Alexis Carrel

14/2/2014 Alexis Carrel - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Alexis Carrel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Alexis Carrel (28 June 1873 – 5 November 1944) was a

French surgeon and biologist who was awarded the Nobel Alexis Carrel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 for pioneering Alexis Carrel 02.jpg
vascular suturing techniques. He invented the first perfusion
pump with Charles A. Lindbergh opening the way to organ
transplantation. Like many intellectuals before World War II
he promoted eugenics. He was a regent for the French
Foundation for the Study of Human Problems during the Nazi
occupation of Vichy France which implemented the eugenics
policies there; his association with the Foundation led to
investigations of collaborating with the Nazis.[1][2][3] He died
a broken man after constant press attacks as a Nazi
collaborator and his support for policies of gassing
"undesirables" fully came to light.[4]
Born 28 June 1873

Contents Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Rhône, France
1 Biography Died 5 November 1944 (aged 71)

2 Contributions to science Known for New techniques in vascular sutures
2.1 Vascular suture and pioneering work in
2.2 Wound antisepsis transplantology and thoracic surgery.
2.3 Organ transplants
Medical career
2.4 Cellular senescence
2.5 Honors Profession Surgeon, Biologist
3 Alexis Carrel and Lourdes Institutions University of Chicago
4 Man, The Unknown (1935) Rockefeller Institute for Medical
5 The French Foundation for the Study of Human Research.
Problems
Specialism transplantology, thoracic surgery
6 Sources
7 References Notable Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
8 External links prizes (1912)
Biography
Born in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Rhône, Carrel was raised in a devout Catholic family and was educated by Jesuits,
though he had become an agnostic by the time he became a university student.[5] He was a pioneer in
transplantology and thoracic surgery. Alexis Carrel was also a member of learned societies in the U.S., Spain,
Russia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Vatican City, Germany, Italy and Greece and received
honorary doctorates from Queen's University of Belfast, Princeton University, California, New York, Brown
University and Columbia University.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carrel 1/13
In 1902 he witnessed the miraculous cure of Marie Bailly at Lourdes,

made famous in part because she named Carrel as a witness of her
cure.[5] After the fame surrounding the event, Carrel could not obtain a
hospital appointment because of the pervasive anticlericalism in the
French university system at the time. In 1903 he emigrated to Montreal,
Canada, but soon relocated to Chicago, Illinois to work for Hull
Laboratory. While there he collaborated with American physician
Charles Claude Guthrie in work on vascular suture and the
transplantation of blood vessels and organs as well as the head, and
Carrel was awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for Carrel in 1912
these efforts.[6]
In 1906 he joined the newly formed Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research in New York where he spent the
rest of his career.[7] In the 1930s, Carrel and Charles Lindbergh became close friends not only because of the
years they worked together but also because they shared personal, political, and social views. Lindbergh initially
sought out Carrel to see if his sister-in-law's heart, damaged by rheumatic fever, could be repaired. When
Lindbergh saw the crudeness of Carrel's machinery, he offered to build new equipment for the scientist. Eventually
they built the first perfusion pump, an invention instrumental to the development of organ transplantation and open
heart surgery. Lindbergh considered Carrel his closest friend, and said he would preserve and promote Carrel's
ideals after his death.[7]
Due to his close proximity with Jacques Doriot's fascist Parti Populaire Français (PPF) during the 1930s and his
role in implementing eugenics policies during Vichy France, he was accused after the Liberation of collaborationism,
but died before the trial.
Carrel spent his life promoting spiritualism, though he did not embrace the Catholicism of his youth. In 1939 he met
with Trappist monk Alexis Presse on a recommendation. Though Carrel was skeptical about meeting with a
priest[5] Presse ended up having a profound influence on the rest of Carrel's life.[7] He summoned Presse to
administer the Catholic Sacraments on his death bed in November 1944.[5]
For much of his life, Carrel and his wife spent their summers on the Ile Saint-Gildas, which they owned. After he
and Lindbergh became close friends, Carrel persuaded him to also buy a neighboring island, the Ile Illiec, where the
Lindberghs often resided in the late 1930s. [8]
Contributions to science
Vascular suture
Carrel was a young surgeon in 1894 when the French president Sadi Carnot was assassinated with a knife. His
large abdominal veins had been severed, and surgeons who treated the president felt that such veins were too large
to be successfully reconnected. This left a deep impression on Carrel, and he set about developing new techniques
for suturing blood vessels. The technique of "triangulation", which was inspired by sewing lessons he took from an
embroideress, is still used today. Julius Comroe wrote: "Between 1901 and 1910, Alexis Carrel, using experimental
animals, performed every feat and developed every technique known to vascular surgery today." He had great
success in reconnecting arteries and veins, and performing surgical grafts, and this led to his Nobel Prize in 1912.[9]
Wound antisepsis
During World War I (1914–1918), Carrel and the English chemist Henry Drysdale Dakin developed the Carrel–
Dakin method of treating wounds based on chlorine (Dakin's solution) which, preceding the development of
antibiotics, was a major medical advance in the care of traumatic wounds. For this, Carrel was awarded the Légion
d'honneur.
Organ transplants
Carrel co-authored a book with famed pilot Charles A. Lindbergh, The Culture of Organs, and worked with
Lindbergh in the mid-1930s to create the "perfusion pump," which allowed living organs to exist outside of the body
during surgery. The advance is said to have been a crucial step in the development of open-heart surgery and organ
transplants, and to have laid the groundwork for the artificial heart, which became a reality decades later.[10] Some
critics of Lindbergh claimed that Carrel overstated Lindbergh's role to gain media attention,[11] but other sources
say Lindbergh played an important role in developing the device.[12][13] Both Lindbergh and Carrel appeared on
the cover of Time magazine on June 13, 1938.
Cellular senescence
Carrel was also interested in the phenomenon of senescence, or aging. He claimed incorrectly that all cells
continued to grow indefinitely, and this became a dominant view in the early 20th century.[14] Carrel started an
experiment on January 17, 1912 where he placed tissue cultured from an embryonic chicken heart in a stoppered
Pyrex flask of his own design.[15] He maintained the living culture for over 20 years with regular supplies of nutrient.
This was longer than a chicken's normal lifespan. The experiment, which was conducted at the Rockefeller Institute
for Medical Research, attracted considerable popular and scientific attention.
Carrel's experiment was never successfully replicated, and in the 1960s Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead
proposed that differentiated cells can undergo only a limited number of divisions before dying. This is known as the
Hayflick limit, and is now a pillar of biology.[14]
It is not certain how Carrel obtained his anomalous results. Leonard Hayflick suggests that the daily feeding of
nutrient was continually introducing new living cells to the alleged immortal culture.[16] J. A. Witkowski has argued
that,[17] while "immortal" strains of visibly mutated cells have been obtained by other experimenters, a more likely
explanation is deliberate introduction of new cells into the culture, possibly without Carrel's knowledge.[18]
Honors
In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series.[19] In 1979,
the lunar crater Carrel was named after him as a tribute to his scientific breakthroughs.
In February 2002, as part of celebrations of the 100th anniversary of Charles Lindbergh's birth, the Medical
University of South Carolina at Charleston established the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize,[20] given to major contributors
to "development of perfusion and bioreactor technologies for organ preservation and growth". Michael DeBakey
and nine other scientists[21] received the prize, a bronze statuette [4] (http://www.fondazionecarrel.org/carrel/1.htm)
created for the event by the Italian artist C. Zoli and named "Elisabeth"[22] after Elisabeth Morrow, sister of
Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow, who died from heart disease. It was in fact Lindbergh's disappointment that
contemporary medical technology could not provide an artificial heart pump which would allow for heart surgery on
her that led to Lindbergh's first contact with Carrel.
Alexis Carrel and Lourdes

In 1902 Alexis Carrel went from being a sceptic of the visions and miracles reported at Lourdes to being a believer
in spiritual cures after experiencing a healing of Marie Bailly that he could not explain.[23] The Catholic journal Le
nouvelliste reported that she named him as the prime witness of her cure. Alexis Carrel refused to discount a
supernatural explanation and steadfastly reiterated his beliefs, even writing a book describing his experience,[24]
though it was not published until four years after his death. This was a detriment to his career and reputation among
his fellow doctors, and feeling he had no future in academic medicine in France, he emigrated to Canada with the
intention of farming and raising cattle. After a brief period, he accepted an appointment at the University of
Chicago[9] and two years later at the Rockefeller Institute for the Study of Medicine.
Man, The Unknown (1935)

Main article: Man, The Unknown
In 1935, Carrel published a book titled L'Homme, cet inconnu (Man, The Unknown), which became a best-
seller. The book discussed "the nature of society in light of discoveries in biology, physics, and medicine".[9] It
contained his own social prescriptions, advocating, in part, that mankind could better itself by following the
guidance of an elite group of intellectuals, and by implementing a regime of enforced eugenics. Carrel claimed the
existence of a "hereditary biological aristocracy" and argued that "deviant" human types should be suppressed using
techniques similar to those later employed by the Nazis.
"A euthanasia establishment, equipped with a suitable gas, would allow the humanitarian and economic disposal of
those who have killed, committed armed robbery, kidnapped children, robbed the poor or seriously betrayed
public confidence," Carrel wrote in L'Homme, cet Inconnu. "Would the same system not be appropriate for
lunatics who have committed criminal acts?" he suggested.
In the 1936 preface to the German edition of his book, Alexis Carrel added a praise to the eugenics policies of the
Third Reich, writing that:
(t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the
mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these
individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous.[25]
Carrel also wrote in his book that:
(t)he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a
short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to insure order. Those who have murdered, robbed
while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their
savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in
small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously
applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts.[26]
The French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems
In 1937, Carrel joined Jean Coutrot’s Centre d’Etudes des Problèmes Humains - Coutrot’s aim was to develop
what he called an "economic humanism" through "collective thinking." In 1941, through connections to the cabinet of
Vichy France president Philippe Pétain (specifically, French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques
Ménétrier) he went on to advocate for the creation of the Fondation Française pour l’Etude des Problèmes
Humains (French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems) which was created by decree of the Vichy regime
in 1941, and where he served as 'regent'.[3]
The foundation was at the origin of the October 11, 1946 law, enacted by the Provisional Government of the
French Republic (GPRF), which institutionalized the field of occupational medicine. It worked on demographics
(Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois-Pichat), on economics, (François Perroux), on nutrition (Jean
Sutter), on habitation (Jean Merlet) and on the first opinion polls (Jean Stoetzel). "The foundation was chartered as
a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial
autonomy and a budget of forty million francs—roughly one franc per inhabitant—a true luxury considering the
burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation’s resources. By way of comparison, the whole Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs."
The Foundation made many positive accomplishments during its time.[7] Yet it was also behind the origin of the
December 16, 1942 Act inventing the "prenuptial certificate", which had to precede any marriage and was
supposed, after a biological examination, to insure the "good health" of the spouses, in particular in regard to
sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and "life hygiene" (sic). The institute also conceived the "scholar book" ("livret
scolaire"), which could be used to record students' grades in the French secondary schools, and thus classify and
select them according to scholastic performance.[27]
According to Gwen Terrenoire, writing in Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings,
"The foundation was a pluridisciplinary centre that employed around 300 researchers (mainly statisticians,
psychologists, physicians) from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn of 1944. After the liberation of Paris,
Carrel was suspended by the Minister of Health; he died in November 1944, but the Foundation itself was
"purged", only to reappear in a short time as the Institut national d’études démographiques (INED) that is still
active."[28] Although Carrel himself was dead most members of his team did move to the INED, which was led by
famous demographist Alfred Sauvy, who coined the expression "Third World". Others joined Robert Debré's
"Institut national d'hygiène" (National Hygiene Institute), which later became the INSERM.
Sources
Carrel, Alexis. Man, The Unknown. New York and London: Harper and Brothers. 1935.
Szasz, Thomas. The Theology of Medicine New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977.
Feuerwerker, Elie. Alexis Carrel et l'eugénisme. Le Monde, 1er Juillet 1986.
Schneider, William. Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century
France, Cambridge UP 1990.
Bonnafé, Lucien and Tort, Patrick. L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les
chambres a gaz Editions Syllepse, 1996.[29] ISBN 2-907993-14-3
David Zane Mairowitz. "Fascism à la mode: in France, the far right presses for national purity",
Harper's Magazine; 10/1/1997
Reggiani, Andrés Horacio. Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under
Vichy French Historical Studies, Spring 2002; 25: pp. 331 - 356.
Wallace, Max. The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich St.
Martin's Press, New York, 2003.
Berman, Paul. Terror and Liberalism W. W. Norton, 2003.

Walther, Rudolph. Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel, DIE ZEIT 31.07.2003 Nr.32[30]
Terrenoire, Gwen, CNRS. Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings Joint
Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, March 24, 2003[31]
Reggiani, Andrés Horacio. God's Eugenicist. Alexis Carrel and the Sociobiology of Decline.
(http://books.google.de/books?id=Zhx-fkqlOgQC&source=gbs_navlinks_s) Berghahn Books, Oxford
2007.
Friedman, David M. The Immortalists: Charles Lindbergh, Dr. Alexis Carrel, and Their Daring Quest
to Live Forever. HarperCollins, NY 2007.
References
1. ^ Reggiani, Andrés Horacio. God's Eugenicist. Alexis Carrel and the Sociobiology of Decline.
(http://books.google.de/books?id=Zhx-fkqlOgQC&source=gbs_navlinks_s) Berghahn Books, Oxford 2007.
2. ^ Schneider William H.. Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century
France (http://books.google.de/books/about/Quality_and_Quantity.html?id=GCpvrsvGR5IC&pg=PA272).
Cambridge UP 1990, pp. 272-282.
3. ^ a b (see Andrés Horacio Reggiani, Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy,
as well as Caillois, p. 107)
4. ^ Sade, Robert M. MD. Alexis Carrel, Pioneer Surgeon
(http://academicdepartments.musc.edu/humanvalues/pdf/transplantationat100years.pdf) Medical University of
South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina.
5. ^ a b c d Jaki
6. ^ Nobelprize.org (http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/index.html)
7. ^ a b c d Reggiani
8. ^ Friedman, David M. (2007). The Immortalists: Charles Lindbergh, Dr. Alexis Carrel, and Their Daring Quest to
Live Forever (http://www.harpercollins.com/books/The-Immortalists-David-M-Friedman/?isbn=9780060528157).
New York, NY: Ecco/HarperCollins. p. 140. ISBN 97800605228164 Check |isbn=value (help).
9. ^ a b c John G. Simmons (2002). Doctors and discoveries: lives that created today's medicine
(http://books.google.com/?id=PD2-gpsoh8kC&pg=PA199). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 199–204. ISBN 978-0-
618-15276-6
10. ^ Red Gold . Innovators & Pioneers . Alexis Carrel | PBS
(http://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/innovators/bio_carrel2.html)
11. ^ (Wallace, American Axis p. 101)
12. ^ The Doric Column - Lindbergh & Carrel, organ perfusion, tissue culture, transplants, gene therapy
(http://mbbnet.umn.edu/doric/lindbergh.html)
13. ^ The "Lone Eagle's" Contribution to Cardiology (http://www.charleslindbergh.com/heart)
14. ^ a b Fossel, Michael B. (2004-06-02). Cells, Aging, and Human Disease (http://books.google.com/?
id=UYeUk9m9yeQC&pg=PA24). Oxford University Press. p. 504. ISBN 978-0-19-514035-4.; page 24.
15. ^ Carrel, Alexis (1912-05-01). "On the Permanent Life of Tissues Outside of the Organism"
(http://jem.rupress.org/cgi/reprint/15/5/516.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Experimental Medicine 15 (5): 516–528.
doi:10.1084/jem.15.5.516 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1084%2Fjem.15.5.516). PMC 2124948
(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2124948). PMID 19867545
(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19867545). Retrieved 2009-05-28.
16. ^ Hayflick, L. (November 1997). "Mortality and Immortality at the Cellular Level. A Review". Biochemistry (Mosc)
62 (11): 1180–1190. PMID 9467840 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9467840).
17. ^ Witkowski, JA (1980). "Dr. Carrel's immortal cells" (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1082700).
Medical History 24 (2): 129–142. doi:10.1017/S0025727300040126
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025727300040126). PMC 1082700
(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6990125).
18. ^ Witkowsky explanation is actually based on the account of a visiting medical researcher, Ralph Buchbaum, who
reports being told by a technician in Carrel's lab "Dr. Carrel would be so upset if we lost the strain, we just add a
few embryo cells now and then". After the first six months, Carrel's colleague Albert Ebeling had actually taken
charge of the cultures and published several papers about their development, until they were eventually discarded in
1946. Witkowsky, in "Dr. Carrel's immortal cells", op. cit., quotes Buchbaum's account. At the end Buchbaum
writes that "I told this story, of my visit to Carrel's laboratory, to various people. Dr. Bloom (Buchbaum's director
of research in Chicago)refused to believe it. Others chuckled gleefully. Dr. Carrel was to blame only in that he did
not keep on top of what was really going on in the laboratory (mostly, he wrote the papers). Dr. Parker and Dr.
Ebeling probably suspected something, hence the "retirement". In the interest of truth and science, the incident
should have been thoroughly investigated. If it had been, some heads might have rolled, sacrificed to devotion to a
wrong hypothesis - immortality of cell strains.". Witkowsky also reports a Dr. Margaret Murray telling him that
"one of Carrel's technicians of that time was passionately anti-fascist and detested Carrel's political and social
ideas" and expressing her belief that "that this technician would willingly have discredited Carrel scientifically if
possible.".
19. ^ The Nobel Stamps of 1972 (http://nobelprize.org/nobel/stamps/1972.html)
20. ^ Charles Lindbergh Symposium (http://research.musc.edu/lindbergh/prize.htm)
21. ^ Charles Lindbergh Symposium (http://research.musc.edu/lindbergh/laureates.htm)
22. ^ Foundation Alexis Carrel for thoracic and cardiovascular researches
(http://www.fondazionecarrel.org/index.html)
23. ^ Rev. Stanley Jaki Two Lourdes Miracles and a Nobel Laureate: What Really Happened?
(http://www.catholicculture.org/library/view.cfm?id=2866)
24. ^ Alexis Carrel, The Voyage to Lourdes (New York, Harper & Row, 1939).
25. ^ Quoted in Andrés Horacio Reggiani. Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under
Vichy (French historical studies, 25:2 Spring 2002) [1] (http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331), p. 339.
Also quoted in French by Didier Daeninckx in Quand le négationnisme s’invite à l’université., on Amnistia.net
website, [2] (http://www.amnistia.net/news/enquetes/negauniv/carrel/carrel.htm), URL consulted on January 28,
2007
26. ^ Quoted in Szasz, Thomas. The Theology of Medicine New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977.
27. ^ (Reggiani) (http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331)
28. ^ Gwen Terrenoire, "Eugenics in France (1913-1941) a review of research findings", Joint Programmatic
Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, 2003 [3] (http://ong-comite-
liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf)
29. ^ Amazon.fr: L'Homme cet inconnu ? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie Le Pen et les Chambres à gaz: Lucien Bonnafé,
Patrick Tort: Livres (http://www.amazon.fr/dp/2907993143)
30. ^ Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel: Wie ein katholischer Arzt aus Frankreich zum Vordenker der radikalen
Islamisten wurde | Nachrichten auf ZEIT ONLINE (http://www.zeit.de/2003/32/A-Carrel)
31. ^ Comité de Liaison ONG-UNESCO (http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf)
External links
Nobel Prize presentation speech to Dr. Carrel (http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/press.html)
Nobel Prize biography of Dr. Carrel (http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/carrel-bio.html)
Research Foundation entitled to Alexis Carrel (http://www.fondazionecarrel.org)
"Data from France" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885802,00.html). Time Magazine.
1944-10-16. Retrieved 2008-08-10. Time Magazine, October 16, 1944
Death of Alexis Carrel (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801605,00.html) Time Magazine
November 13, 1944
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexis_Carrel&oldid=594360536"

Categories: 1873 births 1944 deaths French physicians French eugenicists
French collaborators with Nazi Germany Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism
French Nobel laureates Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine French Roman Catholics
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences People from Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon
Transplant surgeons
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14/2/2014 Alexis Carrel - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Alexis Carrel (28 June 1873 – 5 November 1944) was a

Born 28 June 1873

1 Biography Died 5 November 1944 (aged 71)

In 1902 he witnessed the miraculous cure of Marie Bailly at Lourdes,

Alexis Carrel and Lourdes

Man, The Unknown (1935)

Carrel also wrote in his book that:

The French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems

Berman, Paul. Terror and Liberalism W. W. Norton, 2003.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexis_Carrel&oldid=594360536"

This page was last modified on 7 February 2014 at 12:39.

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