a greater number of lifts and
underlying liner and the quality of the interface
greater total thickness minimising the probability that
between the geomembrane and the underlying
preferential flowpaths will align. Best practice for
material. Therefore, porous materials should not be
minimising the probability that preferential flowpaths
placed between a geomembrane and a clay liner, and
align and thus minimise the hydraulic conductivity of
the clay liner should be shaped to a smooth surface
the liner, is to bond each successive lift with the
before installing a geomembrane.
preceding lift, construct the liner at least one metre
thick, and use a minimum of four to six lifts. If a geomembrane is used, it must be compatible with
the proposed waste type and resistant to chemical
During the installation of the clay liner, continual
attack. It must also have sufficient strength to resist
testing needs to be conducted to ensure that the
puncture by the drainage layer medium or any sharp
hydraulic conductivity of the liner is less than
objects in the underlying liners. Table 5 (from Frobel &
1 x 10-9 m/s. The landfill designer must provide details
Sadlier, 1997) summarises the properties of different
of how performance requirements of the liner,
types of geomembranes.
including the hydraulic conductivity, are to be met in a
CQA plan. Section 5.4 gives more detail on the Physical and mechanical requirements of
development of CQA plans. geomembranes are summarised in Appendix 2. These
are adopted from the German Federal Institute for
The final surface of a compacted clay liner should be
Materials Research and Testing’s publication,
finished to a smooth surface. This promotes the rapid
Guidelines for the Certification of Geomembranes as a
drainage of leachate on top of the liner, minimises the
Component of Composite Liners for Municipal and
surface area of the liner thereby reducing the loss of
Hazardous Waste Landfills and for Lining
moisture from the liner and allows the installation of a
Contaminated Land (February 1994).
geomembrane liner.
The landfill designer needs to ensure that the
5.3.3 Geomembrane
geomembrane to be used is the most appropriate
A composite liner is generally a combination of a under the circumstances (see Table 5), and that it
natural clay low hydraulic conductivity liner with a meets the physical and mechanical requirements
polymeric geomembrane. summarised in Appendix 2.
23
Tabl e 5: Properties of different geomembrane types (from Frobler & Sadlier, 1997)
24
When incorporating a geomembrane into a lining • able to be inspected and cleaned by readily
system, in addition to considering geotechnical available video inspection and pipe-cleaning
stability issues as a whole, the landfill designer needs equipment.
to ensure that the geomembrane is not placed under
The maximum leachate head on the liner (as
any long-term tensile forces.
measured at the lowest point of the liner) for a landfill
Geomembranes are supplied in rolls and must be situated above the watertable is 0.3 metres. The
fitted and joined at the site. To avoid stress on seams, leachate head in the sump may exceed 0.3 metres as
the rolls are joined with the seams parallel to the the sump is generally recessed below the level of the
slope. As some geomembranes may be affected by liner; some liquid is usually necessary to protect the
long exposure to UV light or by premature wetting, the pump in the sump.
manufacturer’s recommendations for the storage of
Where a landfill is located below the watertable, the
the geomembrane should be followed.
leachate within the landfill must be maintained at
Care must be taken in the installation of the least five metres below the surrounding watertable.
geomembrane to avoid deformation due to heat This ensures that all potential heterogeneities in
stress or the desiccation of the underlying clay liner. leachate and groundwater levels are accounted for
The installation must be performed under a CQA plan and that no outflow from the landfill can occur while
(see section 5.4), incorporating testing of not only the pumping is maintained.
geomembrane but also of the quality of the joins
A leachate collection system typically comprises a
between the geomembrane sheets.
high permeability drainage layer, perforated collection
5.3.4 Leachate Collection System pipes, a sump where collected leachate is extracted
from the landfill and geotextiles to protect any
The leachate collection system is an integral
geomembrane and prevent clogging of the drainage
component of the overall landfill liner system. The
layer. The liner is sloped into the leachate collection
design objectives of the leachate collection system
pipes which in turn are sloped to the leachate
are to ensure that it is:
collection sump. These slopes should be three per
• able to drain leachate such that the leachate cent to the pipes and one per cent to the sump.
head above the liner is minimised;
The drainage layer is a high-porosity medium
• appropriately sized to collect the estimated providing a preferential flow-path to the leachate
volume of leachate (predicted by water balance collection pipes and/or sump. To avoid clogging and
models); capillary action holding water in the drainage layer,
• resistant to chemical attack, and physical, coarse material is used so that there is space within
chemical and biological clogging; the drainage layer for leachate to drain freely. Using
coarse material also ensures leachate flow in the
• able to withstand the weight of waste and the
event the event of some clogging within the leachate
compaction equipment without crushing; and
25
collection pipes. The hydraulic conductivity of the leachate flowrate is derived from a water balance
drainage layer must be greater than 1x10–3 m/s. estimation using a model such as the HELP model. For
landfills located below the watertable, inflows of
The drainage layer must be across the entire landfill
groundwater into the landfill must also be
and comprise at least 0.3 metres of coarse aggregate
incorporated into the calculations. For landfills below
or the equivalent performance with a geosynthetic
the watertable, groundwater inflows will typically
drainage material. This ensures that leachate is
dominate calculations of the volume of leachate
contained within the drainage layer, thus minimising
generated. For landfills above the watertable, the
the potential for clogging of the drainage layer.
volume of leachate generated should be based on a
Properties of aggregate used in the drainage layer
1-in-20 year storm event after only one lift of waste
can be found in Appendix 2 – ‘Drainage aggregate
has been placed in the landfill. In designing the slope
properties’.
of the leachate collection pipes, a minimum pipe
A geotextile filter should be placed over the drainage
slope of one per cent should be used, though greater
layer to protect it from clogging as a result of solids
slopes will minimise the sedimentation in the pipe. To
transport. Leachate collection pipes must not be
prevent clogging of the pipes, they should be
wrapped in a filter geotextile, as this has been
designed to remain drowned in the leachate sump.
demonstrated to rapidly clog, rendering the collection
Leachate collection systems can fail in less than a
pipes ineffective.
decade, failing in several known ways:
In designing the leachate collection system pipes, the
• they clog with silt or mud;
key factors are the spacing between the pipes and
the sizing of the pipes. Placing collection pipes close • micro-organisms clog the pipes;
together minimises the head on the liner. A
• precipitation from chemical reactions block the
recommended maximum pipe spacing is 25 metres.
pipes;
Giroud’s equation can be used to design the liner
• the pipes are damaged in installation or early in
slope and pipe spacing to ensure the maximum
the filling of the landfill; or
design leachate head is not exceeded (see Appendix
2 – ‘Giroud’s Equation’ for more detail on the equation • the pipes become weakened by chemical attack
and its use). (acids, solvents, oxidising agents, or corrosion)
and are crushed.
The sizing of leachate pipes is based on leachate
flowrates within the pipe and the diameter required To reduce the risk of mechanical failure of the
for the passage of remote inspection and cleaning leachate collection pipes, they should be:
equipment. This equipment typically requires pipe
• flexible rather than rigid;
diameters greater than 15 to 20 centimetres.
• placed in trenches;
Manning’s equation is used to derive the required
• placed on evenly prepared bedding material; and
pipe size based on leachate flowrate and pipe slope.
For landfills located above the watertable, the
26
• protected by a traffic-control program minimising • Avoid using slimes as a sub-base.
the movement of heavy vehicles across them until
• Clay liner to be greater than one metre thick and
sufficient waste has been placed over the
compacted to a hydraulic conductivity less than
drainage layer to avoid puncturing.
1 x 10-9 m/s.
The installation of the leachate collection system must
• Utilise clay with the following properties:
be included in the CQA Plan (see section 5.4).
- no rock or soil clumps greater than 50 mm in any
Liner and leachate collection system dimension;
To maintain groundwater quality as close as - > 30 per cent passing through a 75 µm sieve;
practicable to background levels.
- > 15 per cent passing through a 2 µm sieve;
Required outcomes
- soil plasticity index > 10;
• Design and construction of the best liner and
- CEC > 10 mEq/100g; and
leachate collection system practicable to prevent
contamination of groundwater. - Minimal long-term degradation with exposure to
leachate.
• Implementation of the best practicable measures
to meet all groundwater quality objectives • Ensure clay liner is placed in at least four to six
below the landfill liner. • Using Table 5, ensure that the geomembrane
• Where an attenuation zone has been designated, used is the most appropriate under the
contained in SEPP (Groundwaters of Victoria) are • Installation procedures to minimise tensile stress
met at the boundaries of the premises. on geomembranes due to thermal expansion or
• Design and construction of the most robust liner • Assurance that the geomembrane meets the
and leachate collection system to ensure that the physical and mechanical requirements
the event of several components of the system • Maximum head of leachate on the liner not to
failing. exceed 0.3 metres.
• Design and construct the landfill liner such that a hydraulic conductivity of not less than 1x10–3
not exceeded.
27
• Drainage layer extending over the entire base of The CQA plan must contain the material/construction
material that would be subject to chemical attack. AS 3798-1996 Guidelines on earthworks for
commercial and residential developments. This
• Geotextile filter layer between drainage layer and
entails, among other requirements, full-time testing
waste.
and inspection of all earthworks by the geotechnical
• Low permeability liner sloped at not less than testing authority, a geotechnical engineer
three per cent into the collection pipes. independent of the liner constructor. The geotechnical
• Leachate collection pipes sloped at not less than testing authority must provide a report of all testing
one per cent, towards the leachate sump. and, prior to the liner being accepted as appropriately
constructed, must express the opinion that the works
• Collection pipes with high resistance to chemical
comply with the requirements of the specification and
attack, able to withstand anticipated vertical
drawings.
loading stresses and able to be inspected and
cleaned. For any landfill it must be demonstrated that the
natural sub-grade and/or a constructed sub-base is
5.4 Construction Quality Assurance able to support the landfill without affecting the
integrity of the liner system as a result of differential
The development and implementation of a
settlement.
Construction Quality Assurance (CQA) plan provides a
means of demonstrating to the public and regulating In the case of a clay liner, the key parameter that
authorities that the landfill being constructed meets must be met is the hydraulic conductivity. It is
its design requirements. dependent upon many factors, including clay
composition, moisture content, compaction, field
The CQA plan must be able to verify:
placement techniques and liner thickness.
• materials used comply with specifications; and
The CQA plan must specify how the materials used to
• method of construction/installation is appropriate
construct the liner will be tested to ensure that the
and, as a result, design requirements have been
hydraulic conductivity of the liner meets the
met.
specification. One means of doing this is to regularly
sample the clay liner and test the samples for dry
28
density and moisture content. The results of this However, only small samples can be tested in the
testing are then compared with the required zone for laboratory, which can affect the accuracy and
dry density and moisture content necessary to ensure applicability of the permeability results.
that the clay meets the specified hydraulic
Field permeability measurements can represent larger
conductivity. This is discussed in more detail in
volumes/areas of soil. using a device such as a
Appendix 2 – ‘Installation of clay liners’.
Sealed Double Ring Infiltrometer (SDRI). As an SDRI
Where this method is to be adopted, dry density and should run for at least four months to ensure that the
moisture content tests need to be quick procedures flow through the material being tested is a long-term
with a one to two hour turnaround time for results. steady state flow rather than a transient flow (Parker
Timely feedback and instructions can then be given to et al, 1997), this test should be conducted on a test
rework any areas that do not meet compaction pad that is not part of the liner but is subject to the
standards. same construction activities.
The minimum test frequencies are: In addition to this physical testing, visual inspections
should check for the presence of oversized clods of
• properties of the clay (grain size distribution,
clay, poorly compacted or dry areas and the
plasticity index and moisture content) tested once
homogeneity of the clay.
every 5,000 m3; and
The CQA plan may also need to specify the measures
• field testing for liner density and moisture content
to be taken to protect the clay liner from desiccation
at a frequency the greater of:
and erosion.
- 1 test per 500 m3 of soil;
Further to the testing of the quality of the installed
- 1 test per 2,500 m2 area per clay lift; or
clay, the CQA must also address the quality assurance
- 3 tests per site visit. with respect to the thickness of the constructed liner.
In particular, the liner should be surveyed at the
Following field compaction work, direct permeability
completion of construction to confirm that the correct
testing in the laboratory and/or in the field should be
grades have been attained.
undertaken on undisturbed clay liner samples.
5.4.2 Geomembranes
Suitable laboratory permeability testing procedures
are described in AS 1289.6.7.1–1999, Soil strength The CQA plan for a geomembrane must specify
and consolidation tests – Determination of procedures for:
permeability of a soil– Constant head method for a
• recording condition of materials when unloaded
remoulded specimen.
at the site, ie. whether rolls are wrapped;
Laboratory permeability testing has some advantages
• documenting how rolls are stored, that is,
over direct field measurement methods because
undercover and when used;
factors such as evaporation and soil saturation can be
controlled in the laboratory to minimise discrepancies.
29
• inspection of the sub-base upon which Construction Quality Assurance
geomembrane will be placed to remove any
Objective
objects that may damage the geomembrane;
To ensure that materials, construction methods and
• inspection of geomembrane for defects;
installation procedures provide a landfill meeting
• minimising tensile stresses on geomembranes design criteria.
that result from thermal expansion or contraction
Required outcomes:
of installed components;
• Development and implementation of CQA plan to
• testing of the seams; and
ensure that the liner and leachate collection
• inspection/testing of anchoring points of the system meets the requirements of the
geomembrane provided on surfaces with a specification and drawings.
gradient exceeding 10 per cent.
• A statement from an accredited testing authority
The geomembrane should generally be installed and be obtained stating that the installed liner and
tested under the recommended quality assurance leachate collection system meet the requirements
guidelines provided by the geomembrane of the specification and drawings.
manufacturer.
• Development and implementation of a CQA plan
5.4.3 Leachate Collection System to ensure that the stability of sub-base and liner
are achieved.
The CQA plan must be able to demonstrate that the
drainage layer materials have been placed in a Suggested measures:
manner that avoids damage to the low permeability
• Level 1 geotechnical testing as set out in
liner and have the following properties:
AS 3798-1996 for landfill sub-base and liner.
• Washed to remove fines prior to placement;
• Visually inspect each compacted lift of clay for
• Appropriate particle size to provide design impurities, poor compaction, cracking and dry
hydraulic conductivity; areas.
• Placed so that no damage occurs to the landfill • Survey liner to confirm correct grades.
liner;
• Inspect base for the geomembrane for sharp
• Correct grades on all surfaces achieved; objects that may puncture the geomembrane or
areas of roughness that may prevent the direct
• Correct thickness of material;
contact of the geomembrane on the low
• Pipes placed on even bed;
permeability base.
• Proper joining of pipes.
30
5.5 Water Management the water across the slope. By minimising erosion the
Water management relies upon the management of need for a settlement pond is reduced.
three water streams with the intention of minimising Sediment control features may be required where
the volumes to be managed and avoiding mixing the there are large stockpiles of earth or expanses of
streams. The three components to be kept separate cleared land in the catchment area. Sediment control
are: features should be designed to enable both silty
When considering means of managing water on the include shallow, heavily vegetated stormwater control
site, reusing water onsite is always preferred to ponds and swales. The need for sediment control
5.5.1 Stormwater management • the topography and how this will influence water
velocity;
Good stormwater management design incorporates
• the nature of the water environment into which
interception drains that direct stormwater away from
the eventual discharge from the site would occur;
the areas where waste is to be landfilled. Storage
ponds and other drainage measures should be • the typical intensity of storm events; and
designed to contain and control rainfall runoff for a 1-
• the extent of vegetative cover on the catchment
in-20 year storm event for a putrescible landfills or a 1-
area.
in-10 year storm event for a solid inert landfill. Storm
EPA Publication 275 Construction techniques for
events up to 1-in-100 year recurrence intervals should
sediment pollution control and Publication 480
also be considered to ensure that they do not result in
Environmental guidelines for major construction sites,
any catastrophic failures such as flooding of the
provide further guidance on sediment control.
landfill or failure of dams or leachate storage ponds.
Where a water supply dam is constructed to provide
Stormwater can also contribute sediment to the
water for fire fighting, dust suppression or irrigation
environment if the catchment area is erodible due to a
purposes, water from sediment control features
lack of vegetative cover. By retaining and re-
should be channelled into the water supply dam. This
establishing as much vegetative cover in the
places an additional control on the discharge of
catchment area as possible, this potential for erosion
potentially turbid water, thus ensuring that the
is minimised.
environment is better protected; it also maximises the
Other means for minimising the potential for erosion
use of this water. All dams should have spillways with
are to have water flow over flat slopes, or to spread
erosion-control measures such as rocks and erosion-
resistant vegetation.
31
The discharge of stormwater from the site should only • treatment;
occur from dams, and only after confirmation that the
• surface irrigation of treated leachate outside the
water is not contaminated. This confirmation should at
waste disposal area and subject to salinity
least be visual where the only possible contaminant
management;
source is sediment, but where other contaminants are
• dust suppression in the landfill; or
possible, the water should be tested prior to
discharging. The degree of testing will be determined • providing moisture for an enhanced
by the risk of contamination and the sensitivity of the biodegradation landfill (see section 5.8).
receiving environment. Water is not to be discharged
In deciding upon any of the above management
if it is suspected or found to be contaminated. The
options, a water balance should be modelled over at
maximum permissible turbidity for stormwater is
least two consecutive wet years to ensure that the
contained in Table . Where water does not meet these
proposed system has sufficient capacity to deal with
standards or shows other signs of contamination, the
all leachate generated over the operational life of the
source should be found and actions taken to prevent
landfill.
a recurrence.
Any ponds containing leachate should have a
Table 6: Stormwater turbidity limits freeboard of at least one metre to guard against wave
action causing leachate to overtop the banks, as well
Maximum Median
as to provide capacity for any unforseen events. To
NTU NTU
prevent seepage from the treatment system into
Dry weather 50 25
groundwater, ponds should be lined to the equivalent
Stormwater flows 100 50
performance standard as the landfill (see section 5.3
5.5.2 Leachate management for performance standards).
As leachate contains high levels of nutrients and salt, If leachate ponds become anaerobic or where odour is
it requires treatment before it can be reused onsite or a particularly critical issue due to surrounding
discharged to the environment. Prior to and during sensitive land uses, leachate odours can become an
treatment, leachate must be stored and managed in a issue. Where odour is an actual or potential issue,
manner such that it will not escape into surface water then the leachate pond may need to be covered or
or groundwater, will not cause offensive odours and mechanically aerated.
will minimise human contact with the leachate. Water
Where leachate is to be evaporated, it should be
used in vehicle and wheel washing should also be
within a closed system where no leachate is able to
managed as leachate.
escape to the environment. Ponds are typically used
Management options for leachate are: to evaporate leachate (the formula for calculating the
pond surface area required to evaporate the required
• evaporation;
volume of leachate is in Appendix 2).
• discharge to sewer, with or without pretreatment;
32
Evaporation is enhanced by increasing the is discussed in Appendix 2 – ‘Aerobic leachate
evaporative surface area using measures such as treatment systems’.
microsprays in the evaporation pond or devices such
A wide range of alternative leachate treatment
as the leachate evaporation pyramid in Figure 1. At
methods have been developed, ranging from full
the end of the useful life of the evaporation pond, salt
physico-chemical treatment where the treated
that has accumulated in the pond will need to be
leachate is of an extremely high quality, to thermal
disposed of.
treatment where leachate is evaporated by the
combustion of landfill gas. Where other alternatives
are not feasible or sufficiently protective of the
environment, these need to be investigated on a
case-by-case basis.
pre-treatment of leachate may be required prior to part of the site that has received waste is only to be
sufficient oxygen for the needs of the bacteria. Sites that extract groundwater (such as sites below
A further element of effective leachate treatment in the watertable) must manage that water so that it
aerobic ponds is the avoidance of large fluctuations in does not cause soil or water pollution. Many areas of
leachate quality and volume. The design and Victoria contain groundwater that is more saline than
management of an aerobic leachate treatment system the local surface water system; the artificial or
accelerated natural discharge of such saline
33
groundwater into a fresh surface water system is considering a discharge to the environment, the
likely to adversely affect that ecosystem. Landfills existing environment of the receiving waters, such as
below the watertable should also ensure that flow rates, water chemistry, turbidity and biology,
groundwater is segregated from leachate and should be determined, with this information being
stormwater. This can be achieved by groundwater used to design the location, volume and quality of any
interception drains surrounding the landfill where discharge in order to minimise impacts on water
groundwater is shallow, or deep bores or sumps for quality and ecology in the receiving waters. It is not
deeper groundwater. Groundwater will need to be best practice to discharge leachate to surface waters;
pumped from the vicinity of the landfill until the waste the need to discharge groundwater to surface waters
has stabilised – this can be assumed to be 30 years should be avoided.
from the cessation of waste disposal.
Water management
A further impact that may need to be considered is
Objectives
that of rising watertables. This may manifest itself
through groundwater rising to flood a landfill, or To protect beneficial uses of receiving waters and to
landfill operations, causing a localised increase in avoid any adverse environmental impact on surface
groundwater recharge, which in turn results in the rise and ground waters.
34
putrescible landfills or 1-in-10 for a solid inert 5.6.1 Liner Uplift
landfill.
The upward or outward force of groundwater through
• Control erosion by minimising disturbed land, the base or sides of a landfill can cause a structural
treating disturbed land as soon as practical, failure of the liner. Until the loading on the landfill
establishing flatter slopes or spreading the flow liner due to waste placement exceeds any inward or
of water. upward force exerted by groundwater, this risk of liner
source, install sediment control features. The key to managing this risk is to reduce the level of
• Manage water from vehicle-washing areas groundwater beneath the landfill by extracting
(manual or automatic) as leachate. groundwater. Two of the strategies that will enable
this reduction are groundwater underdrains beneath
• Model leachate treatment facilities to ensure that
the liner and groundwater extraction bores
they have sufficient capacity to store and treat all
surrounding the landfill. If groundwater extraction
leachate generated over two consecutive wet
ceases, the rebounding watertable will exert a force
years.
on the landfill that will need to be balanced by the
• Use interception drains to intercept surface water force exerted by the waste for the liner to remain
or shallow groundwater. intact.
• Prevent the discharge of turbid stormwater to the Monitoring bores may be installed to:
environment by maintaining turbidity levels within
• establish the groundwater background quality
those outlined in Table .
and levels (in mAHD);
• Prevent any detrimental impacts of saline
• establish the local groundwater flow direction and
groundwater on fresh water ecosystems.
rate;
Since a landfill must not impact on beneficial uses of contamination in groundwater prior to offsite
the local hydrogeological environment. Issues to be • measure compliance with the site licence or
considered include: notice; and
35
they will not be influenced by seepage out or into the 5.6.3 Groundwater Recovery Bores
landfill or affected by surface water features, such as
As an added level of protection for landfills in an area
dams. The location of these bores should also take
of potable groundwater, a groundwater recovery
into account potential impacts from surrounding
system provides a means of preventing the detriment
landfills, such as localised changes in groundwater
to beneficial uses of groundwater. The recovery
quality or flow direction.
system works by reversing or otherwise changing the
Monitoring should occur in all aquifers that may be direction of flow so that the polluted water can be
affected by the landfill. The number of monitoring extracted.
bores should be commensurate with the size of the
The installation of recovery bores follows from a risk
facility, the risk of contamination and the nature of
assessment focused on the sensitivity of the aquifer
the groundwater environment; however, at least four
to seepage from the landfill and the groundwater
groundwater bores are required to understand the
velocity. The spacing and size of the recovery bores
direction of groundwater flow. Further guidance on
are determined by their proximity to the landfill and
groundwater monitoring programs is contained in EPA
hydrogeological conditions such as the transmissivity
Publication 668 Environmental Guidelines for
of the subsurface strata.
Hydrogeological Assessments (Groundwater Quality)
(in print). While not all sites will physically need to install the
recovery bores, all landfills should determine the most
The bores established in close proximity to the landfill
appropriate location of the bores and their
are screened so as to intercept any leachate-
effectiveness. In operating groundwater recovery
contaminated groundwater. For a landfill located
bores, the landfill operator needs to be aware that the
above the watertable, the top three to five metres of
resulting change in groundwater flow direction will
the watertable aquifer would normally be sampled.
affect conclusions drawn from groundwater
‘Nested’ or multiple bores screened at various depths
monitoring results.
in the aquifer may be used to establish the water
quality profile. Groundwater management
site provides an indicator of the groundwater quality To protect the beneficial uses of groundwater and to
that a downgradient-permitted groundwater user may minimise the risk posed by the landfill to those
extract; it also provides additional assurance that the beneficial uses.
landfill has not polluted the groundwater.
Required outcomes
Permission must be obtained from the appropriate
• Development of a groundwater monitoring
Regional Water Authority to install a groundwater
program to demonstrate compliance with the
bore, and all groundwater monitoring results should
objective.
be forwarded to the State Groundwater Database.
36
• Design of bores to sample the potentially the time (see Appendix 2, Figure 6). The onset and
contaminated and/or representative groundwater duration of each phase of landfill gas production vary
Suggested measures The key phase with respect to potential impacts from
landfills on air quality is the aerobic phase, which is
• Assurance that the landfill liner cannot be
where decomposition occurs in the absence of
damaged through groundwater pressure.
oxygen. During this phase, methane and carbon
• Where groundwater pressure poses a risk to the
dioxide, both greenhouse gases, are the major
liner integrity, extract groundwater to minimise
constituents of the gas produced. With daily covering
this risk.
of wastes and compaction of waste, the available
• Install at least four bores at suitable locations to oxygen is quickly depleted; however, the evolution of
understand the direction of groundwater flow. significant quantities of methane may take from three
months to more than a year to start and continue for
• Install groundwater recovery bores to extract
well in excess of 15 years.
polluted groundwater in the event of detrimental
impacts on beneficial uses of groundwater. The rate of emissions from a landfill is governed by
gas production and transport mechanisms. An
5.7 Air Quality estimate of the methane generation rate from a
Landfills pose a risk to air quality through landfill gas typical landfill can be made using the USEPA Landfill
comprising methane and other odorous compounds) Air Emissions Estimation Model from the USEPA’s
and dust. The objectives for air quality management Control Technology Centre bulletin board (see
• no reduction in amenity or health impacts due to Explosive limit) to 15 per cent (Upper Explosive limit)
37
and because the process generates significant For large landfills, there are clear economic and
quantities of greenhouse gases, landfill are environmental benefits in collecting landfill gas and
contributors to climate change as a result of the finding either a direct user of the gas or the energy it
greenhouse effect. Oxidation of the methane in could produce to purchase it. The benefits for smaller
landfill gas to water and carbon dioxide results in a landfills are not so clear, and the landfill gas-
net reduction of greenhouse impacts as methane has management options depend on the size of the
a greater greenhouse effect than carbon dioxide. landfill. EPA Publication 722, Environmental
Guidelines for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Methane-oxidising bacteria in the soil of the landfill
from Landfills and Wastewater Treatment Facilities
cap can oxidise methane in landfill gas migrating
provides more detail on the considerations that need
through the cap. The degree of methane oxidation is a
to be taken into account. Table 7 is extracted from
function of the time it takes the gas to migrate
these guidelines and sets out the minimum
through the cap; the longer it takes to pass through
requirements of best practice landfills.
the cap, the greater the degree of oxidation. The
oxidation process is enhanced by the addition of
mulched material above the low permeability liner,
and degraded by cracks in the cap which provide
preferential flow paths with minimal oxidation. All
landfill caps should include mulched material in their
caps to enhance the oxidation of any fugitive
emissions of landfill gas.
38
Table 7 : Landfill gas control
Site receiving (tonnes waste per year) <5,000 5,000 – 40,000 – >100,000
40,000 100,000
ü = suggested measures – best practice operators should assess need for the measure by landfill gas estimation
and testing
? = measures that may be required, subject to the outcomes of landfill gas testing
N/A = measure not applicable
5.7.2 Landfill gas collection Existing and closed landfills are expected to assess
the alternatives for landfill gas collection. This may be
Landfill gas may be collected for reasons such as
to abate odour or other environmental risks from the
greenhouse gas control, alternative fuel supply, risk
site, or it may be to take advantage of the energy
reduction or odour control.
resource. Where ambient methane concentrations of
The landfill gas-collection system should be designed 500 ppm or more are found, or when methane
prior to establishing the landfill as this enables the concentrations in bores or confined spaces exceed
operator to best capitalise on the landfill gas resource one per cent by volume, landfill gas control measures
as well as protect high-risk receptors from any must be implemented.
impacts of landfill gas. New landfill proposals are
Where landfill gas is to be collected, gas wells may be
expected to incorporate a landfill gas collection
vertical or horizontal. The collection system may be
system in the design of the landfill, as well as
passive (relies upon the pressure difference between
incorporate operational modifications required to
atmospheric pressure and the pressure of the landfill
optimise the quality and volume of landfill gas
gas) or active (gas is drawn off under a vacuum). For a
collected.
passive gas system, wells need to be spaced not
more than 20 to 30 metres apart, whereas for an
39
active system wells may be up to 50 metres apart. In gas to be collected and used very early in the life of
both cases, the cessation of extraction of landfill gas the landfill.
while the gas is being generated may cause offensive
odours beyond the site boundary, so auxiliary systems
need to be installed to maintain continuous extraction
in the event that the main extraction system fails.
the collection pipe, the space between the pipe and during filling of landfill
40
generation is far more attractive in terms of of buffers in accordance with requirements outlined in
greenhouse gas reductions as it generally replaces section 4.1.3 will minimise impacts of residual odour
brown-coal generated electricity, it is a less efficient on surrounding areas.
energy conversion than the use of the gas as a
While the major constituents of landfill gas, methane
substitute fuel for direct heating. As a result, where
and carbon dioxide, are odourless, the residual gases
landfill gas replaces electricity as a means of heating,
can be very odorous. The key means of managing
it is preferred to use the gas as a substitute fuel rather
landfill odour is to manage the landfill gas in general
than generate electricity from it for use in heating. For
by oxidising it through some of the measures
the purpose of heating calculations, the calorific value
discussed in sections 5.7.1 and 5.7.2.
of landfill gas can be assumed to be about 15 to 21
5.7.4 Dust Emissions
MJ/m3 (about half that of natural gas).
Where landfill gas is to be flared, the landfill gas Any large area where the land has been disturbed and
flares should be designed to reduce emissions of is subject to vehicular traffic has the capacity to
volatile organic compounds (excluding methane) by generate dust. Other potential dust sources are
98 per cent. In addition, the flare should be fitted with stockpiles of earth and the delivery of dusty loads of
up of gas, and a flame arrestor beneath the The magnitude of the impact will depend on the:
combustion zone to prevent the combustion of the
• type and size of the operation;
landfill itself.
• prevailing wind speed and direction;
Where several different landfills are clustered
• adjacent land use;
together in relatively close proximity, the options for
landfill gas utilisation of the combined landfill gas • occurrence of natural and/or constructed wind
produced from the sites should be investigated. breaks; and
Landfill odour is a key consideration in deciding The dust concentration set in SEPP (Air Quality
whether a landfill will adversely affect the amenity Management) of 330 µg/m3 must be achieved beyond
enjoyed or expected by surrounding neighbours; it the premises boundary. Measures to achieve this dust
also affects the design and operation of the site. At all level include:
times, a landfill must be managed to prevent
• Vegetation of exposed areas and formation of
offensive odours beyond the boundary of the
internal roads, including sealing roads that are
premises (measured as 1 odour unit at the boundary
used regularly; and
of the premises). In particular, where surrounding land
• Use of water or other dust suppressants on roads
uses include residential, educational and health care
or stockpiles that are not sealed or vegetated.
uses, the highest degree of care must be taken to
protect these areas from landfill odours. The provision
41
While direct measurement of PM10 or dust may only • Ensure landfill gas flares are designed to reduce
occur at those sites that have been identified as a volatile organic compound emissions by 98 per
dust hazard, periodic monitoring should still occur at cent and that the flare is fitted with:
all sites, even if by visual means only. - Auto ignition; and
of amenity from landfill gas, odour or dust. • Use water or other dust suppressants on
• Provide a cap containing mulch material in the • Since research on critical aspects of the concept
final soil layer to act as a methane oxidation is still being conducted, it would be premature to
layer. encourage these landfills throughout Victoria.
• Monitor landfill gas, particularly in areas where • The management requirements are significantly
there are relatively permeable strata. greater than those for typical landfills; landfill
• Where there are multiple landfill sites in relative operators need to demonstrate that they are able
proximity, examine the options for landfill gas to manage a significantly more complex system
42
• The stabilisation of waste in the ground While EPA cannot endorse the implementation of the
potentially undermines preferred trends in enhanced biodegradation landfill concept at this
resource recovery where waste is sorted and stage, EPA is keen to see the development of genuine
stabilised outside the landfill, with methane research in the field, and encourages research
captured for subsequent use and the remaining facilities to conduct such research through a
solid material used as compost. This technology Research, Development and Demonstration approval.
is also in the development stage; however, it
promises far greater resource recovery potential 5.9 Noise
than enhanced biodegradation landfilling. Landfill operations generally involve noisy plant and
can impact detrimentally on the amenity of
The key parameter for biodegradation is usually
surrounding areas. Sources of noise at a landfill
moisture content, and while the optimum moisture
include truck noise (body, engine and exhaust),
content for biodegradation is still being agreed upon,
reversing sirens, external telephone bells, mobile
it is generally considered to be around 60 to 80 per
machinery and equipment used for resource recovery
cent of saturation.
operations such as concrete-crushing equipment.
Enhanced biodegradation is argued to have many
Site operations should be set out to minimise noise
benefits, including reducing the long-term risk posed
impacts by using natural and/or constructed features
by the landfill and increasing landfill gas production to
such as earthen bunds and depressions as well as
make collection and utilisation of the gas more viable.
minimising steep-haul roads. Other means of
An enhanced biodegradation landfill should not minimising noise by planning are to schedule
require any lining and leachate-collection controls in potentially noisy activities to minimise impacts on the
addition to those required of a best practice landfill. community.
However, the enhanced landfill gas production
Where noise is considered an actual or potential
imposes additional demands on landfill gas collection
concern (due to changing land use), then the
very early in the life of the landfill and these demands
predicted noise levels at the nearest current or future
need to be addressed. Further design elements
sensitive receptor should be derived. Where
imposed by enhanced biodegradation landfills include
operations are likely to occur outside normal business
mechanisms for adding moisture to the landfill, means
hours, noise-control measures need to be
of monitoring and controlling moisture content and
investigated and adopted where appropriate.
methods for minimising channelling and dead zones
In the Melbourne metropolitan area, industry must
within the landfill.
comply with the noise limits prescribed by SEPP
Where a landfill is to be managed as an enhanced
(Control of Noise from Commerce, Industry and Trade)
biodegradation landfill, various parameters can be
No. N-1 1989. Outside this area, industry is expected
monitored to determine the stability of the waste.
to comply with any adopted standards or
These include landfill gas yield and quality, and the
recommendations issued by EPA, such as EPA
BOD:COD ratio in leachate.
43
Publication 3/89, Interim Guidelines for Control of that trafficked areas, such as the location of parking,
Noise from Industry in Country Victoria as updated the entrance gate and the weighbridge, are away
from time to time. from sensitive land users.
of Noise from Commerce, Industry and Trade) No. roads can be avoided by vehicles exiting via a wheel
• Set the site out to minimise noise impacts. roads are sealed, the road from the wheel wash
should also be sealed and regularly cleaned to reduce
• Plan operating hours for various elements of the
the dirt re-entrained by the vehicle. Internal roads
site to minimise impact on the community.
should also be sealed as far as possible into the site
• Where noise is an actual or potential concern, to reduce the amount of dirt accumulating on the
predicted noise levels at the nearest current or vehicle and allow more time for dirt already
future sensitive receptor should be derived. accumulated on the vehicle to fall off before it leaves
the site.
5.10 Traffic Considerations
Traffic considerations
Due to safety concerns, noise, road grime and the
increased cost of road maintenance, movement of Objectives
trucks on local roads may be a concern to local To minimise nuisance from traffic movement.
residents and councils.
Required outcomes
Limiting access routes and speeds of vehicles, as well
• Minimisation of safety concerns, noise and road
as limiting the hours of operation, can minimise noise
grime on external roads.
disturbance to the local community. Another
consideration is the design of the site layout to ensure
44
Suggested measures Table 8: Minimum fencing requirements
roads that will have the least impact on the <5,000 5,000 – 10,000 More
surrounding community. 10,000 – than
50,000 50,000
• Locate trafficked areas away from sensitive land
users. Extractive A A A A
industry
• Provide traffic-control devices and signage near
sites
the landfill entry.
Trench-and- B B A or C A or C
• Assurance that all vehicles leaving the landfill fill
have all soil removed from the wheels and
Topography B B A or C A or C
underbody before entering public roads. change
5.11 Site Security and Fencing B A stock proof fence constructed around the
perimeter of the landfill site, and relocatable litter
Active landfill sites can present a safety risk to the
screens erected near the tipping area.
public and livestock. The site should be securely
fenced to prevent the unauthorised entry of people or C A wire mesh fence at least two metres high
livestock. When unattended, the gates should be constructed around the tipping area only, and a
securely locked. Fencing should be regularly stock proof fence around the perimeter of the
inspected and any damage to the fence that would site.
allow unauthorised access be repaired as quickly as
In areas where there may be a higher risk of
possible. When designing a fence, consider the
unauthorised people entering the site, such as where
probability that unauthorised people will want to gain
the landfill is next to a recreational area, these
entry to the site.
minimum fencing requirements may need to be
Any particularly dangerous areas, such as disposal upgraded.
areas for slimes or leachate ponds, should have signs
to indicate the danger posed.
45
Site security and fencing
Objectives
Required outcomes
Suggested measures
46
6. BEST PRACTICE OPE RATION 6.1 Environment Improvement Plan
• management of chemicals and fuel; • training of all relevant staff in the implementation
of improvements;
• disease vector control;
• mechanisms to check and review environmental
• noxious weed control; and performance;
47
Environment Improvement Plan,’ provides more detail monitoring and regular inspection demonstrate that
on the key elements of an EIP. the landfill no longer poses a risk to the environment.
aftercare of a landfill are not borne by the community financial assurance for landfills for guidance on
in the event that the landfill operators abandon the the development of an appropriate level of
• site rehabilitation; and should have already been taken to avoid waste
production and remove recyclable material from the
• site aftercare.
waste stream before it arrives at the landfill. This is
The financial assurance should be held for the period particularly pertinent for wastes generated in
that the landfill continues to pose a risk to the significant volumes at a single site, such as
environment, and may be discharged by EPA when
48
construction and demolition waste from large These materials should be removed from the waste
projects. stream being landfilled and either stockpiled for
recycling onsite or for offsite removal. Where recycling
Material presented at a landfill should be sorted either
is proposed to occur onsite, adequate space needs to
by the waste generator or at some intermediate
be set aside for the raw material stockpile, the
facility such as a transfer station to remove and
recycling operation (such as a concrete crusher) and
recover recyclable material prior to deposition in the
for the material awaiting sale or reuse onsite.
landfill. Where the landfill takes unsorted waste,
infrastructure such as a transfer station or drop-off Where soil is to be excavated for cover or for a trench-
bins should be provided at the landfill to facilitate the and-fill operation, topsoil should be stockpiled for use
recovery of recyclable material. The site recording during site rehabilitation works.
system should record the waste diverted from landfill
Green waste should be mulched, after which it may be
separately from waste landfilled.
sold or used on the rehabilitated landfill surface to
In some exceptional cases it may be more efficient to improve the quality of the topsoil and to help prevent
sort the waste on the tipping face rather than at a erosion. Green waste used for this purpose should be
transfer station. This will typically be the case at sites free of noxious weed seeds.
that only receive waste from commercial operators.
Waste Minimisation
Where a transfer station is installed, it should be
designed in accordance with the guideline Guide to Objective
Best Practice at Transfer Stations (EcoRecycle To divert suitable wastes from landfill.
Victoria, September 1998).
Required outcomes
Many materials may be salvaged from the waste
• Establishment of an operation to salvage and
stream. These materials include:
recycle suitable wastes delivered to the landfill.
• paper and cardboard;
Suggested measures
• plastic and glass bottles;
• Carry out a waste minimisation assessment that
• concrete;
examines opportunities for waste avoidance,
• steel; reduction, reuse and recycling.
• organic waste such as food scraps; • Work with the waste generator to ensure that the
• bricks; waste to be landfilled is minimised.
• white goods; and works and use mulched green waste to improve
this topsoil and help control erosion.
• oil.
49
6.4 Waste Acceptance of authorities. These procedures should be contained
Signs advising which wastes may be deposited at the in the site EMS and implemented where such wastes
to show where recyclable materials from waste that Where limited prescribed wastes, such as asbestos,
has not been through a transfer station or municipal are received at the landfill, a sampling and analysis
recycling facility may be placed. program is needed to assure landfill operators that
The recyclable materials depot should be staffed at all the waste has been correctly classified and accords
times it is open for the receival of waste by staff who with their acceptance criteria. Sampling and analysis
know what types of wastes the landfill may accept should be conducted in accordance with EPA
and who are trained in recognising non-conforming Publication 441, A Guide to the Sampling and Analysis
wastes. Landfill staff should be vigilant to ensure that of Waters, Wastewaters, Soils and Wastes.
Facilities such as elevated mirrors, viewing platforms • An assurance by the landfill operator that the
or video cameras may be used to screen incoming waste received at the site is able to be accepted.
the type and quantity of waste received and whether • Conduct random inspections and sampling of
problems have previously been identified. A typical waste loads.
inspection frequency is, on average, one in 10
• Train landfill staff to recognise non-conforming
vehicles being physically inspected.
wastes.
There should be a communication system linking staff
• Develop and implement procedures for how to
at the landfill tipping area to the gatehouse.
deal with the dumping of non-conforming wastes.
Procedures should be developed to deal with the
dumping of non-conforming wastes at the landfill, and
should contain procedures for the identification of the
waste dumper, isolation of the waste and notification
50
6.5 Waste Pretreatment Shredding or baling wastes may reduce some
The pretreatment of waste prior to landfilling is environmental effects of landfilling but do not in
intended to reduce the long-term risk posed by the themselves reduce the putrescible fraction within the
Approaches to pretreatment include: Shredding involves the ripping of waste into strips and
• recovering fractions that have high calorific value, also may entail the removal of recyclable and
are recyclable or are compostable; and reusable materials still contained in the waste stream.
The shredded waste is generally more homogeneous
• modifying the physical form or mix of wastes
than the non-treated waste and therefore not subject
going to landfill through shredding, baling or
to the same amount of differential settlement. After
compacting.
compaction, the density of shredded waste is usually
By removing the waste that has a high calorific value greater that that of the non-shredded waste;
or is compostable, landfills containing the residual however, shredding may result in significant litter
waste stream require a shorter aftercare period and problems.
have fewer landfill gas emissions to the environment
Baling involves compacting and binding waste into
(see section 5.7.1 for more information on landfill gas
solid bales. Baled wastes can be neatly stacked and
generation). Best practice is to continually improve
may reduce the amount of litter and demand for cover
efforts to remove putrescible fractions from the waste
material. High-density balers can also increase the
stream.
quantity of waste that may be deposited in a landfill.
A waste pretreatment approach that reduces the risk
Waste Pretreatment
of landfilling waste is mechanical-biological
pretreatment. This involves the mechanical separation Objective
of waste into different fractions and the biological To reduce the long-term risk posed by the waste and
treatment of the putrescible fraction to a relatively to improve general landfill performance.
stable material. The gas generation potential is
Required outcome
significantly reduced and leachate volume and
strength reduced in pre-treated wastes compared with • Maximisation of the stability of waste going to
untreated wastes. This means that the aftercare landfill through pretreatment.
51
Suggested measures it is stable and can be covered by earth or other
approved cover materials.
• Separate putrescible fractions from waste
streams where possible, and continually improve The limiting factor for the gradient of an unconfined
in the separation of putrescible wastes. volume of waste within a landfill will usually be
governed by the stability of the cover soil placed over
• Shred and/or bale wastes to improve landfill
that exposed area. Gradients steeper than two
management and performance.
horizontal to one vertical units should be avoided,
unless it can be demonstrated that both the waste
6.6 Waste placement
and the cover material are mechanically stable. An
By maintaining tight controls on waste placement,
initially safe, dry cover may subsequently slide down a
litter and birds can be controlled and the degree of
slope due to water saturation which increases the
waste compaction maximised.
weight of the cover and decreases the friction
To contain litter and to reduce the attraction to birds resistance along the waste.
and other pests at Type 2 landfills, the size of the
The stability of waste and cover material may be
active tipping area should be kept as small as
further enhanced by terracing the unconfined face.
possible. The width of the active tipping area can be
estimated by allowing about 4–5 metres per truck, Whenever special wastes such as quarantine wastes
though trucks with trailers may require more space. are deposited, they should be immediately buried and
During peak times, the width of the tipping face needs covered. If trenches need to be excavated in the
to be balanced against waiting times for trucks; landfill to allow immediate burial of the waste,
however, the tipping area should be no greater than excavations should be made just before the arrival of
to maintain the length of the tipping area at less than • Maintenance of as small as possible an active
30 metres. tipping area.
Operating a landfill on a cellular basis, particularly in a • Compaction of all waste deposited in the landfill.
former extractive industry site, will often mean that at
• Assurance that waste is placed so that all
least one face or side of the cell will not be confined.
unconfined faces are mechanically stable and
In these circumstances, waste must be placed so that
capable of retaining cover material.
52
Suggested measures needs such as landfill gas collection and enhanced
biodegradation.
• Keep covering waste to maintain the active
tipping area at less than 30metres x 30metres. Materials other than soil must not be used without
written approval from EPA.
• Place wastes at the base of each lift and compact
wastes in layers of less than two metres. Cover material with a high moisture content, such as
slimes from sand mining operations, should be
• Immediately bury special wastes.
avoided as such material may release water into the
• Avoid unconfined waste slopes with gradients
waste. Wet waste will decompose faster than a dry
steeper than two horizontal to one vertical units.
waste, so significant quantities of gas may escape
from an open cell before a gas-extraction system can
6.7 Waste Cover
be installed. If wet material is used to cover waste,
An essential part of landfilling operations is the then a gas-collection system, such as the horizontal
placement of cover over wastes. The purpose of cover well system described in section 5.7.2, needs to be
is to: installed during filling of the landfill.
• minimise landfill odours; Acid sulfate soils as defined by EPA Publication 655,
• control litter; Acid Sulfate Soil and Rock, are not appropriate for use
as cover material as they oxidise and produce acid
• prevent the spread of fire;
run-off when exposed to the atmosphere. Once
• control disease vectors such as birds, flies, started, this reaction continues in the absence of
mosquitoes and rodents; and oxygen, that is, after the cover has been filled over.
• ensure that the landfill is trafficable. As cover material may be open to the atmosphere for
extended periods, acid sulfate soil in cover material
To achieve these outcomes, waste should be covered
would be expected to generate acid. A landfill must
at the end of every day, though landfills that receive
not accept acid sulfate soil unless it has an
significant volumes of waste in a day might need to
environment management plan for the acceptance of
cover waste during the day to maintain the length of
the material approved in writing by EPA.
the active tipping area at less than 30 metres.
With the lateral movement of the active tipping area
Where soil is used as cover, the soil should contain
across a landfill cell, it may be some time before the
some organic matter as this helps to attenuate landfill
next lift of waste is placed over an older area. Cover
odours; the thickness of soil applied should be
material rich in clay may dry and crack during dry
sufficient to achieve the above points. A typical cover
weather, thus releasing landfill gas and odours. It is
thickness is 0.3 metres.
good practice to consolidate the cover on older areas
Materials other than soil, such as foams, mulch, of the landfill cell by running a roller over the cover. It
paper-mâché, gravel or cover mats, may also achieve may also be necessary to moisten the cover to close
these purposes and may meet other operational any cracks that have formed.
53
Where soil is used for cover, a stockpile of soil to be elevation of the tipping area. No single control option
used as cover material needs to be provided. will be entirely successful for the entire life of the
Regardless of the material used as cover, sufficient landfill. A litter control strategy must, therefore, be
material should be available at the tipping face for at flexible and include both engineering solutions and
least two weeks of operations. management options.
• Covering of the landfill, at least daily, with soil or A best practice landfill will also minimise the size of
another approved cover material. tipping areas and have at least a daily litter program
in which fences and surrounding areas are cleaned of
• Assurance that there is sufficient cover material
any litter. It will also have contingency plans for which
available at the tipping face for at least two
resources are engaged to deal with extreme events
weeks of operations.
that cause gross litter problems.
Suggested measures
In areas where litter is especially problematic, this
• Where soil is used as cover, cover with 0.3 metres may involve a dedicated litter crew, more frequent
of soil. covering and enhanced litter screens. Such landfills
• Avoid covering with wet material and acid sulfate may also have dedicated areas for waste deposition
activities such as quarrying or farming. • That no litter from the landfill operations reaches
Litter control at landfills will vary throughout the year beyond the boundary of the premises.
54
Suggested measures If a fire should start, every effort must be made to
extinguish it before it gets established. Equipment to
• Minimise the size of the tipping area.
extinguish a fire must be readily available at any time
• Use litter screens at least four metres high to
to enable a prompt response to any part of the
control litter at the active tipping area.
premises. A water supply, either reticulated water or
• Establish a program of at least daily cleaning litter from dams or tanks, combined with a means of
from fences and the surrounding area. delivery (pump and hoses or a tanker truck) allows the
prompt extinguishment of a fire on the site.
• Deposit waste in areas of the landfill that are
Groundwater and stormwater stored in dams might be
sheltered from the wind.
suitable for combating a fire. Leachate should not be
• Establish contingency plans to deal with extreme
used unless all parties are aware of the possible risks
events that cause gross litter problems.
and adequate measures are taken to reduce human
exposure. Where reticulated water is not provided, at
6.9 Fire s
least 50,000 litres should be stored onsite for the
Landfill fires can cause significant impacts on local air purpose of combating small fires. In the event of a
quality through odour and smoke. They can also significant fire, this volume will need to be
spread outside the landfill, triggering a grass or supplemented by another source of water.
bushfire. Subterranean landfill fires may burn for
It is not usually possible to extinguish deep-seated
many years before they are detected. The smell of
fires using water except where the operator has
smoke may be the first sign that a landfill is burning
sufficient plant and water to excavate and extinguish
and, in some cases, the surface of the landfill may
all burning waste. Where extinguishment is not
collapse as a result of the fire burning out a
possible, adding water to the landfill exacerbates the
subsurface cavity. If this collapse is triggered by the
fire because the water adds oxygen to the fire. To
passage of a vehicle over the cavity, it could be fatal
combat deep-seated fires, key elements are to
for the vehicle’s occupants.
minimise oxygen ingress to the fire by capping off the
Once started, landfill fires are difficult to extinguish, area, and displacing oxygen from the fire by injecting
so the primary objective should be to prevent a fire an inert gas, such as nitrogen, into the fire.
from starting. This is done, as far as is practical, by
In some areas, the local fire authority might require a
removing potential ignition sources, such as hot coals
firebreak to prevent the spread of fire into or out of
and lead-acid batteries, from the tipping area. Other
the site. This, in conjunction with developing a fire
measures include not burning waste and not lighting
management plan with the local fire authority, is best
fires on or near areas where wastes have or are being
practice in areas where grass or bushfires might be a
deposited.
concern.
Finally, wastes should be covered with non-
combustible material.
55
Fires should be trained in the implementation of the
contingency plan.
Objectives
The contingency plan should consider all impacts
To prevent landfill fires and efficiently extinguish any
discussed in this guideline, and in particular:
that should occur.
• Remove ignition sources such as hot coals, and To ensure that all potential incidents are considered
car and marine batteries from the waste at the and that appropriate measures are planned to deal
• Construct a firebreak around the perimeter of the • All likely impacts are covered in the preparation of
56
6.11 Management of Chemicals and Fu els Suggested measures
Landfill operations may use a variety of chemicals and • Keep onsite chemical and fuel inventories to a
fuels. If these are inappropriately managed they can minimum.
impact adversely upon the environment.
• Construct bunds for liquid storage areas in
The storage and handling of flammable and accordance with the appropriate regulatory
combustible liquids should be in accordance with the guidelines and/or standards.
provisions of the AS 1940:1993, The Storage and
• Locate storage areas away from waterways or
Handling of Flammable and Combustible Liquids, and
areas prone to flooding.
EPA publication 347, Bunding Guidelines.
• Implement a contingency plan to handle spills to
Particular measures include keeping inventories to a
avoid environmental damage.
minimum, bunding liquid storage areas and locating
them away from waterways or areas prone to
6.12 Disease Vector Control
flooding, and having a contingency plan for the
Flies, mosquitoes, rats, cats and birds (typical disease
management of any spills as part of the site
vectors) are attracted by food wastes and still waters
environment management system.
at landfills. If uncontrolled, these pests can affect
Management of Chemicals and Fuel
public health and surrounding ecosystems. The main
Objective mechanisms for the control of disease vectors are the
use of cover material to cover waste daily (see section
To manage the storage and handling of chemicals and
6.7) and eliminating any waterbodies that are not
fuels so as to minimise the risk of impact on the
required for fire, sediment and leachate control;
environment.
however, other measures, such as scare devices and
Required outcome
traps, may be used to reduce or control infestations.
• Storage and handling flammable and combustible
Professional pest exterminators should be employed
liquids in accordance with the provisions of the AS
to reduce problem infestations of vermin.
1940:1993, The Storage and Handling of
Landfills located near airports, close to a surface
Flammable and Combustible Liquids.
water supply, or industrial or residential areas that
may be affected by bird droppings, need a high level
of bird control.
57
buildings, and active measures such as acoustic bird mulching, a degree of diligence is required to prevent
scaring devices (gas guns or mimicking distress calls), noxious weeds from being added to the green waste
predator decoys or even using dogs. Since birds heap. Such waste should be landfilled.
become accustomed to one particular measure, some
Any noxious weeds onsite should be managed by
variation in the active measures used is necessary.
regularly inspecting the site for noxious weeds and
Disease Vectors eradicating any weeds present through appropriate
means.
Objective
Noxious weed control
To minimise disease vectors emanating from the
landfill by denying pests food and shelter. Objective
Required outcome To manage the landfill site so that it does not become
a source of noxious weeds.
• Elimination of any waterbodies at the landfill that
are not required for fire, sediment or leachate Required outcomes
control.
• Minimise the introduction of noxious weeds to the
Suggested measures site.
• Vary bird scare methods to avoid any patterns in • Ensure that all plantings from seed are from only
methods. high-quality seed. Mulch should be completely
free of weeds.
6.13 Noxious Weed Control
• Regular inspection of the site for the presence of
Where noxious weeds become established at a noxious weeds. Record their presence and, if
landfill, these weeds can spread through surrounding necessary, implement a control program.
areas and impact on farming activities or natural • Where pest plants need eradication this is to be
ecosystems. Noxious weeds can become established done by appropriate means. If the problem is
through colonisation or through introduction by large or current methods are not working, seek
contaminated seed- or weed-infested mulch used to the advice of the local council or the Department
revegetate exposed areas of earth. To minimise the of Natural Resources and Environment.
risk of introducing weeds through planting, only-high
• Become involved in the local Landcare group to
quality seed, free from any noxious weeds, should be
develop regional strategies to eradicate regional
used. Where an area is to be mulched, ensure that
noxious weeds.
the mulch is free of noxious weeds. Where the site
accepts green waste to be subsequently used for
58
6.14 Performance Monitoring and Reporting reported within seven days of being identified. This
report should include details of any complaints
In order to assess the performance of the measures
received and their resolution, the effectiveness of
taken to protect the environment from landfill,
programs to control litter, dust and other nuisance
monitoring, assessment and reporting of the results
emissions and details of any extraordinary events that
are required.
occurred at the landfill over the year, such as fires.
A monitoring program should include monitoring of
Where there is community interest in the landfill
leachate, groundwater, surface waters and landfill
operations, the landfill operator should also report to
gas. Monitoring should be conducted at least twice a
the community. This is particularly important in the
year, with quarterly monitoring for the first few years
event of a highly visible incident – the community
to establish an accurate baseline. All water sampling
should be advised immediately of what happened and
should be conducted in accordance with EPA
what is being done to rectify the situation and prevent
Publication 441, A Guide to the Sampling and Analysis
a recurrence.
of Waters, Wastewaters, Soils and Wastes, and EPA
Publication 669, Groundwater Sampling Guidelines. An annual monitoring report will give the raw data,
Environmental conditions such as atmospheric plots of the data over time and an analysis and
pressure, temperature, precipitation and stream flows interpretation of what the results mean. This analysis
should be recorded when samples are taken. and interpretation should be conducted by an expert
in the field such as an EPA-appointed environmental
Monitoring results should be interpreted and analysed
auditor. The report will also contain a statement of
to identify either long-term trends or significant
volumes of waste received, volumes of leachate and
changes between sampling events. This is facilitated
groundwater pumped and landfill gas extracted. The
by a plot of analyte levels over time. Where analytes
report is intended to examine the operations during
change significantly between sampling events, a
the preceding year, as well as to identify trends and
further sampling round should be conducted
potential areas of improvement. In particular, the
immediately to verify the result. If either a long-term
report will identify areas for improvement in
trend is identified or a significant change between
environmental management and the outcomes of
sampling events is verified, EPA should be advised
initiatives to reduce wastes going to landfill.
and the reason for the change investigated as a
matter of priority.
59
Performance Monitoring and Reporting
Objective
Required outcomes
Suggested measures
60
7. BEST PRACTICE • minimising the generation of leachate and
REHABILITATION AND offensive odours.
AFTERCARE
To ensure that the objectives of rehabilitation are
achieved, a conceptual rehabilitation plan should be
Many of the chronic impacts of landfilling occur long
developed as part of the initial landfill design.
after the landfill has closed, and while these can be
mitigated against by good design and operation of the The rehabilitation plan should deal with afteruse
landfill, best practice rehabilitation and long-term options for the site and provide a blueprint for the
aftercare of the site will further minimise the potential final surface contours and cap design of the landfill.
of any detrimental impacts from the landfill. Best The rehabilitation plan should include:
practice for rehabilitation and aftercare is considered
• the potential afteruses of the site, taking into
very early in the design and operation phase of the
consideration trends in the surrounding area;
landfill.
• operational requirements, to ensure that the
EPA will require this section of the guideline to be
highest value afteruse can be achieved;
implemented for all existing landfills. EPA may also
• surface contours before and after settlement;
require this section to be implemented for landfills
that are currently closed where the rehabilitation • specifications and materials to be used in the
and/or aftercare is, or is likely to be, inadequate to final cap; and
guard against pollution.
• preservation/installation of environment
performance control or monitoring features.
7.1 Rehabilitation
7.1.1 Site afteruse
The design of modern landfills operating on a cellular
basis allows the landfill to be progressively In considering options for the use of the site after
rehabilitated. While wastes are deposited in the new landfilling, the location of the landfill, the needs of the
cell, the old landfill cell is rehabilitated, and, local community, the surrounding land uses and the
depending on the life span of the new cell, nature of the operation should all be considered. The
construction of the next cell may commence. relevant regulatory and planning authorities should be
consulted, as they might have a strategic plan for the
The advantages of progressive rehabilitation include:
area that identifies how that land could potentially be
• full cost recovery during the economic life of the
used.
landfill;
Proposals for the use of the filled landfill site should
• collection and treatment of landfill gas during its
be flexible enough to allow for changes in community
peak generation period;
attitudes or planning requirements in the long period
• a clear demonstration to the community that the between commencement of landfilling and final
site will be rehabilitated; and rehabilitation.
61
Regular reviews of afteruse options are a good way of Long-term settlements for well-compacted landfills
ensuring that the operation of the landfill does not vary significantly and can range from 10 to 30 per
alienate desired afteruses of the site. In particular, cent. Most of the settlement occurs within the first few
understanding the afteruse during operation ensures years of the cell closure, the result of waste
that the final surface profile of the landfill is compressing under its own weight and the weight of
consistent with the desired afteruse. the cap. After this initial compression, settlement will
continue for many years as a result of consolidation
Common afteruses of landfills include sports grounds,
and biodegradation processes within the waste. A
public open space and golf courses. Depending on
landfill receiving largely non-putrescible wastes will
the age of the landfill and the type of waste
have a lower rate of settlement. Where landfill cells
deposited, some landfills have been developed for
are filled rapidly, the settlement of the closed landfill
commercial or industrial building development,
with be higher than for an equivalent thickness of
though this requires particular consideration of the
wastes placed over a longer period.
impacts of settlement on buildings and services such
as water mains, gas and roads. The landfill cap design is governed by limiting water
infiltration into the landfill, which is a function of the
Water features, such as ornamental lakes or ponds,
materials used in the cap and its shape. The gradient
should be avoided on landfills as they may leak due to
for a completed cap should be sufficient to ensure
cracking of their liner from differential settlement of
that most water hitting the cap runs off to minimise
the landfill over time. This leakage will release
infiltration through the cap. Gradients of about five
significant volumes of water to the landfill, thus
per cent will adequately shed water, though steeper
generating significant volumes of leachate.
gradients will provide a higher runoff potential.
7.1.2 Settlement and final surface profile
Caps should not be steeper than 20 per cent. Caps
A landfill is subject to long-term settlement, as waste steeper than this can cause erosion problems and can
decomposes and consolidates; this settlement has be more difficult to maintain than flatter caps. Steep
significant impacts on the final surface profile, the caps will require specific engineering controls to
landfill cap and potential afteruses for the site. The ensure that they are stable; these controls will,
rate and degree of settlement are dependent upon: typically, relate to relieving any seepage water
• proportion of putrescible wastes; pressures within the cap. They will also require
features such as cut off drains and rock beaching on
• thickness of the landfill;
drainage lines to control water erosion and, therefore,
• period over which wastes were placed in cell; erosion. In addition, the surface layer should be
62
Since compaction of wastes along near-vertical side 7.1.3 Landfill Cap
walls is difficult, the wastes along the walls of the
A key element of the rehabilitation is the capping of
landfill may exhibit the highest initial rate of
the landfill. The design objectives for the final landfill
settlement. The landfill cap needs to make allowance
surface or capping are:
for this by providing sufficient thickness of the cap to
ensure that runoff from the cap is not collected in • minimising infiltration of water into the waste
depressions along the perimeter of the landfilled ensuring that the infiltration rate does not exceed
The landfill aftercare program must include • providing a long-term stable barrier between
inspections of the cap, checking for differential waste and the environment in order to protect
settlement and indicators that the integrity of the low human health and the environment;
permeability cap has been compromised. The • preventing the uncontrolled escape of landfill
frequency of the inspection program will be largely gas; and
determined from the observed rate of settlement.
• providing land suitable for its intended afteruse.
When buildings are constructed on a filled landfill,
The long-term protection of the groundwater
special support and protection from landfill gas may
environment is provided by the landfill cap. The cap
also need to be provided. Where structures are to be
must be designed such that the infiltration through
built on landfills, the landfilling should be planned to
the cap does not exceed the calculated seepage rate
provide for selective disposal of wastes, special
through the landfill liner. This avoids the so-called
compaction and a thicker cap. These will all increase
‘bathtub’ effect, in which leachate levels within the
the bearing capacity of the landfill making the
landfill build up and eventually break out through the
construction of these structures more viable.
surface of the landfill.
Where small trees and shrubs are to be planted on the
Table 9 indicates the required performance standards
landfill, the cap will need to be thicker to ensure that
of caps, as well as indicative cap designs, which are
the roots do not penetrate the cap. The thickness of
based on preventing infiltration by providing a very
the cap will also affect the species selected.
low permeability layer (clay or composite barrier).
63
Table 9: Indicative landfill cap designs
Where the proposed afteruse of a landfill is to require The surface layer should reflect the type and depth of
vegetation of the site, the top-most layer must be able top soils normally found in the local area. Where it is
to support vegetation and be of sufficient depth to not possible to duplicate the local topsoil conditions
ensure that roots do not penetrate the cap, thus or the natural soil is too thin to support adequate
providing a conduit for water into the landfill and vegetation for erosion control, then an appropriate
water out of the landfill. mix of soils 200 to 300 millimetres thick should be
64
used provided it is capable of sustaining vegetation. • differential settlement of the waste causing
Any mulch used in the cap should be pasteurised to cracking of the clay; and
remove weed seeds, plant pathogens and pests.
• desiccation of the clay from above due to
Introduced plantings on the landfill should not include evapotranspiration and below due to heat
any noxious weed variety for that area, nor should the released from the landfill.
landfill provide a haven for weeds migrating from the
All of these significantly increase the effective
surrounding area (see section 6.13 for more detail on
hydraulic conductivity of the clay; the estimate of
the management of noxious weeds). Advice should be
seepage rates through the cap should make
sought on species selected for planting to prevent
allowance for this.
them from becoming local pests. In general, it is
A drainage layer is sometimes placed between the soil
advised that planting be restricted to species
layer and the low permeability capping layer. The
indigenous to the area and of local provenance, so as
purpose of the drainage layer is to remove excessive
to:
moisture that has permeated through the soil layer
• avoid inappropriate planting;
and will not be removed by evapotranspiration. Due to
• ensure the species are adapted to the local problems with desiccation of the surface or low
climate; and permeability layer, drainage layers are generally only
used in high rainfall areas or where the cap has a very
• enhance the local habitat.
shallow gradient.
To limit seepage, a layer of low-permeability clay
If a drainage layer is incorporated into the landfill cap
and/or a flexible membrane liner may be required in
then it must be designed such that it does not dry out
the cap. Care needs to be taken in the selection of the
the surface layer thereby killing vegetation, and does
particular geomembrane to be used, particularly with
not prevent the continued hydration of the low-
respect to the tensile strain that may be expected to
permeability barrier layer, which prevention would
be placed on the geomembrane as a result of
cause it to dry and crack. The drainage layer may be a
settlement. To ensure the best results, consult with
sandy soil or even gravel, which conveys water to a
the manufacturer of the geomembrane. To avoid
drainage system at the toe of the landfill cap. Care
damage to geomembranes within a cap by vehicle
must be taken to ensure that the drainage layer is
traffic, the geomembrane should be placed at least
able to drain water from the landfill as an
0.6 metres beneath the surface.
accumulation of water at the toe of the cap may cause
The construction and maintenance of a low
instability in the cap.
permeability clay layer for a cap is difficult for a
An alternative means to achieving the cap
number of reasons, including:
performance standards is to construct a cap based on
• the spongy foundation of waste on which it is
water storage principles. The fundamental objective
built;
of such a cap is to store water during periods of
elevated precipitation and low evapotranspiration for
65
subsequent release during drier periods. A cap of this the objective in the event of several components
type is made up of a thick, vegetated layer of fine- of the system failing.
textured soil that has a high water storage capacity,
• Progressive rehabilitation of the landfill.
and may be underlaid by a capillary barrier of
Suggested measures
material, such as gravel. These caps are best suited
to areas where precipitation is well distributed • Strive for the highest value afteruse of the site in
throughout the year, and where evaporation exceeds operation and rehabilitation considerations.
precipitation for much of the year. Modelling of
• Design and operate the landfill to accommodate
unsaturated water-flow through the cap is required to
the desired afteruse.
ensure that it meets the required performance
• Develop the rehabilitation plan in consultation
standards. This modelling should be based on data
with the local community and regulatory and
accurately reflecting local conditions, and should be
planning authorities.
run for a series of at least three consecutive wet
years. • Regularly review the rehabilitation plan to ensure
that changed circumstances are reflected in the
Rehabilitation Plan
plan.
Objective
• Consider impacts of settlement on any potential
To ensure that landfills are rehabilitated to minimise afteruses of the landfill.
the seepage of water into the landfill and maximise
• Design the cap gradient to be between five and
the collection and oxidation of landfill gas from the
20 per cent.
landfill.
• Where a geomembrane is to be used in the cap,
Required outcomes
consider manufacturers’ recommendations during
• Preparation, early in its design, of a rehabilitation design and installation.
plan for the landfill, including a detailed
• Vegetate cap or take other measure to minimise
consideration of afteruse options for the site.
erosion as soon as possible.
• That the seepage through the landfill cap is no
• Where trees or small shrubs are to be planted on
more than 75 per cent of the anticipated seepage
the site, incorporate a greater thickness of soil in
rate through the landfill liner.
the cap to prevent the roots from penetrating the
• Design and construction of the best cap cap.
practicable to prevent pollution of groundwater
and degradation of air quality through the escape
of landfill gas.
66
7.2 Aftercare Management dependent upon the location of the landfill, the types
Until the waste within the landfill has sufficiently of wastes and the landfill’s environmental
decomposed or stabilised such that it no longer performance. Accordingly, putrescible landfills would
presents a risk to the environment, it must be require a more extensive aftercare management plan
The following areas must be considered in preparing During the aftercare period, the frequency of
− restore depressions, and seal and monitor years after closure, the inspection program needs to
cracks in the cap caused by settlement; be more frequent during this period.
67
must continue until EPA has given written confirmation
that it is no longer required or that the system may be
Aftercare Management
downgraded to a less intensive form of management.
Objective
In determining whether maintenance is still required,
EPA will refer to monitoring of groundwater, surface To manage the site after closure so that
water, landfill gas and leachate. If monitoring is environmental protection and monitoring systems are
conducted regularly, and the trend clearly maintained until the landfill has stabilised.
trends are inconclusive, then EPA cannot have this • Regularly inspect site to check the integrity of the
degree of assurance and will not remove maintenance cap and monitor the environmental impact of the
requirements. landfill.
To ensure in the long-term that prospective owners of • Inspect and maintain leachate collection and
the land are aware that it was once a landfill, treatment and landfill gas-extraction system.
measures such as a caveat on the land title or a
• Conduct regular monitoring and analyse data for
planning overlay can alert people of the prior use of
any trends.
the site. EPA will also serve a Pollution Abatement
Notice on the site to ensure ongoing management of • Ensure that any buildings at the landfill do not
the site and place the site on the Priority Sites interfere with monitoring and maintenance of the
68
8. REFERENCES Morris C.E., Stormont J.C. 1997, ‘Using an unsaturated
drainage layer to extend the range of capillary
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. scale permeability testing of a compacted clay liner’,
Camp Dresser & McKee, Larry Walker Associates, Summary of Leachate and Gas Production from
Uribe and Associates, Resources Planning Associates Landfills, Report No. EPA/600/2-86/073, USEPA.
for Stormwater Quality Task Force. Rahman F. 2000, PhD Thesis – Hydraulic Conductivity
Frobel R., Sadlier M. 1997, ‘Geomembrane properties and Chemical Compatability of Some Victorian Soils
German Geotechnical Society for the International Rees J.F. 1980, ‘Optimisation of Methane Production
Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering and Refuse Decomposition in Landfills by Temperature
1993, Geotechnics of Landfill Design and Remedial Control’, Journal of Chemical Technology and Biology,
Kodikara J., Rahman F. 1997, ‘Clay hydraulic Design & Operation, Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press LLC.
conductivity and permeant electrolyte concentration’, Trautwein S.J, Boutwell G.P. 1994, ‘In Situ Hydraulic
Proceedings GeoEnvironment 97, Melbourne, Conductivity Tests for Compacted Soil Liners and
November 1997. Caps’, Hydraulic Conductivity and Waste Contaminant
Kruempelbeck I., Ehrig H-J. 1999, ‘Long-Term Transport in Soil, ASTM STP 1142
Behaviour of Municipal Solid Waste Landfills in US Environmental Protection Agency 1998, Solid
Germany’, Proceedings Sardinia 99, Seventh Waste Disposal Facility Criteria – Technical Manual,
International Waste Management and Landfill EPA530-R-93-017.
Symposium, Vol 1, pp 27–36.
Yuen S.T.S. 1999, PhD Thesis – Bioreactor Landfills
Landkreis Göttingen, Blockheizkraftwerk (pamphlet), Promoted by Leachate Recirculation: A Full-Scale
n.d., Göttingen. Study, University of Melbourne.
69
8.2 Legislation Australian Standard AS 1940 – 1993, The Storage and
Environment Protection (Scheduled Premises and Australian Standard AS 3798 – 1996, Guidelines on
State Environment Protection Policy (Groundwaters of EPA Victoria 1992, EPA Publication No. 347 Bunding
Victoria). Guidelines.
State Environment Protection Policy (The Waters of EPA Victoria 1999, EPA Publication No. 364 The
State Environment Protection Policy (Ambient Air EPA Victoria 2000, EPA Publication No. 441 A Guide to
70
EPA Victoria 2000, EPA Publication No. 722,
Environmental Guidelines for Reducing Greenhouse
Gas Emissions from Landfills and Wastewater
Treatment Facilities.
71
APPENDIX 1: SUMMARY OF KEY • states which of the organisation’s activities are
ELEMENTS OF AN ENVIRONMENT covered by the particular environmental
IMPROVEMENT PLAN management system; and
commitment is required at all levels of the • initiate action to ensure compliance with
organisation. environmental policy;
• includes a commitment to continual improvement responsibilities, shall have defined authority and
72
environmental requirements and objectives, as well The procedures should cover normal operation as well
as of the requirements of ISO 14001. as emergency situations. The documents should be
reviewed and revised periodically and approved by
Employees should also be aware of the significant
authorised personnel prior to issue. They should be
environmental effects, actual or potential, of their
legible, dated and be available at defined locations.
work activities and the environmental benefits of
Obsolete documents should be removed.
improved performance, and their roles in achieving
compliance with company policy and the EIP. The need to generate ‘new’ manuals should be
minimised: The preferred approach is, wherever
Contractors also need to be made aware of the
possible, to augment existing operational manuals.
company’s EIP.
to related documentation.
73
• procedures for reporting the findings to those
responsible, documentation, reports and records;
• environmental performance;
• methodologies.
74
APPENDIX 2: TECHNICAL GUIDANCE mg/L results in significant reductions in beneficial
uses that may be made of this groundwater, and is
Using a number of assumptions to simplify the This example is just one, simple element of what
problem, the likely impact from various liner seepage should be a detailed study of potential impacts on
rates can be modelled. The key assumptions used groundwater from the landfill operations. This study
here are: should include analytes other than TDS, and should
consider the beneficial uses lost by incremental
• Modelling for conservative species, that is,
increases in contaminants.
species that do not degrade as they are
transported;
Clay properties
• Leachate mixes completely with groundwater in
Clay to be used in liners should have the following
the top 5 m depth of the aquifer;
properties:
• Groundwater hydraulic gradient is 0.06;
• no rock or soil clumps greater than 50 mm in any
• Groundwater hydraulic conductivity is direction;
0.2 m/day; and
• more than 70 per cent passing through a 19 mm
• Leachate total dissolved solids (TDS) is sieve;
6,000 mg/L.
• more than 30 per cent passing through a 75 µm
sieve;
Table 10: Modelled groundwater impacts resulting
from various liner seepage rates • more than 15 per cent passing through a 2 µm
sieve; and
Seepage rate 10 (L/ha/day) 1,000
(L/ha/day) • soil plasticity index exceeding 10.
Groundwater
The ability of clay to absorb exchangeable cations is
500 (mg/L) 509 (1.8%) 1,286 (157%)
measured by the cation exchange capacity, a
3,000 (mg/L) 3,005 (0.2%) 3,429 (14.3%) measure of the total amount of exchangeable cations
that a soil can adsorb. A cation exchange capacity
In each of these cases, the seepage rate of 1,000
(CEC) of 10 mEq/100g is a minimum level for clay used
L/ha/day results in an unacceptable impact on the
in a best practice landfill. Given this elevated CEC,
TDS of groundwater.
there is the potential for the clay to degrade through
It is incorrect to conclude that the contamination
clay-pollutant chemical reactions over a long period of
groundwater caused by a seepage rate of 1,000
time. To guard against this risk, long-term permeation
L/ha/day into groundwater with a TDS of 3,000 mg/L
tests should be conducted on the clay to assess any
is not pollution simply because it is still within the
variations in intrinsic permeability over the long term.
band of 1,001 to 3,500. An increase in TDS of over 400
Kodikara & Rahman (1997) suggest that using a
75
50,000 ppm NaCl solution over 2-3 months should
indicate any such long-term variations.
the suitability of the material as a low permeability percentage above optimum moisture content to
liner. Figure 4: shows the effect of moulding water achieve a density defined as a percentage of
content (moisture content of the clay when maximum dry density, an envelope or ‘acceptable
compacted) and the dry density of the clay (dry unit zone’ of performance criteria can be derived for
weight). Maximum dry density is achieved at the undertaking quality control checks in the field both
optimum moisture content. The lowest hydraulic during and after construction. Best practice is to
conductivity of the compacted clay liner is achieved compact the clay at about two to three per cent wet of
when the soil is compacted at a moisture content optimum moisture content to a maximum dry density
slightly higher than the optimum moisture content. of 95 to 98 per cent of Proctor Standard.
76
higher hydraulic conductivity. These exist due to small To achieve these characteristics, the aggregate may
stones or dry clods of clay within the liner material. need to be prewashed.
Zones of lower hydraulic conductivity form preferential
flow paths which enable rapid localised leachate Giroud’s Equation
flows through the lift. Where successive lifts are not Giroud’s equation is used to derive the required
bonded with the preceding lift, leachate may flow spacing between sub-surface drainage pipes given
along the horizontal seams between the lifts to further the maximum permissible head over the pipes and a
preferential flowpaths. As a result, the hydraulic number of physical parameters. The equation is:
conductivity of the whole liner is compromised. A
Tmax ( 2 cos β)
further factor is the number of lifts used, with a L=
q
greater number minimising the probability that tan 2 β +4 − tan β
k
preferential flowpaths will align. By bonding each
successive lift with the preceding lift and using a where:
minimum of 4 to 6, the hydraulic conductivity of the
L= spacing between drainage pipes (m)
liner can be optimised.
Tmax = maximum leachate head over liner (m)
The final surface of a compacted clay liner should be
k= permeability of drainage layer (m/sec)
finished to a smooth surface. This minimises the
surface area of the liner thereby reducing the loss of β= slope of the liner
moisture from the liner, promotes the rapid drainage
q= leachate seepage rate into drainage layer
of leachate on top of the liner and allows the
(m/sec).
installation of a geomembrane liner.
q
Drainage Aggregate Properties
• fines content less than 1 per cent by weight; and may need to be less than that calculated using the
equation to take into account clogging of the
• no limestone or other calcareous material that
drainage layer. Alternatively, the permeability of the
would be subject to chemical attack.
drainage layer used in the calculations could be
77
assumed to be two orders of magnitude worse than its If the treatment pond is aerated, then a period of a
design permeability. few hours should be allowed for the bacteria floc to
settle before treated leachate is transferred to the
Calculation of Area Required for Evaporation of treated leachate pond. Only a small proportion of the
Leachate leachate contained in the treatment pond should be
If evaporation is to be used as the primary means of transferred to the treated leachate pond to retain as
disposing of leachate, then an appropriately sized many of the bacteria in the treatment pond as
pond needs to be designed to ensure that the system possible. All ponds should be designed to enable
1,000V QCH 4 = LO R (e − kc − e − kt )
A=
0.8 E − R
Where:
Where:
QCH4 = methane generation rate at time t, (m3/yr);
A = pond surface area (m2)
L0 = methane generation potential, (m3 CH4/Mg)
V = annual volume of leachate (kL)
refuse;
E = median annual evaporation (mm class A pan)
R= average annual refuse acceptance rate
R = median annual rainfall (mm). during active life, (Mg/yr);
An aerobic leachate treatment system comprises: c= time since landfill closure, (yrs) (c=0 for
active landfills); and
• leachate collection pond;
t= time since initial refuse placement, (yrs).
• treatment pond; and
Non decomposable material should be subtracted
• treated leachate pond.
from the quantity of waste being deposited in the
The leachate collection pond allows a steady flow of landfill. Default values used for Australian landfills are
leachate into the treatment pond, thereby providing a k=0.058/yr, L0 =79 m3/tonne for calculating non
volumetric buffering role. This avoids large-scale methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) using
fluctuations of the chemistry of the leachate the spreadsheet 2000 for NMVOC7.
undergoing treatment and prevents the flushing of
bacteria essential for the breakdown of organic
material. A typical volume to be released to the
treatment pond is 10 per cent of the volume of this
pond. 7
National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Committee, 1996
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Phase I aerobic; phase II anaerobic, non methanogenic; phase III anaerobic,
development of methane; phase IV anaerobic, steady methane; phase V recovery
Figure 6: Typical phases of landfill gas production with time (Reinhart and Townsend, 1998).
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Physical and Mechanical Requirements of Geomembranes
Performance under tensile load Biaxial tensile test, out-of-plane Out of plane elongation ≥ 15 per cent without Based on DIN 53861
elongation yielding of the material
Uniaxial tensile test, yield stress, • Yield strength ≥ 15N/mm2 DIN 53455
elongation at yield, elongation at break • Elongation at yield ≥ 10 per cent
at 23°C • Elongation at break ≥ 400 per cent
Uniaxial tensile test, yield stress, • Yield strength and elongation at yield not DIN 53455
elongation at yield, elongation at break yet determined
at 70°C • Stress ≥ 2 N/mm2 at 5 per cent
elongation
Tear propagation resistance Tear propagation strength Tear propagation strength ≥ 500N DIN 53356-A
Tear propagation strength ≥ 300N DIN 53515
Resistance to punctiform quasi- Penetration strength Penetration strength ≥ 6,000N DIN 54307, punch speed 50 mm/min
static single loads
Perforation test Mechanical resistance to perforation No failure of watertightness at point tested DIN 16726, drop height 2000mm
Relaxation performance Drop in stress in the time-stress curves After 1,000 hours the stress must be ≤ 50 per DIN 53441
cent of the stress after 1 minute
Seam strength Short term shear test, failure No shearing off of the seam, significant DIN 53441, tensile test in: DIN 53455
performance yielding of base material near to but outside speed 50mm/min
the seam
Peeling test, failure performance No peeling off of the seam, significant DIN 16726 sec 26.1
yielding of the base material near to but
outside the seam.
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APPENDIX 3: SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES AND REQUIRED OUTCOMES
Siting
Screening for To identify and rank those sites that require the fewest engineering and management
potential landfill controls to meet the objectives of all State Environment Protection Policies.
sites • Use regional waste management planning to identify the sites within or adjacent to
the region which are best suited for future landfilling.
• Develop landfill sites in the sequence specified in the relevant regional waste
management plan.
• Ensure that sufficient buffer is available for the life of the landfill.
• Consider the most appropriate landfill type to meet the requirements imposed by
local conditions.
• Ensure that the landfill is sited to protect surface waters, groundwater and flora &
fauna.
Design
Environmental To gain a thorough understanding of the environment where the landfill is to be sited in
Site layout To ensure that the site layout minimises environmental and health and safety risks,
encourages recycling and makes the most efficient use of onsite resources.
• Site layout and filling sequence planned to ensure that landfill cells are open for the
minimum period of time and site operations are optimised.
• Minimisation of public access to the tipping face and, where appropriate, assurance
that waste received at the landfill can be vetted and recycled.
Liner and leachate To maintain groundwater quality as close as practicable to background levels.
collection system • Design and construction of the best liner and leachate collection system practicable
to prevent contamination of groundwater.
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• Implementation of the best practicable measures to meet all groundwater quality
objectives contained in SEPP (Groundwaters of Victoria) below the landfill liner.
• Where an attenuation zone has been designated, assurance that all groundwater
quality objectives contained in SEPP (Groundwaters of Victoria) are met at the
boundaries of the premises.
• Design and construction of the most robust liner and leachate collection system to
ensure that the system will continue to achieve the objective in the event of several
components of the system failing.
Construction quality To ensure that materials, construction methods and installation procedures provide a
• Development and implementation of CQA plan to ensure that the liner and leachate
collection system meets the requirements of the specification and drawings.
• Development and implementation of a CQA plan to ensure that the stability of sub-
base and liner are achieved.
Water management To protect beneficial uses of receiving waters and to avoid any adverse environmental
impact on surface and ground waters.
• Assurance that waste discharges to surface waterways are minimised and do not
cause water quality objectives to be breached.
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Groundwater To protect the beneficial uses of groundwater and to minimise the risk posed by the
Air quality To ensure that air quality objectives are met, greenhouse gases minimised and that there
is no loss of amenity from landfill gas, odour or dust.
Noise To ensure that the noise objectives are achieved and to minimise noise annoyance.
• In the Melbourne metropolitan area, compliance with the noise limits prescribed by
SEPP (Control of Noise from Commerce, Industry and Trade) No. N-1 1989.
• Outside the Melbourne metropolitan area, compliance with any adopted standards or
recommendations issued by EPA.
considerations • Minimisation of safety concerns, noise and road grime on external roads.
fencing • Assurance that the site fencing meets the minimum requirements summarised in
Table 8.
Operation
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Financial assurance To provide a financial assurance for environmental management costs incurred during
the operation, closure and aftercare of a landfill.
Waste acceptance To ensure that only appropriate wastes are deposited at the landfill.
• An assurance by the landfill operator that the waste received at the site is able to be
accepted.
Waste pretreatment To reduce the long-term risk posed by the waste and to improve general landfill
performance.
Waste placement To place waste in a manner that is mechanically stable and that controls litter and birds
and that maximises the degree of compaction.
• Assurance that waste is placed so that all unconfined faces are mechanically stable
and capable of retaining cover material.
Waste cover To ensure that wastes are covered by appropriate material to mitigate against any
environmental or health impacts.
• Covering of the landfill, at least daily, with soil or another approved cover material.
• Assurance that there is sufficient cover material available at the tipping face for at
least two weeks of operations.
Litter control To keep the landfill and surrounding environment in a litter-free condition.
• That no litter from the landfill operations reaches beyond the boundary of the
premises.
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Fires To prevent landfill fires and efficiently extinguish any that should occur.
• That all practical steps have been taken to prevent landfill fires.
Contingency To ensure that all potential incidents are considered and that appropriate measures are
• All likely impacts are covered in the preparation of the contingency plan.
Management of To manage the storage and handling of chemicals and fuels so as to minimise the risk of
• Storage and handling flammable and combustible liquids in accordance with the
provisions of the AS 1940:1993, The Storage and Handling of Flammable and
Combustible Liquids.
Disease vectors To minimise disease vectors emanating from the landfill by denying pests food and
shelter.
• Elimination of any waterbodies at the landfill that are not required for fire, sediment
or leachate control.
Noxious weed To manage the landfill site so that it does not become a source of noxious weeds.
Performance To monitor and report on the performance of measures taken to protect the environment
• A report, submitted at least annually, to EPA, with problems reported within seven
days of observation.
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Rehabilitation and Aftercare
Rehabilitation To ensure that landfills are rehabilitated to minimise the seepage of water into the landfill
and maximise the collection and oxidation of landfill gas from the landfill.
• Preparation, early in its design, of a rehabilitation plan for the landfill, including a
detailed consideration of afteruse options for the site.
• That the seepage through the landfill cap is no more than 75 per cent of the
anticipated seepage rate through the landfill liner.
• Design and construction of the most robust cap to ensure that the system will
continue to achieve the objective in the event of several components of the system
failing.
Aftercare To manage the site after closure so that environmental protection and monitoring
systems are maintained until the landfill has stabilised.
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APPENDIX 4: SUMMARY OF IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
and Aftercare • Currently closed landfills to implement on a case-by-case basis where the
rehabilitation and/or aftercare is, or is likely to be, inadequate to guard against
pollution.
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