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Earthwork – Chapter 5
• Tpt projects  earthwork
• Minimise earthwork to control cost
5.1 Earthwork cross sections
• Quantified by volumetric measures
• Volume = average of earthwork areas at adjacent cross-
sectional areas  dist between sections
• See Fig 5.1 of earthwork area (with pvt)
• Vert dist – from profile grade elevation (top of pvt)
• Horiz dist – left/right of C.L.

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 Earthwork to
construct two-lane
road with good
geometry – adequate
sight distance

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Rolling terrain
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• Cut or excavation  ground above constructed
section; fill or embankment  ground below
• Slopes (cut/fill) expressed as vert/horiz ratio
 Slope <45 deg in terms of 1:horiz (e.g. 1:2)
 Slope >45 deg in terms of vert:1 (e.g. 5:1)
• Catch point (C.P.): intersection pt of cut/fill slope and
existing ground (see upper/lower catch pts)
• Hinge point: intersection pt of roadway surface with
existing ground
• Existing ground profile from aerial photos, topographic
maps, or field survey

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• Ground profiling using piecewise linear approxn
• Catch points and roadway C.L. recorded
• Recording cross-section (see Fig 5.1)  notes
FYl CYc CYr
Xl 0 Xr

F’fill’ (existing ground below profile grade); C’cut’ (existing ground above
profile grade); l,c,r to left, centre, right of C.L.
• Various procedures to obtain x-sectional area, e.g.
planimeter measurement of drawing; computer program
(with suitable co-ordinate system); computing areas of
triangles & trapezoids
• See Ex 5.1

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• Case of elevations available only for C.L. and catch
points – see Fig 5.3

 1  w   1  w   Xl   Xr 
A    Yl    Yr   C   C
 2  2   2  2   2   2 

…Eqn (5.2)
 w C
A   Yl  Yr     X l  X r 
4 2

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5.2 Earthwork volumes
• Average end area method: 2 end areas, A1, A2 at L
distance apart; average the A’s & multiply by L
V
 A1  A2 
L
… Eqn (5.3)
2
• Pyramidal vol if A1 or A2= 0
AL
V
3 … Eqn (5.4)
• Prismoidal vol (mainly for computer caln)
L A1  4 Am  A2  … Eqn (5.5)
Vp 
6
Am is area at mid-section

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• Use average-end-area and pyramidal methods – see Fig
5.4
• Take account of shrink/swell by means of factor s
Volume of fill:
F 
V  1  s V … Eqn (5.6)  C
VF
Volume of cut: VC  … Eqn (5.7)
1 s
S positive for swell, negative for shrink
• See Ex 5.2

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5.3 Mass diagrams
• Mass diag  graph of cumulative vol of earthwork
versus distance (in stn, from beginning)
• For optimising haul strategies/earthwork costs
• Cut treated as positive & fill as negative, with necessary
corrections of shrinkage/swell
• Haul = volume  avg dist, in stn-m (or stn-m3),
computed as area between two limits under the curve
(x.dV)
• See Fig 5.5 showing balance lines and haul
• Mass diag plotted from summary sheet - see Table 5.1

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• Pay items involve cost of:
excavation : $/m3 to remove, transport (within free
haul dist, F) & place as compacted fill (may include
dumping)
borrow (CB): $/m3 to bring in off-site material
overhaul (COH): $/stn-m3 to haul matrl beyond F
waste: $/m3 to dispose excess cut matrl
• Limit of economic haul, LEH: longest dist matrl should
ever be hauled, by comparing CB & COH

CB  COH LEH  F 
CB
 LEH  F … Eqn (5.8)
COH

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• LEH  longest balance line
• balance line  LEH in multiple loops
AB, BC ≥ F; AB, BC ≤ LEH
• Case of even number of loops - see Fig 5.6, 5.7

dCT  COH  AB  F   BC  F dy … Eqn (5.9)

 COH  AB  BC  … Eqn (5.10)

dCT
dy
COH  AB  BC   0  AB =BC … Eqn (5.11)

• Case of odd number of loops - see Fig 5.8

dCT  COH  AB  F   CD  F   BC  F dy  CB dy …Eqn (5.12)

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  COH AB  CD  BC  F   C B  0 … Eqn (5.13)
dCT
dy
CB … Eqn (5.14a)
AB  CD  BC  F
COH
AB  CD  BC  LEH … Eqn (5.14b)
[Sum of distances across more numerous loops
= sum of distances across less numerous loops
+ limits of economic haul]
Calculation of overhaul
• Graphical calculation – see Fig 5.9
• Using median distance – see Fig 5.10
OH  VM  F … Eqn (5.15)
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