Chapter 8

Pragmatism

What is Pragmatism?

Pragmatism is a practical approach to problems and affairs, also known as

a American movement, that is marked by the doctrines that the meaning of
conceptions is to be sought in their practical bearings, that the function of
thought is to guide action, and that truth is pre-eminently to be tested by the
practical consequences of belief.
We go into the deeper meaning of pragmatism as we tackle all throughout this
chapter.

PRAGMATISM IN RELATION TO CONSEQUENCE

Consequence automatically brings up the idea of “an effect of a specific

phenomenon” or rather a “result”. It is defined as an outcome of a previous
phenomenon such as event, action or decision. Wherein, motives such as
stimulated theories are the causes and the consequences are the so called effect.
It is related to the ethical theory called Consequentialism that judges whether or
not certain things are right based on what possible consequences are. There are
two examples related to Consequentialism: Utilitarianism and Hedonism.
Utilitarianism- judges consequences by the standard of “the greatest good for the
greatest number”.
Hedonism- judges consequences that if it is morally good of the consequences
produces pleasure or avoids pain.
Consequences are variously defined and at the same time talks about by various
theories such as Utilitarianism and Relativism such as its various forms;
Pragmatism and Conventionalism.
 Consequence on Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that evaluates the moral worth of

an action on the basis of goodness and happiness that is produced by a
certain action. Wherein, Utilitarian bounds up with the idea of greater
number of pleasure than suffering and continue to restrict consequences to
pleasurable ones only. Therefore, whatever produces pleasure and
happiness in the absence of pain and suffering in the most number of
people is the moral goodness of an action.

Example:
An unknown person robs a bank where Ms. Medina is working.
The robber grabbed one of the customers and held it hostage in his
hands with a knife threatening Ms.Medina not to push the button
near her desk that will automatically shut down all the system and
directly alarm the nearest police station or else he will do something
brutal to the customer. Without the knowledge of the robber,
Ms. Medina sets up the plan to take advantage of the alarm and fire
pepper spray gun on the rubber knowing that there is a high risk of
danger of the life of the customer that is being hostage.

In that scenario, an act of Utilitarianism will take place wherein Ms.

Medina is well-aware of the consequence that her only plan will risk the
life of the hostage but will save the life of all other customers inside the
bank. The main idea of Ms. Medina to secure the greatest good for the
greatest number of life will coincides with Utilitarianism.

It is added by Utilitarians, that it would be possible and justifiable to

sacrifice one individual for the consequence of greatest benefit of the
greatest number. Where they believe that the proper way to evaluate
actions is in terms of consequences; doesn’t matter if the action is done by
good or bad, resentfully or out of spite. If it is for the greatest pleasure and
benefit of the greatest number of people than the other options then it is
morally good.
 Consequence on Ethical Relativism

Ethical Relativism is a theory that conceives the means of morality

that it is relative to the norms of one’s culture. Whether or not the
consequences of an action is said to be right or wrong it still depends in the
moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. It is the position that
there are no moral absolute. Hence, consequences have no bearing due to
each person or society may variously interpret the “rightness” or
“wrongness” of each consequences.

Example:
An unknown person committed robbery and hostage taking in
the bank namely Banco de Sandigan. Since Robbery and Hostage
taking is a crime and somehow resulted to a brutal incident, serious
punishment and investigation may follow such as under the
promulgation of the law here in the Philippines.

With this, Ethical Relativism may take place. Wherein, the

consequence of the committed crime of the criminal may either be
punished such as lifetime imprisonment or Non-lifetime imprisonment
but with compensation of the said damages in the bank. Here in the
Philippines, imprisonment is the most common practices of punishment
of a certain crime. On some countries, crimes such as hostage taking with
brutal incident will have to be punished by this so called “death penalty”
where in it is legalized and with full authorization. While in the Philippines
it is morally wrong and does not promulgate that kind of penalty.

In addition from Ethical Relativist, there are no universal moral

standards that can be universally applied to all society or community at all
times. Therefore, it encompasses a number of different beliefs and
practices but they all agree that there are no universal criteria to define an
ethical act.

There are different forms of Ethical Relativism that are commonly

emphasized such as Conventionalism (and Subjectivism) and Pragmatism.
 Consequence on Opportunism

Opportunism is a foundational assumption theory that claims human

beings are generally self-interested and will take advantage of others when
possible. It is defined as the conscious policy and practice of taking
advantage of circumstances. Hence, it is a self-centered or self-serving
approach to situation disregarding possible consequences to others.
Therefore, Opportunism lacks Ethics

Example:
Ms. Medina is busy on interviewing Ms. Lantaca and gladly
explaining terms and regulation about a premium loan that Ms. Lantaca
wants to avail. While accommodating Ms. Lantaca, Ms. Medina wasn’t
aware that the guard is busy helping a senior citizen. Furthermore, an
unknown robber finally found an opportunity to proceed to a nearby
counter and take advantage of one of the customer and held it as his
hostage.

Here, there is an act of Opportunism that took place. Wherein,

The unknown robber is keep on finding an opportunity to get near his
prospect and take advantage of his victim for his own interest.

Opportunism doesn’t necessarily mean breaking the law but it does

violate manners and decency in a way. However, Moral Opportunism is
somehow explained as the moral dilemma implied by opportunism
concerns the conflict of self-interest with the interest of others. It is not
necessarily a willingness to use opportunities but rather a personal
contentment.

CONVENTIONALISM and SUBJECTIVISM

If Ethical Relativism is CORRECT, this could mean one of the two

things; Conventionalism and Subjectivism. Wherein,

Conventionalism is where the criteria for “right” and “wrong” are based on
general or social convention. The rightness or wrongness of any action is
judged in terms of its compliance with social norms or conventions.
 Subjectivism is where the “right” and “wrong” get their meaning from the
individual only wherein morality is dependent on individuals, not the
culture.

PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism is an epistemological theory and a type of relativism that

calls for a distinctive way of understanding and holding the truth. It is
defined as a philosophical movement that considers practical consequences
or authentic effects to be vital components of both meaning and truth.
Hence, it means more than a willingness to compromise that begins with
examining what practical difference of idea or beliefs make.

John Dewey, an American Philosopher, has its own brand of Pragmatism

which he called “Instrumentalism”. It is a form of philosophical pragmatism
as it applies to the philosophy of science.

Instrumentalism is a view that the value of scientific concepts and

theories is determined not by whether they are literally true or corresponds
to reality in some sense but by the extent to which they help to make
accurate empirical predictions or to resolve conceptual problems. John
Dewey also added that instrumentalism’s operating premise is that ideas
empower people, including social processes and institutions towards
human benefits.
Hence, Dewey’s instrumentalism needs to be distinguished from the
pragmatism of Charles Peirce and William James.
 Pragmatism as a philosophical doctrine descends
from Charles Saunders Peirce (1839–1914). For
him, pragmatism was primarily a philosophy of
meaning, with the meaning of any concept that has
application in the real world lying in the relations
that link the experiential conditions of application
with observable results. He was concerned with
scientific practice and predictive success. Peirce
developed his theories in opposition to idealism:
pragmatism provided a road to objective and
impersonal standards.

Although Peirce developed pragmatism into a

substantial philosophical theory it was William James
(1842–1910) who put it on the intellectual map in
1907 with his enormously influential book,
Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of
Thinking (James, 1907). James changed the
conception of pragmatism by giving a more personal
and subjective meaning to efficacy. For him
pragmatic efficacy did not relate to an abstracted
community of scientists but to a diversified plurality
of flesh-and-blood individuals.

Lastly, John Dewey (1859–1952) continued to

develop pragmatism. Dewey, like Peirce before him,
saw inquiry as a self-correcting process whose procedures and norms must be
evaluated and revised in the light of subsequent experience. But Dewey regarded
this reworking as a social and communal process proceeding in the light of values
that are not connected specifically to science, but rather values that are more
broadly rooted in the psychic disposition of ordinary people at large. Dewey
regarded knowledge as an instrument for action rather than an object of
disinterested belief. Peirce’s pragmatism is scientifically, James’s is
psychologically personalistic, and Dewey’s is democratically populist.
DEWEY’S THEORY OF CONTINUITY OF MEANS-END
“Dewey’s theory of continuity of means-end emphasized the form of
pragmatism known as instrumentalism as it admits proximate goals but no
ultimate goal for human life.”
According to the journal of philosophy, Dewey’s conception of value has
been overlooked: the importance of the temporal relation between the present
and the future. He criticized the trivial principle of renouncing “renouncing goods
for the sake of future ones”. Later on, he repeated more than once that we live in
the present and not in the future, that we can master the former but not the
latter, or at least, that the future can be controlled only by the present.
Relation between means and ends is clearly bound up with a temporal
view. Ends are in the future, means in the present. We do control means, we do
not control ends. Hence, the foolishness of conceiving ends apart means. On the
contrary, ends must be judged, and evaluated, in the light of the means available
for their attainment.
However, there is no proof for Dewey’s theory of the continuity of means-
end. Dewey’s instrumental theory by his judgments concerns the value of things
as means only, and not as ends. It fails to fix on what is ultimately important:
intrinsic values or final ends. Some ultimate end outside of practice must be
postulated as given, as the standard against which the value of acts as means can
be judged, lest we fall into an infinite regress. (Plato, 2001)

ABSOLUTELY LAST END

Absolutely Last End is defined by St.Thomas as the end for the sake of
which all other things are desired, and which is not itself desired for the sake of
anything.
Ultimate end is defined as the last and final goal of man. It further asks
each of us the question “What is the purpose of our living in this world?”
Numerous philosophers had given their answers, but it seems to be very vague
and imperfect.
 We mean here by end the purpose for which a thing exists; the end of an
act is the purposes for which that act are done. Every human act is done for an
end. For a human act is an act of the will, and the will cannot act unless the
intellect proposes to it something to which it may tend, i. e., something good. The
good intended is the end of the act. Hence, every act is done for an end.

“The end is that towards which an action tends.” The last end, as stated
above is that object in which the agent's desire rests. If in his act the agent
excludes all reference to any further end, the end is positively last; if such
exclusion is not made, the end is negatively last. By the absolutely last end we
mean that object which, by its very nature, requires that all action be
subordinated to it, and that in it all desires shall rest.
But what would it mean to have an absolutely last end? In a sense we can
pursue a variety of last end, it is impossible that we can pursue a variety of last
ends not ordered to one another and to a first, absolutely last and ultimate end.
The reason for this comes down to the very notion of an absolutely last end is
that it is the complete satisfaction of human desires.
However, there are other kinds of Ends; Proximate is an immediate end on
account of which an action is immediately performed. Intermediate is a
subordinate end sought for the attainment of another end.

THE RELATIVE AND THE ABSOLUTE

One main theory of morality is relativism. Relativism is the idea of using the
context of different perspectives. We can say something is true relative to a point
of view. Subjective relativism as the idea that “what makes an action right for
someone is that it is approved by that person.” (Schick, 2004) and cultural
relativism as the concept that “what makes an action right is that it is approved by
one’s culture” (Schick, 2004). In this theory, morality is relative to different views.
It claims the appropriateness of an action is always relative to the individual and
society.
Example:
 If Ms. Sandigan says something that it is right, she means it is right
for him. Nothing can be completely right or wrong in absolute terms.

One of the main theories of morality is absolutism. Absolutism is the idea

that there is one right answer, independent of context or perspective. There is
only one right way to represent something. Referring to something that is
unchanging and always that way. We can say something is true, unconditionally,
no matter what.
Example:
The statement all banks only involves money transactions. That is
considered an absolute statement. It holds true no matter what.

Relative and Absolute are not things but ways of looking at thing
prospectively. So when it speaks about an absolutely last end, it does not mean
that this end has no relation to humans. It is Absolute because there are no
further ends and it is Relative because it is our end one that we must achieve.
Test your memory. Write your answers on the space provided.
1. It is a form of philosophical pragmatism as it applies to the
philosophy of science.
2. A theory that conceives the means of morality that it is relative to the
norms of one’s culture. It is not necessarily a willingness to use
opportunities but rather a personal contentment.
3. It is where the “right” and “wrong” get their meaning from the
individual only wherein morality is dependent on individuals, not the
culture.
4. It is the position that there are no moral absolute.
5. Known as a subordinate end sought for the attainment of another
end.
6. Who bounds up with the idea of greater number of pleasure than
suffering and continue to restrict consequences to pleasurable ones
only.
7. Defined as the last and final goal of man.
8. It judges consequences that if it is morally good of the consequences
produces pleasure or avoids pain.
9. It is defined as a philosophical movement that considers practical
consequences or authentic effects to be vital components of both
meaning and truth.

Test your memory. Identify whose form of pragmatism is stated by the following:
1. a road to objective
2. democratically populist
3. Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking
4. impersonal standards
5. Instrumentalism’s operating premise
6. pragmatic efficacy did not relate to an abstracted community
7. primarily a philosophy of meaning
8. philosophy of science
9. accurate empirical predictions or to resolve conceptual problems
10.psychologically personalistic
Test your Ability. Answer the question briefly.
Do you agree on Dewey’s theory of the continuity of mean-end? Why or
Why not? Explain.