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1. Difference between calculator and computer?

Calculators are actually very small computers with limited capabilities. The main difference is
that a computer is a generic purpose device while a calculator has a specific function. Likewise, a
robot or drone and our digital clock which only computes time has a specific function. Computer
can be used to send messages, email, text, Video Chatting while Calculator cannot be used for
communication purposes. Computer Can support Graphics. Calculator cannot support Graphics.
Computer Can be used with Gadgets while Calculator cannot support Pen drive, Speakers,
Printers, Projectors etc. Computer screen can show Images, Video and Number. Calculator
shows only Numbers. A computer is an electronic device which can receive information and
performing a sequence of operations by the instructions given to produce a result in the form of
output. A calculator is a device used for mathematical calculations and has a small keyboard and
display screen that shows the results. A computer has the capacity of performing the calculations
and other logical functions whereas a calculator only shows arithmetic and geometrical
operations. A computer is bigger in size and is not that easy to carry on its own, whereas a
calculator is small and fits in the pocket. A computer is costly and ranges from $300 onwards
whereas a calculator is cheaper in comparison and ranges from $10 onwards. A calculator only
carries out one action at a time and displays result whereas a computer can perform several
functions at one time. A computer has a large memory and stores data in several megabytes or
gigabytes whereas a calculator is smaller in memory and stores one calculation.

2. Who is called father of the computer?


Charles Babbage was the father of computing after his invention and concept of the Analytical
Engine in 1837.
3. Generations of computer:
Following are the five generations of the computer:

First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956):


The first computer systems used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. These computers were very expensive to
operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity and generates a lot of heat. It would
take operators days or even weeks to set-up a new problem. The UNIVAC
and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.

Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963):


The world would see transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers
until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their
memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers
of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971):


The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Computers for the first time became
accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
An integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic device made from a semiconductor material. The
first integrated circuit was developed in the 1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and
Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor.

Fourth Generation: Microprocessors (1971-Present)


The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use
microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together
to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)


Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
4. Major components of computer system

 Case
The case is the main hardware component of the computer and contains several circuit boards
that define how your computer operates. The CPU (Central Processing Unit), RAM (Random
Access Memory) is also present inside this.
 Hard drive
A hard drive is magnetic media that stores information permanently. It can exist inside the case
or can be externally connected through ports.
 CD/DVD/USB
CDs and DVDs are the primary means of distributing programs. These are preceded by usb
drives which are highly portable and can store a large amount of information.
 Monitor
A monitor or screen displays information from the computer. Its size is typically expressed in
inches as a diagonal measurement from one corner of the screen to the opposite. Common sizes
for desktop monitors range from 17 to 23 inches. Old and bulky CRT monitors have been all but
replaced by more compact flat screens.
 Keyboard and mouse
You enter information into a computer primarily by typing on a keyboard. A mouse moves the
cursor on the screen and activates or manages program icons through the use of buttons.
 Modem
Modems connect the computer to the internet through a phone line or high-speed cable. They
may exist inside the case or as an external device. Several computers connecting to the same
modem or to each other use a router, which may also be part of a modem.
5. Microprocessors and its components
The basic functionality of the Microprocessor is to do processing. Microprocessor performs two
type of operations called Arithmetic and Logic. So, the basic functionality unit which consists of
Arithmetic (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication & Division) and Logic (AND, OR, NOT) is
called Arithmetic Logic Unit.
Each microprocessor will have the following basic components:
 Memory: It stores data and program. Either can be temporary or “permanent” storage.
 Registers: These are small, fast memories. General purpose is to store arbitrary data. It
is used to control the processor.
 Instruction decoder: It translates current program instruction into a set of control
signals.
 Arithmetic logical unit: It preforms both arithmetic and logical operations on data: add,
subtract, multiply, AND, OR ...
 Control Unit: Control units (CUs) receive signals from the CPU, which instructs the
control unit to move data from microprocessor to microprocessor. The control unit
also directs the arithmetic and logic unit.
 System Bus: Many of these components must exchange data with one-another. It is
common to use a ‘bus’ for this exchange.
6. Ram
The first form of RAM came about in 1947 with the use of the Williams tube. However, RAM as
we know it today, as solid-state memory, was first invented in 1968by Robert Dennard. Known
specifically as dynamic random-access memory, or DRAM, transistors were used to store bits of
data. Random access memory (RAM) is the best-known form of computer memory. RAM is
considered "random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the
row and column that intersect at that cell. RAM is found in servers, PCs, tablets, smartphones
and other devices, such as printers. RAM is a volatile memory and requires power to keep the
data accessible. If the computer is turned off, all data contained in RAM is lost. As the
computer boots, parts of the operating system and drivers are loaded into memory, which allows
the CPU to process the instructions faster and speeds up the boot process. The more memory a
computer has, the more information and software it can load and process quickly. Currently, the
largest single stick of RAM is 64 GB.

7. Rom

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven. The very
first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions.
These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

The advantages of ROM are as follows: -

 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified
8. Hard disk
In 1953, IBM engineers created the first hard disk, which was the size of two refrigerators. A
hard disk is part of a unit -- often called a disk drive, hard drive or hard disk drive -- that stores
and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an electromagnetically charged
surface or set of surfaces. Today's computers typically come with a hard disk that can contain
anywhere from billions to trillions of bytes of storage. A hard disk is a set of stacked disks, like
phonograph records. Each disk has data recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles, or
tracks, on the disk. A hard disk/drive unit comes with a set rotation speed varying from 4,200
revolutions per minute to 15,000 rpm. Disk access time is measured in milliseconds. Hard disks
remain a popular data storage option for consumers and enterprises, in spite of the growing
popularity and rapidly lowering cost of non-volatile solid-state flash memory in the form of
solid-state drives (SSDs). SSDs fit into the same external and internal drive bays as their HDD
counterparts. A hard drive consists of several major components inside its casing. These include
the platter for storing data, a spindle for spinning platters, a read/write arm for reading and
writing data, an actuator to control the action and movement of the read/write arm and a logic
board.

9. Mother board

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all the parts of a computer together. It
connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports
and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through
pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all the internal components. It provides
a single socket for CPU, whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available.
Motherboards provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon
cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply. There is a
peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards, and other
expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard. On the left side, motherboards carry
several ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables.
Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-
in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen drive, digital cameras, etc. Prior to the invention of
the microprocessor, the digital computer consisted of multiple printed circuit boards in a card-
cage case with components connected by a backplane, a set of interconnected sockets. In very
old designs, copper wires were the discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed
circuit boards soon became the standard practice. Prior to the invention of the microprocessor,
the digital computer consisted of multiple printed circuit boards in a card-cage case with
components connected by a backplane, a set of interconnected sockets. In very old designs,
copper wires were the discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed circuit
boards soon became the standard practice.
10. Hardware;

Computer hardware includes the physical, tangible parts or components of a computer, such as
the cabinet, central processing unit, monitor, keyboard, computer data storage, graphics
card, sound card, speakers and motherboard.[1] By contrast, software is instructions that can be
stored and run by hardware. Hardware is so-termed because it is "hard" or rigid with respect to
changes or modifications; whereas software is "soft" because it is easy to update or change.
11. Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program
is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem. This includes application
software such as a word processor, which enables a user to perform a task, and system software
such as an operating system, which enables other software to run properly, by interfacing with
hardware and with other software.
12. Central processing unit
The CPU (central processing unit) is the heart of every embedded system and every personal
computer. It comprises the ALU (arithmetic logic unit), responsible for the number crunching,
and the CU (control unit), responsible for instruction sequencing and branching. Modern
microprocessors and microcontrollers provide on a single chip the CPU and a varying degree of
additional components, such as counters, timing coprocessors, watchdogs, SRAM (static RAM),
and Flash-ROM (electrically erasable ROM).
13. Compiler
A compiler is a software program that transforms high-level source code that is written by a
developer in a source language (high-level programming language) into a low level object code
(binary code) in machine language, which can be understood by the processor. During this
process, the compiler will also attempt to spot and report obvious programmer mistakes. The
process of converting high-level programming into machine language is known as compilation.
A compiler executes four major steps:

 Scanning: The scanner reads one character at a time from the source code and keeps
track of which character is present in which line.
 Lexical Analysis: The compiler converts the sequence of characters that appear in the
source code into a series of strings of characters (known as tokens), which are associated
by a specific rule by a program called a lexical analyzer.
 Syntactic Analysis: In this step, syntax analysis is performed, which involves
preprocessing to determine whether the tokens created during lexical analysis are in
proper order as per their usage. The correct order of a set of keywords, which can yield a
desired result, is called syntax. The compiler has to check the source code to ensure
syntactic accuracy.
 Semantic Analysis: This step is comprised of several intermediate steps. First, the
structure of tokens is checked, along with their order with respect to the grammar in a
given language. The meaning of the token structure is interpreted by the parser and
analyzer to finally generate an intermediate code, called object code. The object code
includes instructions that represent the processor action for a corresponding token when
encountered in the program.

14. Input devices


Input devices are hardware devices that allow data to be entered into a computer. Examples of
input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras and joysticks. Audio input
devices may be used for purposes including speech recognition. Input devices can be categorized
based on modality of input and on the number of degrees of freedom involved in that input (e.g.
two-dimensional mice, or three-dimensional navigators designed for CAD applications).
15. Output devices

Output devices allow us to receive information from the computer. Output may be printouts from
the printer, sounds on the speaker, or images on the monitor. Output device displays the result
of processing of raw data that is entered in computer through an input device. There are
number of output devices that display output in different ways such as text, images, hard
copies and audio or video. Some of the popular output devices are: Monitor, Printer, and
Projector.

16. High level language

A high-level language is a programming language designed to simplify computer programming.


It is "high-level" since it is several steps removed from the actual code run on a
computer's processor. High-level source code contains easy-to-read syntax that is later converted
into a low-level language, which can be recognized and run by a specific CPU.Some of the high
level programming languages are: C#, python, java, C etc. Each of these languages use different
syntax. Some are designed for writing desktop software programs, while others are best-suited
for web development. But they all are considered high-level since they must be processed by
a compiler or interpreter before the code is executed. Source code written in languages
like C++ and C# must be compiled into machine code in order to run. The compilation process
converts the human-readable syntax of the high-level language into low-level code for a specific
processor. Source code written in scripting languages like Perl and PHP can be run through an
interpreter, which converts the high-level code into a low-level language on-the-fly. The main
advantage of high-level languages over low-level languages is that they are easier to read, write,
and maintain. Ultimately, programs written in a high-level language must be translated into
machine language by a compiler or interpreter. The first high-level programming languages were
designed in the 1950s. High level language may takes additional translation times to translate the
source to machine code. High level programs are comparatively slower than low level programs
and are generally less memory efficient.

Christensson, Per. "High-Level Language Definition." TechTerms. Sharpened Productions, 12


May 2017. Web. 18 March 2019. <https://techterms.com/definition/high-level_language>.
17. Low level languages

A low-level language is a programming language that deals with a computer's hardware


components and constraints. It has no (or only a minute level of) abstraction in reference to a
computer and works to manage a computer's operational semantics. A low-level language may
also be referred to as a computer’s native language. Low-level languages are considered to be
closer to computers. In other words, their prime function is to operate, manage and manipulate
the computing hardware and components. Programs and applications written in a low-level
language are directly executable on the computing hardware without any interpretation or
translation. Machine language and assembly language are popular examples of low-level
languages. Low-level languages are useful because written in them can be crafted to run very
fast and with a very minimal memory footprint. However, they are considered harder to utilize
because they require a deeper knowledge of machine language. Programs and applications
written in low-level language are directly executable on the computing hardware without any
interpretation or translation. Low-level languages are appropriate for writing operating systems
or firmware for micro-controllers. They can do just about anything with a little bit of work.
18. Operating system and their types

An operating system is the most important software that runs on a computer. It manages the
computer's memory, processes, and all of its software and hardware. It also allows you
to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the computer's
"language." Without an operating system, a computer is useless. There are four general types of
operating systems. Their use depends on the type of computer and the type of applications that
will be run on those computers.

1. Real-time operating systems (RTOS) are used to control machinery, scientific instruments,
and industrial systems. In general, the user does not have much control over the functions
performed by RTOS.
2. Single-user, single-task operating systems allow one user to do one thing at a time. An
example of a single-user, single-task operating system is the operating system used by
personal digital assistants (PDAs), also known as handheld computers.
3. Single-user, multi-tasking operating systems allow a single user to simultaneously run
multiple applications on their computer. This is the type of operating system found on most
personal desktop and laptop computers. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, and Linux are three
well-known examples of this type of system.
4. Multi-user operating systems allow multiple users to simultaneously use the resources on a
single computer. UNIX is an example of a multi-user operating system.
19. Bit, byte, kB, MB, GB
Memory of a Computer is any physical device which is capable of storing information whether it
is large or small and stores it temporarily or permanently. Bit, byte, kB, MB, GB all are units of
memory. A computer processor is made up of multiple decisive circuits, each one of which may
be either OFF or ON. These two states in terms of memory are represented by a 0 or 1.

 In order to count higher than 1, such bits (Binary digits) are suspended together.
 A group of eight bits is known as a byte. 1 byte can represent numbers between zero
(00000000) and 255 (11111111), or 2^8 = 256 distinct positions. The computer
represents all characters and numbers internally in the same fashion.
 In practical, memory is measured in Kilobytes (KB) or Megabytes (MB). A kilobyte is
not exactly, as one might expect, of 1000 bytes. Rather, the correct amount is 2^10 i.e.
1024 bytes.
 Similarly, a megabyte is not 1000^2 i.e. 1, 000, 000 bytes, but instead 1024^2 i.e. 1, 048,
576 bytes. This is a remarkable difference.
 By the time we reach to a gigabyte (i.e. 1024^3 bytes), the difference between the base
two and base ten amounts is almost 71 Megabyte.

20. Graphical user interface


A graphical user interface (GUI) is a pictorial interface to a program. A good GUI can make
programs easier to use by providing them with a consistent appearance and with intuitive
controls like pushbuttons, list boxes, sliders, menus, and so forth. The actions in a GUI are
usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements. Beyond computers,
GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players,
gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls.

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