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A.A.I.N. Wickramasinghe*
Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka
Wijitapure Wimalaratana
Department of Economics, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
There is growing intellectual interest in issues associated with international migration. The
literature on migration is continuously growing due to this trend. However, theorization of
migration is not strong when compared to other branches of international transactions.
This may be due to the complexity and diversity of the area covered by international
migration. The paper mainly focuses on theoretical perspectives of international migration.
In line with that, an overview of international migration is provided at the beginning. It is
followed by types of international migration and migration theories. Prominence is given
to theoretical perspectives of international migration and the classification of migration
theories. In addition, shortcomings of migration theories are examined.
INTRODUCTION
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Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.5, 13-32, Fall 2016
European Union have opened the gates brain drain aspect of international migration
of international migration in their member has been highlighted from the perspective
countries. The initial financial cost of of developing countries (Agrawal, Kapur,
migration has been drastically reduced due McHale & Oettl 2011; Dustmann, Fadlon
to low transport costs, cheap accommodation & Weiss 2011; Korale 2004; Stolz & Baten
facilities, online travel arrangements, and 2012).
availability of reliable destinations with
However, there is no single theory which
low cost insurance packages. Similarly,
covers all the aspects of international
international conventions on migrants,
migration. The focus of international
peaceful environment in many parts of
migration has been influenced by a number
the world, encouragement of skilled and
of disciplines such as Economics, Sociology,
professional labour migration, and modern
Geography, Commerce, Management,
low cost communication facilities have
Law, Political Science, Demography, and
become major incentives for international
Psychology, rendering the theorizing of
migration. Natural disasters and man-
international migration a complex task. In
made disasters such as wars, conflicts
this regard, Massey et al. (1993) state that
and deteriorating political environments at
international migration is associated with
present further contribute towards migration.
incoherent and disjointed theories, and
The free movement of labour among
there is no comprehensible theory related
countries in some parts of the world has
to it. However, these fragmented theories
been facilitated by the signing of bilateral and
play an important role in directing this study
multilateral treaties (Rosen 2007). As a result
to analyze relationships between various
of the above factors, international migration
correlated variables in relation to international
has become a popular practice throughout
migration.
the world today. Along with the rising trend in
international migration, intellectual interest on The main objective of this study is to examine
international migration is also growing (Chan international migration and migration theories.
2012; De Haas 2010b; Faist & Fauser 2011; Accordingly, the paper is organized under
Skeldon 2010; Sutherland 2013). Moreover, five major sections. Section one provides an
the economic implications of international overview of international migration. Section
migration are widely discussed at present two discusses different types of international
(Barrell FitzGerald & Riley 2010; Kerr & migration. International migration theories
Kerr 2011). Adverse economic implications are elabourated in section three, along
like Dutch disease1 have been discussed with the classification and analysis of them.
(Beine, Coulombe & Vermeulen 2015; Section four examines major shortcomings
Chowdhury & Rabbi 2014; Edsel Jr 2010), of migration theories, while section five
and the association between international provides some concluding remarks.
migration and workers’ remittances analyzed
The required information for the paper has
(Arrehag, Sjöberg & Sjöblom 2015; Bredl
been collected from secondary sources.
2011; Dustmann & Mestres 2010; Mamun
Accordingly, articles, book chapters, text
& Nath 2010; Plaza, Navarrete & Ratha
books, dictionaries, annual reports, and
2011; Quisumbing & McNiven 2010). Labour
manuscripts have mainly been used. There
market implications of international migration
are two main domains in migration literature,
have also been examined (Brücker & Jahn
which are internal and external migration.
2011; Castles 2011; Docquier, Ozden & Peri
The former focuses on intra-migration, and
2014; Fleischmann & Dronkers 2010). The
the latter deals with inter-migration. This
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International Migration and Migration Theories A.A.I.N. Wickramasinghe
Wijitapure Wimalaratana
Source: UN (2016b)
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Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.5, 13-32, Fall 2016
It was estimated in 2015 that the total number When examining the countries of origin of
of migrants in the world is 244 million which international migrants, it may be observed
is 3.3 per cent of the total world population that Asia accounted for the highest number
(UN, 2016b). Europe, East and West Asia amounting to 104 million (Figure 2), which
stood on top as the most popular migrant was 43 per cent of the total international
destinations. In 2015, the total migrant migrant population in 2015. Europe was in
population in Europe was estimated at 76 the second place having 62 million migrant
million and in Asia, it was 75 million (Figure origins, while Latin America and Caribbean
1). The United States of America hosted were in the third place having 37 million
international migrants totaling 47 million, migrant origins in 2015. India accounted for
which was the largest number hosted by an the largest diaspora2 in the world amounting
individual country. Northern America became to 16 million, and Mexico accounted for 12
the country hosting the third largest number million of migrant origins (UN, 2016b).
of international migrants, which amounted to
54 million (UN, 2016b).
Source: UN (2016b)
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International Migration and Migration Theories A.A.I.N. Wickramasinghe
Wijitapure Wimalaratana
intend to return to their country of citizenship living standard through better paid jobs and
after living as international migrants in a better facilities. This is very much similar to
foreign country, and stay in their own country the concept of traditional labour migration.
for at least a year, they are called as return In economic migration, priority is given to
migrants. Individuals who are moving from economic benefits. The other term found in
one country to another for family re-unification the literature is political migrants, who are the
and family formation are considered as people moving from one country to another
chain migrants. Asylum seekers who visit a due to civil wars and political discrimination
foreign country seeking refugee status are in their home countries. At present,
considered as asylum migrants. environmental migration has also become
a popular term in the migration literature
Bell, Alves, de Oliveira and Zuin (2010)
(Laczko & Aghazarm, 2009). Environmental
identify three main types of international
migrants are the ones who move out from
migration, namely: 1) Labour migration;
their home country due to environmental
2) Forced migration; and 3) International
conditions like desertification, rise in sea
retirement migration. Labour migration
levels, and droughts. In view of the above, it
involves the migration of high-skilled, un-
may be observed that types of international
skilled low wage, and temporary labour.
migration are continuously changing over
Forced migration includes refugees and
time. The reason is that researchers identify
asylum seekers who cross borders due to
new categories of migration based on
conflicts and political uncertainties, and the
emerging push and pull factors. Therefore,
displaced who have lost their settlements
it appears that migration is a subject which
due to natural disasters and construction
continuously changes along with changing
projects (Bell et al., 2010; Castles, 2003).
socioeconomic and geopolitical conditions.
International retirement migration is when
the retired purchase property abroad for their INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
residence (Bell et al., 2010). THEORIES
The other common categorization in the There are a number of theories in the literature
literature is Forced and Voluntary migration related to international migration. Therefore,
(Hugo, 2008; Koppenberg, 2012; Zetter, researchers tend to classify migration
2015). People who move from one country theories according to various factors such as
to another as asylum seekers, refugees and the origin of such theories, migration patterns,
internally displaced persons are considered relevant disciplines, and application of such
as forced migrants, while others who move theories in the present context. This section
for different purposes, including those who examines such classifications, along with the
supply labour are considered as voluntary nature of individual theories applicable to
migrants. The former group has no other international migration.
option than migrating to a different country Classification of Migration Theories
due to the struggles they face in their home
country, but the latter voluntarily migrate in Migration theories are classified based on
search of personal gains. different perspectives as mentioned above.
Many contributors to the literature have
In addition to the above, different terms are made attempts to classify the theories
used to identify different types of migration. under different headings, which are briefly
The most popular term is economic migration. discussed in this section.
It is defined as the decision to move from one
country to another in order to improve one’s
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Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.5, 13-32, Fall 2016
Hammar, Brochmann, Tamas and Faist i.e. a person’s desires and expectations.
(1997) attempt to classify theories by Macro-level theories consider migration
using levels of migration. As per Hammar decisions from an aggregate point of view,
et al. (1997) and Faist and Faist (2000), i.e. the economic structure of the country.
migration theories are divided into three Meso-level is where migration decisions lie in
main categories as micro-level, macro- between the two former theories, i.e. family
level and meso-level of migration (Figure bonds, social networks, peer groups and
3). Micro-level theories consider migration isolated minority communities.
decisions from an individual’s perspective,
Migration Theories
Source: Faist & Faist, 2000; Hagen-Zanker, 2008; Hammar et al., 1997
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International Migration and Migration Theories A.A.I.N. Wickramasinghe
Wijitapure Wimalaratana
Cummulative
Causation
(Massey, 1990)
International Theory
(Massey et al., 1993)
World Systems
Theory
(Wallerstein, 1974)
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Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.5, 13-32, Fall 2016
Migration Theories
Behavioral Models
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International Migration and Migration Theories A.A.I.N. Wickramasinghe
Wijitapure Wimalaratana
Migration Theories
Behaviorist and
Equilibrium Models Migration Systems
New Economics of
Migration
The next section of the paper analyzes some Theory. It explains the impact of labour
of the theories popularly used in migration migration on economic development
literature. (Arango, 2000; Lewis, 1954; Todaro, 1976;
van Naerssen, Spaan, & Zoomers, 2008).
Analysis of Migration Theories
According to this theory and its extensions,
Migration theories are useful as they provide the cause for international migration is the
theoretical guidance to understand the geographical imbalance between demand
movement of people in a wider perspective. and supply of labour. In regions where the
This may be related to economic, social, legal, supply of labour is elastic, but the labour
political, cultural, ethnic or other phenomena. is paid low wages and their marginal
Theories on international migration provide productivity is low, workers tend to migrate to
scientific knowledge on international a high-wage country (Massey et al., 1993). As
migration, and bring to light systematic and a result of this trend, remittances generation
specific regularities related to migration and has become a powerful incentive for
the relationships between them. Therefore, it labour-sending countries to encourage out-
is deemed useful to briefly analyze popular migration. In addition, migration contributes
theories on international migration under to the labour-receiving country’s economy
which the above mentioned theories can be by fostering production, and the remittances-
subsumed. receiving country could ideally reduce its
income inequality and wage differentials
Neo-classical Theory
(Prakash, 2009).
The oldest and best known theory of
However, the implicit idea behind this theory
international migration is Neo-classical
is that the elimination of wage differentials
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Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.5, 13-32, Fall 2016
would end labour movements and labour 2005). This assumption appears to be true in
migration would reach its minimum. Harris the present context, since many regulations
and Todaro (1970) have pointed out facts are in place that effectively control the export
which are supportive of this argument. They of labour. One of the best examples is the
emphasize that the decision to migrate restriction imposed by the government of Sri
is heavily influenced by job opportunities Lanka on mothers who have children below
available to the migrant at the initial stage the age of 5 years to accept overseas jobs in
and expected income differentials. the capacity of housemaids.
Another major assumption made under In most developing countries, the first
the Neo-classical explanation is that the migration is not necessarily voluntary.
international flow of labour primarily happens Many factors like poverty, civil conflicts,
in labour markets and that other markets do and restraining state policies play an
not have a key role to play with regard to important role (UNESCAP, 2007). Thus, the
international migration (Massey et al., 1993). assumptions of the Neo-classical approach
When these assumptions are considered, could be challenged particularly in the
it could be argued that the Neo-classical context of developing countries. Though the
approach is optimistic about the impacts of household conditions are not very favourable
migration on labour-sending counties due and greener pastures available abroad, non-
to high expectations of reduced poverty, migrants may sometimes stay at home for
unemployment and overpopulation. Further, socio-cultural reasons such as hierarchical
Constant and Massey (2002) have fostered power relations within the family, kinship
an assumption of Neo-classical perspective systems, and gender. Females may stay at
where the immigrant would not return to the home because gender norms prescribe that
home country as long as h/she benefits from leaving the family behind is inappropriate,
wages, education and prestige in the host while males may be forced to stay behind
country. This would typically lead to wages of to fulfill a perceived security function in
the unskilled labour force being reduced in the the household. Also, parents might decide
host country due to migration, and producers against out-migration in the interest of their
there would employ more unskilled labour children’s education, security, mental health,
than skilled labour, and capital intensive etc.
production. Then again, this depends on
The New Economics of Labour Migration
the scale of migration and minimum wage
(NELM)
regulations. According to empirical evidence,
there is not much proof that there is a New Economics of Labour Migration has
significant decline in local employment along been developed recently with the purpose of
with a considerable reduction in wages as a challenging the assumptions and conclusions
result of migration. If anything, the human of Neo-classical Theory. NELM focuses on
capital of migrants is the deciding factor migration from the micro individual level to
that contributes to the growth of migrants meso units such as families, households
(Friedburg and Hunt 1995). or other culturally defined units. In other
words, a key insight of this new approach
According to the Neo-classical Theory, it is
is that the decision to migrate is not merely
further assumed that labour market rules
an individual decision, but is a collective
and controls could regulate international
decision of households or families where
migration of both sending and receiving
their aim is not only to increase income,
countries (Massey, Durand, & Malone,
but is also a risk management strategy in
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International Migration and Migration Theories A.A.I.N. Wickramasinghe
Wijitapure Wimalaratana
the context of market failures, in addition to & Stark, 1985). Therefore, NELM’s focus on
failures in the labour market (Stark, 1984, labour as a pooled resource of a household
1991; Stark & Levhari, 1982; (Massey et al., has become a vital criterion when compared
1993; Taylor, 1999). However, the theory to the individual role played by the migrant in
suggests not to ignore individual behavior, the Neo-classical explanation.
but to study it in the context of a group
Dual Labour Market Theory
(Stark, 1991). When a group is considered,
households are in a position to diversify risks In 1979, Michael J. Piore introduced the
of economic well-being by utilizing labour Dual Labour Market Theory which is a
resources in different ways. Massey et al. divergence from micro-level models. The
(1993) argue that family members could be model shies away from viewing migration
made to earn an income in order to minimize as a consequence of decisions made by
risks of job insecurity and income fluctuations individuals, and argues that international
by assigning them economic activities both migration is the result of intrinsic labour
in the country of origin and in the hosting demands of industrialized societies at
country. Through this, deterioration of local present (Massey et al., 1993). Michael
income could be compensated by migrant (1979) points out the permanent demand
remittances and vice versa. Furthering the from industrialized and developed nations
argument, Cassarino (2004) opines that the at present to facilitate their development
return of migrants to the country of origin propagandas as the cause of international
after achieving such targets as savings, migration. In other words, international
insurance, household needs, acquisition of migration happens not due to push factors
investment capital and skills is logical. seen in sending-countries, but due to pull
factors seen in receiving-countries. According
A number of improvements in NELM could
to Michael, push factors are low wages and
be observed in comparison to the Neo-
high unemployment, while pull factors are
classical Theory. The emphasis on wage
essential and unavoidable needs expected
differentials in the Neo-classical approach is
to be fulfilled by foreign workers in receiving-
outperformed by the group role of households
counties. Further, this theory emphasizes on
in NELM, challenging the assumptions of
four core features of industrialized countries
the former. However, it should be noted that
that explicate the pulling of labour from
wage differentials and household decision-
other countries, namely structural inflation,
making are not mutually exclusive or
motivational problems, economic dualism
antagonistic categories. Families are very
and the demography of the labour supply
likely to consider wage differentials to be a
(Massey et al., 1993).
strong, though definitely not the only factor,
when choosing a work destination for their The Dual Labour Market Theory suggests
family member abroad. Therefore, it can certain implications which are in contrast
be said that NELM challenges the Neo- to macro level models, even though it does
classical approach only to the extent that it not clash with Neo-classical Economics in
pays attention to the structural conditions of its basic concepts (Massey et al., 1993).
the individual, and not just the labour market. One such implication in contrast to the
The conceptual framework built around the Neo-classical and NELM approaches is the
role of families and households under NELM demand-driven nature of international labour
has highlighted that remittances act as part of migration. The theory says that the demand
a mutually beneficial arrangement between for migrant workers is generated from
the migrant and the migrant’s family (Lucas structural needs of the economy, rather than
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Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.5, 13-32, Fall 2016
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International Migration and Migration Theories A.A.I.N. Wickramasinghe
Wijitapure Wimalaratana
country of origin and encourage subsequent 2004). In short, it describes how the number
migration both at macro and micro levels. of outgoing migrants increases over time,
since the first migrant provides social capital
Institutional Theory
to relatives, friends and others in the country
With the origin of international migration, a of origin, which ultimately encourages them
number of institutions and organizations to find jobs easily and face minimum risk in
were set up to capitalize on the imbalance destination countries (Jennissen, 2004). This
between the employers of labour-receiving situation stimulates and influences people
countries and potential migrants of labour- to migrate more and more. The Cumulative
sending countries. There is a considerable Causation Theory could be subsumed under
mismatch between the large number of the System Theory and/or Network Theory.
people seeking employment opportunities
The next section focuses on the shortcomings
in industrialized countries and the limited
associated with the above migration theories.
immigrant visas available in these countries
Individual limitations as well as general
(Massey et al., 1993). As a result, many profit-
limitations of the theories are discussed.
seeking as well as not-for-profit organizations
have been established in order to address MAJOR SHORT COMINGS OF
issues of migrants and employers. Most MIGRATION THEORIES
not-for-profit organizations place emphasis The Neo-classical Theory has been
on the humanitarian aspect of the migrants, subjected to many criticisms in the literature.
while profit-seeking organizations along with Van Naerssen et al. (2008) state that the
private entrepreneurs facilitate the crossing assumptions of the theory are challenged in
of borders, counterfeiting legal and travel the context of developing countries due to
documents, arranging marriages between the lack of attention it pays to sociological
migrants and legal residents/ citizens of the and cultural factors which directly affect
destination country, and providing credit migration. Analyzing the shortcomings of
facilities at high rates in exchange for fees this theory, Kurekova (2011) states that it
(Massey et al., 1993). As profit-seeking ignores market imperfections, reduces the
organizations often engage in illegal behavior, determinants of migration, and standardizes
most not-for-profit organizations provide migrants and migrant societies. He further
relief to the affected migrants by means of points out that in general, Neo-classical
counseling, social services, legal advice, Theory ignores the impacts of migration on
awareness on immigration laws etc. The sending and receiving countries, and ignores
Institutional Theory is important especially the importance of politics and policies for the
in today’s context in order to create a more process. Massey, Arango, Hugo, Kouaouci,
favorable and a strong policy framework for and Pellegrino (1999) state that widespread
both labour-sending and receiving countries. dissatisfaction with the Neo-classical
Cumulative Causation Theory approach explains the emergence of new
theoretical perspectives.
The Cumulative Causation Theory was
developed by Gunnar Myrdal in 1956. It Moreover, it is assumed that migrants are fully
was further developed by Douglas Massey aware of the main facts relevant to their job
and his colleagues (Massey, 1990; Massey, opportunities and wages. However in reality,
Goldring, & Durand, 1994). The theory there is imperfect information available to
explains as to why a migration flow begins migrants on job opportunities in foreign
and continues to grow (Fussell & Massey, countries as the former is manipulated by
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Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.5, 13-32, Fall 2016
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International Migration and Migration Theories A.A.I.N. Wickramasinghe
Wijitapure Wimalaratana
and specifically on labour migration. In his global character. Various researchers have
opinion, political aspects or an individual’s attempted to explain migration in terms
will are not considered important in most of of cause, development, and application.
these theories. Further, female migration This has led, the paper has argued, to the
may be pointed out as an under-researched emergence of a multitude of theories on
area in the migration knowledge corpus. migration that explain various dimensions
of the phenomenon in detail, and yet lacks
It appears that all theories related to
a holistic approach to migration that would
international migration have certain
enable clearer comprehension of the issue.
shortcomings. This may be due to the
complex nature of the concept of migration.
On the other hand, migration is a mixed
NOTES
phenomenon and it encompasses many
different fields such as Economics, Sociology, 1. Dutch disease is an economic phenomenon
where negative economic implications such as
Geography, Culture, Religion, Law, Political
deindustrialization and declining of exports are
Science, Demography and Psychology. experienced by a country as a result of the local
Therefore, it is clear that scholars who currency largely appreciating. The latter is due to
founded these theories focused on migration the inflow of foreign currencies owing to foreign
aid, foreign investments, export of local natural
within the framework of their respective
resources, remittances etc.
fields. What is required now may be a holistic
2. People who settle permanently in a foreign
approach to migration that affords a nuanced land away from their original homelands are
understanding of this global phenomenon. considered as Diaspora. The notion of Diaspora
encompasses a broader population including all
CONCLUSION persons who maintain ties of some kind with the
country of their origin. Members of a Diaspora can
International migration is a multi-disciplinary
be migrants themselves as well as their offspring
concept and it encompasses a number of (OECD, 2012).
disciplines such as Economics, Sociology,
Geography, Culture, Law, Political Science,
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