Distribution of Porosity and Permeability in Platform
Dolomites: Insight from the Permian of West Texas1
Arthur H. Saller2 and Nuel Henderson3
ABSTRACT
Dolomites were studied in two oil fields in
west Texas (North Riley and South Cowden) to
evaluate factors affecting the distribution of
porosity in dolomitized carbonate platforms.
North Riley field is at the northern margin of the
Central Basin platform, with its main reservoir in
dolomites of the Leonardian (Permian) Clear Fork
Formation. Dolomites in the Grayburg Formation
(Guadalupian, Permian) were studied at South
Cowden field on the east-central margin of the
Central Basin platform. Replacive dolomitization in
both fields is interpreted to have occurred in
ref luxing evaporatively concentrated seawater
shortly after deposition. That interpretation is sup-
ported by stratigraphic, petrographic, and geo-
chemical data and is similar to several previous
studies of Permian dolomites in the vicinity.
Porosity and permeability are lower in platform-
interior dolomites and higher in dolomites near the
platform margin in both fields, but porosity and
permeability are not strictly facies dependent. The
distribution of porosity and permeability is inter-
preted to be largely the result of location within the
dolomitizing system. Saline dolomitizing brines
generated by evaporative concentration of seawa-
ter in restricted lagoons and tidal flats percolated
downward and f lowed basinward (ref luxed)
through the sediments due to greater brine densi-
ties. Refluxing brines, supersaturated with respect
to dolomite, precipitated large quantities of
dolomite in proximal parts of the refluxing system,
©Copyright 1998. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved.
1Manuscript received November 13, 1996; revised manuscript received
July 18, 1997; final acceptance February 26, 1998.
2UNOCAL, 14141 Southwest Freeway, Sugar Land, Texas 77478.
3 Advanced GeoEnvironmental, Inc., 4005 N. Wilson Way, Stockton,
California 95205.
Many people helped us during the course of this study, including Ron
Carlton, Jerry Dunnam, Jeff Glossa, Tom Elliott, Lorraine Carey, Al Crawford,
Tony Dickson, and George Covington. Stable isotope analyses were
performed at Brown University by Robert Fifer. We thank Steve Ruppel, Rick
Major, Deborah Bliefnick, and Jerry Lucia for reviews and suggestions that
substantially improved this paper.
1528
lowering dolomite saturation in waters flowing
into distal portions of the reflux system. Lower
dolomite saturations resulted in less dolomite pre-
cipitation and more porosity and permeability in
distal parts of the system. After the original lime-
stone was dolomitized, refluxing brines continued
to circulate, precipitating more dolomite and
decreasing porosity further, especially in platform-
interior dolomites near where the refluxing brines
were generated. Many platform-interior wells are
structurally higher than wells near the platform
margin, yet structurally lower wells near the plat-
form margin are more porous and permeable, and
have produced three to ten times more oil than the
platform-interior wells.
INTRODUCTION
Dolomitic strata produce hydrocarbons in large
and small fields throughout the world; hence,
understanding factors controlling dolomitization
and porosity development is important to explo-
ration and production in many carbonate provinces.
Dolomitization represents a chemical and miner-
alogical change from calcium carbonate (calcite,
Mg-calcite, or aragonite) to calcium magnesium car-
bonate (dolomite); however, the effect of dolomiti-
zation on porosity is variable (Purser et al., 1994).
Certain workers have suggested that the process of
dolomitization, by its nature, increases porosity
(Weyl, 1960); however, data of Schmoker and
Halley (1982) and Lucia and Major (1994) indicated
that porosity commonly decreases during near-sur-
face dolomitization. Fortunately for explorationists,
dolomites lose porosity more slowly than lime-
stones during deep burial, causing them to be the
principal reservoir rock in many ancient or deeply
buried carbonates (Schmoker and Halley, 1982;
Purser et al., 1994; Sun, 1995).
Although many dolomites are porous, many oth-
ers are not (Borer and Harris, 1991; Kerans et al.,
1994). Even within a specific area or oil field,
dolomites commonly have variable porosity
(Cowan and Harris, 1986; Bebout et al., 1987;
AAPG Bulletin, V. 82, No. 8 (August 1998), P. 1528–1550.
 Saller and Henderson 1529

Harris and Stoudt, 1988; Major et al., 1988; Kerans et

al., 1994). Variations in porosity and permeability in
dolomites commonly are related to original deposi-
tional textures, grain types, stratigraphic position, or
paleogeographic location (Ruzyla and Friedman,
1985; Bebout et al., 1987; Major et al., 1988; Kerans
et al., 1994; Sun, 1995). Lucia and Major (1994)
noted that porosity in Pliocene–Pleistocene
dolomites on the Caribbean island of Bonaire N.MEX
increases in a basinward direction, away from the TEXAS
source of hypersaline dolomitizing waters.
In this paper we (1) confirm a reflux mechanism
for dolomitization of platform carbonates in two spe-
cific Permian oil fields in west Texas, (2) show the
distribution of porosity and permeability in those
two dolomitized fields, (3) present a model for
porosity and permeability variations in carbonates
dolomitized by refluxing evaporatively concentrated
seawater (supporting the model of Lucia and Major,
1994), and (4) show how those variations relate to
50 mi
oil production. Our study concentrates on two oil
fields, North Riley and South Cowden, where the 50 km
ST
principal reservoir rocks are Permian dolomites
H WE LF
deposited near the margins of a broad carbonate RT SHE
platform (Figure 1). Although the reservoirs have dif- NO
ferent ages and locations, they are remarkably simi-
lar in their diagenetic history. Porosity and perme-
SAN SIMON
ability generally increase toward the platform CHANNEL HORSESHOE
margin (basinward) in both reservoirs.
NORTH "ATOLL"
RILEY
METHODS
M
The database for North Riley field includes ID
approximately 1000 m (3300 ft) of core from 8 LA
BA ND
DE ASIN

wells, wireline logs from 200 wells, and four region-

al reflection seismic lines. The database for South S IN
CEN N
LAW
B

Cowden field includes approximately 700 m (2300

PLA

ft) of core from 8 wells, wireline logs from 40 wells,

BAS

SOUTH
and a three-dimensional seismic data set over most
AR

TRA

COWDEN
TFO

of the field. Seismic data were related to well data

I
E

using synthetic seismograms made from acoustic

L

logs and vertical seismic profiles (VSP). Most stable

RM

isotope analyses were from bulk rock samples using

methods described by Quinn (1991). Precision (2σ)
of stable carbon and oxygen isotope analyses is esti-
mated at ±0.2‰, and is reported relative to a PDB
standard. Most porosity, permeability, and grain den-
sities were measured on whole (full-diameter)
pieces of core. Precision of grain density measure-
ments is estimated at ±0.01 g/cm3.
GENERAL FIELD INFORMATION
North Riley field was discovered in 1947 and pro-
duces mainly from dolomites in the Leonardian
(Permian) Clear Fork Formation on a north-plunging
Figure 1—Map showing the location of North Riley and
South Cowden fields on the Central Basin platform in
west Texas.
anticline at the northern margin of the Central
Basin platform in Gaines County, Texas (Phipps,
1969) (Figures 1–4). Limestone occurs only in the
lower part of the Lower Clear Fork (Figure 3). The
gross pay at North Riley is approximately 305 m
(1000 ft) thick, extending from depths of approxi-
mately 1920 to 2225 m (6300–7300 ft). Primary
1530 Platform Dolomites: Porosity and Permeability

405 NORTH RILEY UNIT

SYSTEM SERIES STRATIGRAPHIC UNIT STRUCTURE MAP TOP
UPPER CLEAR FORK
-3
Dewey Lake (94 100 Dry Hole
Rustler 5 m ft
Ochoan ) ft Producer
Salado 00
404 394 -31 5 m) Injector
Castile (94
Tansill Abandoned Well
Capitan Yates Cored Well Used
PERMIAN Seven Rivers In This Study
Guadalupian Goat Seep Queen
Grayburg Other Cored Wells

San Andres 395 366

Glorieta Sprayberry 232

Leonardian Clear Fork Dean 44R
Wolfcampian Wolfcamp
Cisco 257 261
Canyon
PENNSYLVANIAN 396 272 365 360
Strawn

- 30 14 m
(-9
Bend

00 )
294

ft
MISSISSIPPIAN Mississippian

14 ft
-2900 ft

m)
(-9 000
(-884 m)
DEVONIAN

-3
Devonian
364 361
SILURIAN Fusselman
N
upper Montoya 337
ORDOVICIAN middle Simpson
lower Ellenburger
CAMBRIAN 363
357
Relative production Unit
Boundary
1 mi
Figure 2—General Permian basin stratigraphy and rela-
tive oil production (modified from Galloway et al., 1983). 1 km
-2900 ft
(-884 m)

development was on 16.2 ha (40 ac) well spacing,

and waterflooding began in 1977. A 8.1 ha (20 ac)
infill drilling program began in 1984. Original oil in
place is estimated at 250–300 million stock tank
bbl. Ultimate recoverable oil at a 8.1 ha (20 ac) well
spacing was estimated at 36–38 million stock tank
bbl for a recovery efficiency of approximately 14%.
South Cowden oil field was discovered in
1933 on the eastern f lank of the Central Basin
platform in Ector County, Texas (Figure 1). The
San Andres/Grayburg interval at South Cowden
field has approximately 570 million bbl of oil in
place, with a predicted ultimate recovery of 162
million bbl of oil for a recovery efficiency of 28%
(Galloway et al, 1983). South Cowden field has
many unitized areas, including the Moss unit stud-
ied here (Figure 5). South Cowden field is part of a
large anticlinal structure that plunges to the south-
southeast and is apparently the result of com-
pactional drape over a deeper depositional feature
(Figures 5, 6). The Grayburg structure does not
close west-northwest of the Moss unit, but porosity
and permeability decrease toward the west, result-
ing in a stratigraphic component to the South
Figure 3—Structure map in depth subsea on top of Clear
Fork Formation at North Riley field. Stars show cored
wells used in this study. Location of cross section in Fig-
ure 9 is shown.
Cowden trap. The Grayburg Formation at South
Cowden has been studied in detail by the Bureau
of Economic Geology, Univer sity of Texas at
Austin (Lucia and Ruppel, 1996; Ruppel and Lucia,
1996).
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
Eleven depositional facies form most of the Clear
Fork section at North Riley field and the Grayburg
at South Cowden. They are described and inter-
preted in Table 1. Core photographs, thin-section
photomicrographs, and SEM (scanning electron
microscope) photographs of some of these facies
are shown in Figure 7. A depositional model for
these facies is shown in Figure 8.

0.7
North Riley Field
0.8
Two-Way Travel time (s)
0.9 San Andres Fm.
Glorieta
1.0
1.1 Lower Clear Fork
Wichita/Abo
1.2
Wolfcamp
1.3 Sandstone
& Dolomite
1.4 Central Basin Platform
South
1.5
Figure 4—Sequence-scale shelf-to-basin cross section showing distribution of limestone and dolomite and gross
correlations traced from seismic lines. In the shelfal dolomites (at left), 0.1 s two-way traveltime is approximately
equal to 300 m (1000 ft). Much of the apparent structure is related to differential compaction (interpretation after
T. L. Elliott, 1992, personal communication).
North Riley Field
The Clear Fork at North Riley is characterized
by a large-scale progradation of facies, including
three seismic sequences that correspond to the
lower, middle, and upper Clear Fork (Figure 4).
During Clear Fork deposition, the seismically
defined shelf margin prograded from approxi-
mately 1 km (0.6 mi) north of the northern limit
of North Riley Field to approximately 8 km (5 mi)
north of North Riley field. The Lower Clear Fork
at North Riley field is dominated by subtidal
facies, with little evidence of progradation in shelf
facies. Depositional facies and cycles indicate shal-
lowing and progradation during deposition of the
middle Clear Fork, with shallowing-upward cycles
becoming thinner and peritidal facies becoming
more abundant toward the top of the middle Clear
Fork (Figure 9). The sequence boundary at the top
of the middle Clear Fork is a sandy, irregularly
weathered zone with a caliche crust in fenestral
wackestone/packstone. In the upper Clear Fork,
depositional facies alternate between shallow sub-
tidal facies and peritidal facies.
Each major Clear Fork sequence contains many
0.5–10-m- (1.5–30-ft-) thick shallowing-upward
cycles. Well-defined cycles have burrowed wacke-
stone at the base and cross-bedded grainstone or
fenestral, algally laminated packstone at the top.
Clear Fork strata thin, and tidal-flat facies are more
common toward the south over the structurally
highest part of the field, indicating that the current
structural high corresponds to the Permian deposi-
tional high (Figure 9). Open-marine fusulinid
Saller and Henderson 1531
Approximate Shelf
Margin for Middle &
Upper Clear Fork
San Andres Fm.
Tubb
Upper Clear Fork
Middle Clear Fork
Dean Sandstone
Dolomite Sandstone/Siltstone
Limestone
~ 8 mi San Simon Channel
~ 13 km North
wackestones (facies 7) are more abundant toward
the north. We concentrate on the middle Clear
Fork where we have the best core control. A gener-
al northward (basinward) increase in porosity is
present in that interval (Table 2; Figure 9).
South Cowden Field
The Grayburg Formation at the Moss unit
includes porous and nonporous anhydritic
dolomite. Sand- and silt-rich dolomites constitute a
minor portion of the section, but are important for
correlations. The Grayburg Formation is overlain
by the Queen Formation, which is composed of
porous and nonporous sandstones and nonporous
peritidal dolomites. Two major depositional
sequences, Grayburg A (upper) and Grayburg B
(lower), were cored at the Moss unit. The bound-
ary between the two depositional sequences is an
interval that contains abundant fenestral wacke-
stone/packstones in the western part of the Moss
unit and unfossiliferous grainstone in the central
part of the field, but was not penetrated by our
easternmost cored well (6-20) (Figure 10). Lucia
and Ruppel (1996) and Ruppel and Lucia (1996)
described more high-frequency sequences in the
Grayburg and place the top of the Grayburg B high-
er in the 6-20 well than our study (Figure 6).
Grayburg A strata thin toward the west over the
structurally highest part of the field (Figure 10),
indicating that the current structural high at South
Cowden approximately corresponds to the Permian
depositional high. Depositional environments at
1532 Platform Dolomites: Porosity and Permeability

Figure 5—Structure map in depth

Well Variable Status

00
00
(feet) subsea on top of the

-1400
-1300

0
7
-1500
Dry Hole

- 16
0

0
0
-1
Grayburg Formation at the Moss

-120

-19

-200
00
Cored Well 41

8
unit, South Cowden field. Squares

-1
00
N

00
show cored wells used in this 42

-900

-11
-10
study. Contour interval is 100 ft Limits of
37 Moss Unit
(30 m). Location of seismic line
in Figure 6 and location of cross 21-16 45
section in Figure 10 are shown.
44 MIDLAND
BASIN
43
48
6-20 Seismic Line
47 4
CENTRAL 6-16
5
BASIN
PLATFORM 6
1 9-17
8-12
2
9
16-14 8
13-11 7 Oil/Water
Contact
13-6 12
11

17
Oil/Water
Contact 18 3000 ft

1000 m

South Cowden field also were generally shallower

or more restricted to the west, and deeper, more
open marine to the east and southeast (Figure 10)
(Lucia and Ruppel, 1996; Ruppel and Lucia, 1996).
The Grayburg B has facies that pass upward from
subtidal wackestones to shoal grainstones and tidal-
flat wackestones, which is consistent with shallow-
ing and eastward progradation into the basin. In
the western part of the field, caliche crusts near the
top of the Grayburg B indicate subaerial exposure
(Figure 7D). Open-marine facies (fusulinid wacke-
stone/packstone) are widespread in the transgres-
sive lower to middle part of the Grayburg A (Figure
10). The middle and upper parts of the Grayburg A
contain a variety of subtidal wackestones and shoal
grainstones, with depositional facies generally pro-
grading to the east. Tidal-flat facies were observed Figure 6—Segments of a three-dimensional seismic sur-
at the top of the Grayburg in the western and cen- vey that approximate a west-to-east profile through
most cored wells in the Moss unit, South Cowden field.
tral wells (Figure 10). Our distribution of deposi- See Figure 5 for location of seismic profile. Vertical scale
tional facies is generally similar to Lucia and Ruppel is in seconds of two-way traveltime.
(1996) and Ruppel and Lucia (1996). No distinct
soil- or exposure-related features were noted at the
top of the Grayburg; however, subaerial exposure
is suggested by onlap of overlying strata in the DIAGENESIS
Queen Formation and the presence of eolian sand-
stones in the Queen. In this paper, we concentrate Diagenesis has controlled porosity and perme-
on the Grayburg A to compare lateral trends in ability in the Clear Fork at North Riley field and the
porosity within a single sequence. Grayburg at South Cowden field, as well as at many
 Saller and Henderson 1533

Table 1. Main Facies Descriptions and Interpretations

Main Grain Type and Texture Dominant Sedimentary Structures Interpretation

1 Intraclast wackestone/packstone
2 Mudstone
3 Organic shale
4 Mudstone
5 Peloid wackestone/packstone
6 Bioclast-peloid wackestone/packstone
7 Fusulinid wackestone/packstone
8 Peloid or ooid packstone/grainstone
9 BioclastPackstone/grainstone
10 Peloid wackestone/
packstone/grainstone
11 Sandy-silty dolomite
Fenestral fabric; discontinuous, Upper intertidal to supratidal
crinkly laminations
1–10 mm parallel laminations Lower intertidal to restricted pond
Fissile Organic swamp
Irregular mottling Lower intertidal to tidal pond
Burrowed Slightly to moderately restricted
lagoon
Burrowed Open-marine shelf
Burrowed Open-marine shelf to upper slope
Cross-bedded or burrowed Cross-bedded = active shoal or
beach; burrowed = stabilized
grain flat
Cross-bedded or burrowed Cross-bedded = active shoal;
burrowed = stabilized grain flat
Burrowed Subtidal between fairweather and
storm wave base
Burrowed Subtidal adjacent to land

other Permian basin reservoirs. More than 90% of
the existing porosity is diagenetic (secondary),
being dominated by intercrystalline and moldic
pores (Figure 7).
Previous Studies
A number of previous studies have discussed dia-
genesis in Permian, especially San Andres,
dolomites in the subsurface of west Texas and
southeast New Mexico (Adams and Rhodes, 1960;
White, 1984; Leary and Vogt, 1986, 1990; Bebout et
al., 1987; Ruppel and Cander, 1988a, b; Longacre,
1990; Major and Holtz, 1990; Major et al., 1990;
Ruppel and Lucia, 1996). Dolomitization of
Permian basin carbonates by refluxing evaporative
brines was initially proposed by Adams and Rhodes
(1960). Subsequently, widespread replacive
dolomitization by seawater or evaporatively con-
centrated seawater has been proposed by many
workers, based on petrographic and geochemical
data (White, 1984; Bebout et al., 1987; Ruppel and
Cander, 1988a; Leary and Vogt, 1986, 1990).
Alteration and recrystallization of replacive
dolomites in the San Andres Formation have been
described by several workers, although criteria for
identification vary from paper to paper. In general,
altered dolomite occurs as irregular, light-colored
areas of higher porosity adjacent to darker, lower
porosity dolomite (Leary and Vogt, 1986, 1990;
Major and Holtz, 1990; Major et al., 1990; Ruppel
and Lucia, 1996). Dissolution of the middle of
dolomite crystals has been documented in some
altered dolomite (Leary and Vogt, 1986, 1990;
Ruppel and Cander, 1988b; Major et al., 1990;
Ruppel and Lucia, 1996). Altered dolomites have
distinctly lighter oxygen isotopic compositions
than adjacent “unaltered” dolomites (Leary and
Vogt, 1986, 1990; Major et al., 1990). Major et al.
(1990) proposed that the dissolved dolomite cores
originally were composed of isotopically heavier
and less stable dolomite. Leary and Vogt (1986,
1990) and Ruppel and Cander (1988b) suggested
that altered, porous dolomite may have undergone
leaching or recrystallization in meteoric water or
seawater at higher temperatures. Major et al.
(1990) and Major and Holtz (1997) noted that
altered dolomites were associated with stylolites,
and hence conclude that alteration was postburial.
Anhydrite has been described as replacive crys-
tals, nodules, and cements decreasing porosity in
many Permian dolomites, especially in tidal-flat
facies on depositional highs (Bebout et al., 1987;
Longacre, 1990; Lucia et al., 1990; Ruppel and
Lucia, 1996). Anhydrite cements overgrow dolo-
mite and fill dissolved cores of dolomites, indicat-
ing anhydrite cementation after dolomite precipita-
tion and dissolution (Major et al., 1990; Ruppel and
Lucia, 1996). Leary and Vogt (1990) associated
anhydrite precipitation with calcium released dur-
ing dolomitization. Ruppel and Cander (1988a, b)
interpreted anhydrite as forming during the late
Guadalupian when evaporatively concentrated sea-
water migrated down from overlying evaporite-rich
strata.
Anhydrite dissolution and associated calcite
cementation are described from some porous and
permeable parts of the San Andres and Grayburg
(White, 1984; Leary and Vogt, 1986, 1990; Ruppel
and Cander, 1988b; Longacre, 1990; Lucia and
Ruppel, 1996; Ruppel and Lucia, 1996). Leary and
1534 Platform Dolomites: Porosity and Permeability

A F

B
B G

C E H
Figure 7—Core photographs, thin-section photomicrographs, and SEM (scanning electron microscope) pho-
tographs of the Clear Fork Formation, North Riley (NR) field, and Grayburg Formation at South Cowden (SC) field.
(A) SEM photograph of dolomitized wackestone/packstone with intercrystalline porosity (NR well 272, 6856 ft; bar
scale at bottom is 100 µm long). (B) Dolomite in the middle Clear Fork with dolomoldic porosity (m) where the
middles of dolomite rhombs have been leached. Porosity appears black (NR well 232, 6977.5 ft, crossed nicols). (C)
SEM photograph showing dolomoldic porosity (m) where the interiors of dolomite crystals have been leached (NR
well 44R, 6825.2 ft; bar scale at bottom is 10 µm long). (D) Core photograph of layered dolomicrite (D = dolocrete)
in a fenestral wackestone/packstone (F) in the northwestern (landward) part of SC field. The layered dolomicrite
(dolocrete) is interpreted as a product of diagenesis in a paleosoil zone (well Moss 16-14, 4649 ft). (E) Dolomitized
fusulinid wackestone/packstone with many fusulinid molds (white arrows) and intercrystalline porosity. Open
fractures (black arrow) and vug (V) are present where anhydrite has been dissolved. Core is from the easternmost
(basinward) part of SC field in the zone of anhydrite dissolution (well Moss 6-20, 4856 ft). (F) Nonporous dolomi-
tized wackestone from the western (landward) part of the field (well Moss 13-6, 4667.2 ft; plane-polarized light). (G)
Nonporous, dolomitized grainstone with ooids (O). Intergranular pore spaces are filled with anhydrite cement
(white). The wide spacing of grains suggests dolomitization and anhydrite cementation prior to significant burial
(well Moss 6-20, 4570 ft; plane-polarized light). (H) Dolomitized fusulinid wackestone/packstone with substantial
intercrystalline porosity (well Moss 6-20, 4855 ft; plane-polarized light).

Tidal Flat
Central
Basin
Platform Burrowed
Bioclast-Peloid Mud
(Wackestone,
Packstone)
(Facies 6)
Algal Flats Burrowed Current - Laminated
(Wackestone, Peloid Mud Carbonate Sand
Packstone) (Mudstone, (Grainstone)
(Facies 1-4) Wackestone, (Facies 8 & 9)
Packstone)
(Facies 5)
Vogt (1986, 1990) and Ruppel and Lucia (1996)
noted these processes occurring near the original
oil/water contacts of oil fields. Based largely on
the geochemistry of associated calcite cements,
Leary and Vogt (1986, 1990) proposed that anhy-
drite dissolution and late calcite cementation
were the result of oxidation of hydrocarbons and
sulfate reduction involving bacter ia in late
Cenozoic meteoric waters. Lucia and Ruppel
(1996) and Ruppel and Lucia (1996) related much
of the porosity, permeability, and reservoir perfor-
mance at South Cowden to anhydrite alteration
and dissolution.
Petrography
The general sequence of diagenetic events that
we observed from petrographic relationships in
both oil fields includes (from earliest to latest) (1)
replacive dolomitization, (2) dissolution of some
calcium carbonate grains and matrix, (3) dolomite
cementation, (4) dissolution of dolomite, (5) pre-
cipitation of anhydrite cement and anhydrite nod-
ules, (6) silicification of some anhydrite, (7) for-
mation of stylolites, and (8) alter ation and
dissolution of anhydrite. Many of these processes
probably overlapped in time. This petrographic
history is similar to that determined by the previ-
ously mentioned studies of Permian dolomites.
Replacive dolomitization, early dissolution of cal-
cium carbonate, dissolution of dolomite, dolomite
Saller and Henderson 1535
Open Figure 8—General depositional
Lagoon Shoal Marine
model for the Clear Fork and
Grayburg formations [similar to
Galloway et al. (1983) and Bebout
et al. (1987)].
Basin
Burrowed Burrowed
Carbonate Sands Fusulinid-Peloid
(Packstone, Muds (Wackestone,
Grainstone) Packstone)
(Facies 8 & 9) (Facies 7)
cementation, anhydrite precipitation and dissolu-
tion, and compaction substantially alter porosity
and permeability.
Replacive Dolomitization
Depositional calcium carbonate (aragonite, high-
magnesium calcite, or low-magnesium calcite) has
been pervasively replaced by dolomite in the main
reservoir intervals. Dolomite crystals commonly
range in size from micritic to fine-cr ystalline
(<0.001–0.10 mm across). Replacive dolomite crys-
tals commonly have cloudy (inclusion-rich) cores
and relatively clear outer rims. Many fossil frag-
ments, peloids, and ooids were dolomitized (Figure
7G), but others were leached (Figure 7E). The
amount of intercrystalline porosity remaining in
the dolomitized micritic matrix is highly variable
(Figure 7). If the precursor limestone had porosity
similar to shallow Cenozoic limestones (20–50%)
(Enos and Sawatsky, 1981; Schmoker and Halley,
1982), replacive dolomitization probably decreased
porosity.
Dissolution of Calcium Carbonate
Dissolution of calcium carbonate created inter-
crystalline and moldic pores, which are the domi-
nant pore types in North Riley and South Cowden
dolomites. Some calcitic fossils, especially fusulin-
ids, are dissolved in many dolomites (Figure 7E). In
general, we cannot demonstrate petrographically
1536 Platform Dolomites: Porosity and Permeability

PLATFORM INTERIOR NORTH RILEY FIELD BASINWARD

SOUTH NORTH

NRU 357 NRU 337 NRU 294 NRU 272 NRU 44R NRU 232
1.6 km 1.6 km 0.9 km 1.0 km 0.3 km

TOP OF
MIDDLE
CLEAR
FORK
10%
20%

0%

10%
20%

0%

Tidal-Flat Facies ( 1 - 4 )

Peloid and Bioclast Wackestone/Packstone Facies ( 5, 6 )

10%
20%

0%

Fusulinid Wackestone/Packstone Facies ( 7 )

10%
20%

0%
Grainstone Facies ( 8, 9 )

10%
20%

0%
Not Cored Correlation line 5m
(often cycle top)

10%
20%

0%
Figure 9—Stratigraphic cross section of porosity in the main pay interval at North Riley field showing depositional
facies and core-measured porosity. Porosity greater than 5% is shaded. Note how porosity generally increases bas-
inward (to the right). See Figure 3 for location of wells on cross section. Datum is top of middle Clear Fork.

whether dissolution of grains occurred before, dur- Lear y and Vogt (1990), and Ruppel and Lucia
ing, or after dolomitization. (1996), some dolomolds are filled with anhydrite
indicating dolomite dissolution prior to anhydrite
cementation, suggesting that dolomite dissolution
Dolomite Cementation was a relatively early diagenetic event. Dolomoldic
Dolomite cements line molds of leached carbon- porosity may have formed by dissolution in fresh
ate grains, fractures, and intergranular pores in water or a mixing zone developed during a period
some grainstones (Figure 7G). Clear rims on some of Late Permian exposure, similar to dolomite disso-
replacive dolomite crystals also may be cements, lution observed in Pleistocene dolomites of the
but they are difficult to separate from the original Yucatan (Ward and Halley, 1985). The dolomoldic
replacive crystals. No baroque (saddle) dolomite porosity is more common off depositional highs,
(e.g., Radke and Mathis, 1980) was observed. suggesting that it is not simply related to freshwater
leaching.

Dissolution of Dolomite
In some parts of the Clear Fork and Grayburg Anhydrite
reservoirs, the interiors of dolomite crystals were Based on grain densities and petrographic esti-
leached, leaving porosity in the middle of dolomite mates, anhydrite constitutes 0–10% of most
crystals (Figure 7B, C). These are the “altered” dolomitic rocks at North Riley field and 0–20% of
dolomites discussed in previous studies. As previ- most dolomitic rocks at South Cowden field.
ously reported by Ruppel and Cander (1988b), Anhydrite occurs in three main forms: (1) pore-filling
 Saller and Henderson 1537

Table 2. Average Values for Middle Clear Fork Dolomites, North Riley Field

Average Number of δ13C δ18O

Depth Number of Permeability Porosity Isotope (‰) (‰)
Well (ft) Analyses (md) (%) Analyses (PDB) (PDB)
Basinward (North)
232 6857.5 n = 152 18.37 6.34 n=9 4.09 2.19
44R 6828.2 n = 144 1.14 5.25 n = 26 4.07 1.98
272 6803.4 n = 118 9.45 6.50 n=9 3.69 2.04
294 6777.0 n = 144 1.66 4.78 n=9 3.66 1.78
337 6759.1 n = 139 1.04 4.30
357 6707.4 n = 113 0.44 3.89 n=4 2.30 1.30
Landward (South)

cement, (2) coarse poikilotopic crystals, and (3)
replacive nodules. Anhydrite cements locally fill
fractures, pores within dolomite crystals, and inter-
granular pores in grainstones (Figure 7G). At North
Riley field, anhydrite is present in many porous
dolomites; many nonporous dolomites have little
anhydrite, which suggests that anhydrite precipita-
tion is not the only critical factor controlling poros-
ity. Based on grain densities and petrographic esti-
mates, landward and basinward wells at North
Riley field have similar quantities of anhydrite.
Dissolution of anhydrite was not observed at North
Riley field.
Anhydrite content is considered by Lucia and
Ruppel (1996) and Ruppel and Lucia (1996) to be a
critical factor in productivity at South Cowden;
however, anhydrite occurs in porous and non-
porous Grayburg dolomites, and many nonporous
dolomites contain little anhydrite (Figure 7F). Grain
densities were used to evaluate semiquantitatively
the amount of anhydrite in dolomites and its rela-
tionship to porosity (Table 3). Samples with signifi-
cant quantities of other minerals (sand, silt, clay,
organics, or gypsum) were excluded. Pure dolomite
in the Permian basin generally has grain densities of
2.81–2.84 g/cm3 (K. Hudson, 1997, personal com-
munication), and anhydrite has densities of 2.95–3.0
g/cm3; therefore, higher grain densities should indi-
cate more anhydrite. Grain density data confirm
that wells in the west and central parts of South
Cowden field have more anhydrite (Table 3). Lucia
and Ruppel (1996) and Ruppel and Lucia (1996)
noted that dissolution of anhydrite is a late burial
process that has substantially increased porosity in
eastern parts of South Cowden field.
Alteration of anhydrite to gypsum is volumetrical-
ly minor and apparently did not have a significant
effect on porosity and permeability in South
Cowden dolomites. Lucia and Ruppel (1996) also
indicated that alteration of anhydrite to gypsum did
not appear to have a large effect on the petrophysi-
cal properties of South Cowden dolomites; however,
Lucia and Ruppel (1996) and Ruppel and Lucia
(1996) indicated that alteration of anhydrite occurs
in intervals with generally higher porosity, perme-
ability, and production in South Cowden. Alteration
of anhydrite probably was localized in previously
porous and permeable intervals because those
intervals preferentially acted as conduits for mobile
subsurface waters that altered anhydrite.
Compaction
Compaction has affected these rocks from depo-
sition through deep burial. Stylolites (chemical
compaction) are more abundant in the more
deeply buried Clear Fork than in the Grayburg.
Stylolites truncate dolomite and anhydrite crystals,
but dolomite and anhydrite were not observed
overgrowing stylolites. Mechanical compaction of
grains and grain-to-grain pressure solution have sub-
stantially decreased intergranular porosity in grain-
stones lacking intergranular anhydrite cement.
Mechanical and chemical compaction during burial
has reduced porosity in most Clear Fork limestones
at North Riley to less than 2%, but has been much
less effective in reducing porosity in dolomites.
Stable Isotope Results
The stable carbon and oxygen isotope composi-
tions of dolomites at Nor th Rile y and South
Cowden fields provide insight into their genesis
and porosity development. Stable isotopic compo-
sitions of bulk rock samples in the Clear Fork of
North Riley field are shown in Table 2 and Figure
11. Stable carbon and oxygen isotopic composi-
tions of Grayburg dolomites at the Moss unit are
shown in Table 3 and Figure 12. At South
Cowden, stable carbon and oxygen isotopic com-
positions of dolomites are generally lighter
(lower) in samples with higher porosity (Figure
13) and in a basinward (eastward) direction
1538 Platform Dolomites: Porosity and Permeability

PLATFORM INTERIOR MIDLAND BASIN

WEST South Cowden Field EAST

13-11 13-6 9-17 16-14 8-12 6-16 6-20

0.5 km 1.8 km 0.9 km 1.0 km 1.0 km 0.5 km
4500

TOP GRAYBURG

Grayburg “A” 4500

4450
4500

4600
4500
4500
4600

4600
4550 4600

Top
Gray 4700
4600 burg
"B" 4600
4700

4700
4650 4700
Grayburg “B”

Anhydrite Dissolution
4700 4800
4700
4800
Facies

Base

Top G
Facies
Grayburg "B"
Facies

4800

Facies

raybu
20%

10%

0%
Facies

4750
20%

10%

0%

4800

0%
20%

10%
POROSITY

rg
Facies

POROSITY

Facies
"B"
POROSITY
4800 4900

0%
20%

10%
20%

10%

0%

4800
10 m
20%

0%
10%
4900
20%

POROSITY
10%

0%

POROSITY

POROSITY POROSITY

Sandy/Silty Dolomite Not Cored Fenestral Wackestone/Packstone Burrowed Wackestone/Packstone/Grainstone

Peloid and/or Bioclast Wackestone/Packstone Fusulinid Wackestone/Packstone Grainstone

Figure 10—Stratigraphic cross section of porosity in the Grayburg Formation at the Moss unit, South Cowden field,
showing depositional facies and core-measured porosity. Porosity greater than 5% is shaded. Note how porosity
generally increases basinward (to the right) in the Grayburg A. Correlation lines between wells are not necessarily
cycle tops. See Figure 5 for location of wells on cross section. Datum is top of Grayburg except in well 6-20.

(Table 3). Results of analyses of adjacent porous/ wackestone/packstones) are present in many of the
nonporous samples are shown in Table 4. North Riley and South Cowden dolomites. Seawater
in the restricted lagoons could have been concentrat-
ed by evaporation, forming dense dolomitizing
Environment of Dolomitization brines that infiltrated downward through the under-
lying sediment. The abundance of anhydrite, an evap-
In our study, replacive dolomitization by oritic mineral, in these dolomites supports the inter-
ref luxing evaporatively concentrated seawater preted movement of saline brines through these
moving through the sediment shortly after depo- strata. Our stable carbon and oxygen isotopic results
sition is suggested by (1) petrographic relation- are similar to the results of previous studies of other
ships, (2) depositional environments, (3) evapo- Permian San Andres and Grayburg dolomites, and
r itic minerals, and (4) stable isotope data. our interpretations are similar to previous interpreta-
Petrographic relationships indicate that replacive tions of dolomite precipitation at near-surface tem-
dolomitization was an early diagenetic phase pre- peratures from evaporatively concentrated seawater
cipitating prior to significant compaction and (Leary and Vogt, 1986, 1990; Ruppel and Cander,
anhydrite cementation. Depositional facies char- 1988a, b; Major et al., 1990).
acteristic of restricted lagoonal and tidal-flat envi- Assuming Permian marine calcite cements have
ronments (peloidal wackestones and fenestral a δ 18 O composition of –2.8‰ (PDB) (Given and
Table 3. South Cowden (Moss Unit), Average Porosity and Permeability by Grain Density*

Mean Grain No. of δ13C δ18O

Grain Density** (g/cm3) Density** Isotope (PDB) (PDB)
2.83 2.84 2.85 2.86 2.87 2.88 Total† (g/cm3) Samples (‰) (‰)
Platform Interior (West)
13-11 n = 15 n=9 n = 20 n = 29 n = 26 n = 13 n = 140 n = 129 20 5.9 3.8
4% 6.2% 5.6% 6.3% 6.0% 5.1% 5.5% 2.860
0.15 md 0.22 md 0.27 md 0.35 md 0.34 md 0.34 md 0.27 md

13-6 n=7 n=9 n = 11 n = 18 n = 14 n=6 n = 89 n = 68

5.99% 6.06% 5.74% 5.65% 5.81% 4.53% 5.51% 2.858
0.02 md 0.13 md 0.05 md 0.07 md 0.06 md 0.03 md 0.05 md

9-17 n=5 n = 22 n = 23 n = 32 n = 23 n = 25 n = 184 n = 143

3.3% 4.15% 5.27% 5.52% 4.86% 4.94% 5% 2.860
0.06 md 0.07 md 0.1 md 0.15 md 0.13 md 0.19 md 0.17 md

16-14 n = 14 n = 15 n = 25 n = 29 n = 14 n=8 n = 150 n = 122 24 5.9 3.5

5.23 % 4.98% 5.25% 5.52% 3.97% 4.25% 5.04% 2.855
0.05 md 0.05 md 0.04 md 0.09 md 0.05 md 0.06 md 0.06 md

8-12 n = 22 n = 28 n = 26 n = 20 n = 21 n = 19 n = 173 n = 144 6 5.7 3.5

6.43% 6.26% 6.66% 5.5% 5.14% 5.3% 5.8% 2.856
0.76 md 0.41 md 0.33 md 0.27 md 0.14 md 0.27 md 0.346 md

6-16 n = 20 n = 37 n = 59 n = 34 n = 15 n=8 n = 218 n = 178

8.71% 8.09% 10.3% 9.35% 8.58% 8.3% 9.0% 2.852
0.98 md 0.57 md 3.45 md 2.57 md 1.34 md 1.04 md 2.33 md

6-20 above
4785 ft n = 52 n = 68 n = 26 n = 16 n = 11 n=7 n = 213 n = 182 14 5.1 2.7
10.7% 9.9% 9.6% 8.3% 5.8% 5.8% 9.5% 2.844
9.13 md 2.06 md 0.50 md 2.16 md 0.07 md 0.05 md 4.9 md

6-20 below
4785 ft†† n = 48 n = 21 n=2 n = 94 n = 88 5 4.6 1.9
13.9% 12.6% 12.5% 13.4% 2.831
35.1 md 14.9 md 11.0 md 29.7 md
Basinward (East)
*n = number of samples.
**Excludes sandy, silty, shaly, and gypsum-rich samples.
Saller and Henderson

†Total includes rocks with other densities.

††Samples below 4785 ft in the 6-20 well are in the zone of anhydrite dissolution.
1539
 1540 Platform Dolomites: Porosity and Permeability
CLEAR FORK DOLOMITES, NORTH RILEY FIELD
5 waters would have logically flowed into more nor-
4 waters and more basinward dolomites. We are not
δ 13C (/oo, PDB)
3 The precise timing of dolomitization of Permian
North - Basinward
2 temporaneous dolomitization, whereas Ruppel and
NRU 232
NRU 44R
NRU 272
1 NRU 294
NRU 357
South - Platform Interior
0
-1 0 1 2 3
δ O(
18
, PDB)
Figure 11—Plot of stable isotope results for the middle
Clear Fork Formation in North Riley field. Distinctly
lower δ 13 C and δ 18 O values are apparently related to
meteoric diagenesis during subaerial exposure. See Fig-
ure 3 for location of wells.
Lohmann, 1985) and dolomite has a 3–4‰ enrich-
ment in 1 8 O relative to calcite (Land, 1980),
dolomites precipitated from near-surface Permian
seawater should have δ 1 8 O compositions of
approximately 0.2–1.2‰ (PDB). Because most of
the Clear Fork and Grayburg dolomites have δ18O
values greater than 1.2‰ (PDB), precipitation
probably was from evaporatively concentrated
seawater that had δ18O values greater than seawa-
ter (Lloyd, 1966). The relatively consistent oxygen
isotope compositions of replacive Clear Fork
dolomites (standard deviation of 0.6‰) (Figure 11)
suggest that dolomite cementation or recrystalliza-
tion at elevated temperatures during deeper burial
was minor. Lower δ 18 O and δ 13 C values occur in
updip wells or near the top of middle Clear Fork,
where recrystallization in meteoric water probably
resulted in lower δ18O and δ13C values (Allan and
Wiggins, 1993).
Stable oxygen isotopic compositions in the
Grayburg Formation are variable, supporting
dolomitization in more than one type of water or
more than one temperature. The most basinward
well (6-20) has the lightest isotopic compositions
(mean δ 1 8 O = 2.5‰), and the most platform-
interior well (13-11) has the heaviest (mean δ18O =
3.8‰) (Figure 12). That trend may have been
caused by precipitation of basinward dolomites in
more normal (less evaporated) seawater or at high-
er temperatures during burial. We prefer the pre-
cipitation of basinward dolomites in more normal
(less evaporated) seawater interpretation because
ref luxing evaporatively concentrated lagoonal
mal seawater of the open Midland basin, resulting
in lower δ13C and δ18O values in more basinward
sure why basinward areas should contain more
burial dolomite.
carbonates in the Permian basin has been debated.
Leary and Vogt (1986, 1990) argued for penecon-
Cander (1988a, b) argued for a second major stage of
replacive dolomite in early and middle Guadalupian
strata associated with late Guadalupian evaporite
deposition. We prefer the interpretation of Leary
and Vogt (1986, 1990), that most dolomitization
4 probably occurred shortly after deposition, for sev-
eral reasons. (1) Most depositional fabrics show lit-
tle evidence of compaction prior to dolomitization,
suggesting dolomitization prior to moderate or
deep burial. (2) If dolomitization followed substan-
tial burial, it might be difficult to get dolomitizing
fluids throughout the formation in sufficient vol-
umes to cause complete dolomitization of a plat-
form. (3) Significant burial would result in elevated
temperatures that should cause the stable oxygen
isotopes of dolomites precipitated during burial to
be lighter than observed values.
POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY IN PLATFORM
DOLOMITES
Porosity and permeability in Clear Fork and
Grayburg dolomites are heterogeneous due to
cyclic deposition and lateral changes of deposition-
al environments and diagenesis (similar to Kerans
et al., 1994). Samples less than 3 cm apart can vary
in porosity by 3 to 28% (Table 4).
North Riley Field
Carbonate in the middle and upper Clear Fork at
North Riley field has been pervasively dolomitized,
yet porosity is quite heterogeneous. Porosity mea-
sured on full-diameter core samples ranges from
0.5 to 22%, and permeability ranges from less than
0.01 to 100 md (Figure 14). An average of approxi-
mately 90 m (300 ft) of porous dolomite (porosity
>4%) is present in the 300-m- (1000-ft-) thick Clear
Fork section at North Riley field. Reservoir porosity
occurs in 1–9-m (3–30-ft) thick intervals that are
stratigraphically very discontinuous. Porosities of
4–15% and permeabilities of 0.1–20 md are typical
in pay intervals. Most oil in North Riley field has
been produced from a 60–90 m (200–300 ft) (gross
thickness) main pay interval in the middle Clear
 Saller and Henderson 1541

Grayburg Dolomite Figure 12—Plot of stable isotope

results for the Grayburg
South Cowden Field Formation in the Moss unit, South
7 Cowden field. Generally lower
δ13C and δ18O values occur in
more eastern (basinward) wells.
See Figure 5 for location of wells.

6
δ 13C (/oo, PDB)

West - Platform Interior

MOSS 13-11
4 MOSS 16-14
MOSS 8-12
MOSS 6-20: <4785
MOSS 6-20: >4785

East - Platform Margin

3
1 2 3 4 5
δ O (o/oo, PDB)
18

Fork. Porous and nonporous dolomites occur in all
depositional facies, although grainstones generally
have greater porosity and permeability, and fenes-
tral packstones and associated tidal-flat rocks have
lower porosity and permeability. Porosity and per-
meability increase toward the north, away from the
Clear Fork depositional high in the southern part of
North Riley field (Figures 9, 14; Table 2). In the
main pay interval, the southernmost cored well
(357) has an average porosity of 3.9% and average
permeability of 0.44 md (Table 2). The main pay
interval in the northernmost cored well (232) has
an average porosity of 6.4% and average permeabil-
ity of 18.4 md (Table 2).
South Cowden Field
Porosity and permeability in the Grayburg
Formation in South Cowden field are also very
heterogeneous. Porosity ranges from 0.2 to 20%,
and core permeability ranges from less than 0.01
to 200 md (Figure 15). Dolomites in zones of late
anhydrite dissolution have been separated in tabu-
lated data and figures to isolate the effects of that
late dissolution on porosity and permeability.
Porosity and permeability are greatest in the east-
ern part of the field, and are distinctly less in the
central to western part of the field (Figures 10, 15;
Table 3). Porosity is not strictly facies dependent
(Table 5). Fusulinid wackestone/packstones
(facies 7) in the easternmost cored well (6-20)
have an average porosity of 9.7%, whereas fusulin-
id wackestone/packstones in western wells (13-
11, 9-17, 16-14) have an average porosity of 4–5%
(Table 5).
Porosity zones cut across stratigraphy and depo-
sitional facies, especially in the eastern part of the
field (Figure 10) (Lucia and Ruppel, 1996; Ruppel
and Lucia, 1996). Intercrystalline porosity is the
dominant pore type. Intercrystalline pore sizes and
permeability are related to crystal size (similar to
Lucia, 1995) and are variable. Permeability trends
are similar to porosity with western wells (13-11,
13-6, 9-17, 16-14), having average permeabilities of
0.11–0.27 md, whereas eastern, more basinward
wells 6-16 and 6-20 (excluding the zone of anhy-
drite leaching) have average permeabilities of 2.4
and 4.9 md, respectively (Table 3). The interval
with leached anhydrite in the 6-20 well has even
higher porosity (average of 13.4%) and permeabili-
ty (average of 29.7 md).
1542 Platform Dolomites: Porosity and Permeability

Figure 13—Plot of porosity vs.

stable isotope composition in the
Grayburg Dolomites, Moss Unit, Cowden Field
Moss unit, South Cowden field.
In general, δ13C and δ18O values 7
decrease with increasing δ13C
MOSS 13-11
porosity. Correlation coefficient MOSS 16-14
(r) for δ13C vs. porosity is 0.41. 6 MOSS 8-12
Correlation coefficient (r) for MOSS 21-16
δ18O vs. porosity is 0.54. Both are MOSS 6-20: (<4785)

δ13C - δ18O (o/oo, PDB)

MOSS 6-20: (>4785)
statistically valid correlations at
5
the 95% confidence level. See
Figure 5 for location of wells. δ18O
MOSS 13-11
MOSS 16-14
4
MOSS 8-12
MOSS 21-16
MOSS 6-20: (<4785)
MOSS 6-20: (>4785)
3

1
0% 5% 10 % 15 % 20 % 25 %
Porosity

A general increase in porosity and permeability Table 4. Stable Isotope Compositions, Porosity, and
in a basinward direction is still present at South Permeability of Adjacent Samples*
Cowden after the effects of anhydrite precipita-
tion and dissolution are excluded. Excluding the Depth Por Perm δ13C δ18O
zone of anhydrite dissolution, porosity increases Well (ft) (%) (md) (‰) (‰)
and anhydrite decreases toward the east in the North Riley
Moss unit (Table 3); however, data in Table 3 and NRU 44R 6661.4 18.9 27.0 4.2 2.1
Figures 16 and 17 indicate that a general increase NRU 44R 6661.5 1.1 <0.05 4.3 3.1
in porosity in dolomites is also independent of NRU 44R 6701.0 10.6 <0.05 3.9 1.7
the amount of anhydrite in samples. Dolomite NRU 44R 6701.1 1.1 <0.05 4.2 2.7
samples with the same approximate amount of NRU 44R 6820.0 29.1 13.0 4.4 1.8
anhydrite (as shown by grain density) have gener- NRU 44R 6820.1 1.1 <0.05 4.4 2.4
ally higher porosity in a basinward direction NRU 44R 6825.2 20.6 0.20 4.5 1.9
(Table 3; Figure 16); furthermore, many individu- NRU 44R 6825.4 1.8 <0.05 4.5 2.6
al wells show no relationship between amount of NRU 44R 6833.9 14.2 4.9 4.4 2.5
NRU 44R 6833.7 7.1 <0.05 4.5 3.0
anhydrite (as shown by grain density) and porosi- South Cowden
ty (Figure 17). These findings suggest that the 16-14 4517 5.9 nd 5.6 2.6
major trends in dolomite porosity at South 16-14 4517 2.8 nd 5.5 3.8
Cowden were imparted during early replacive 16-14 4533 8.9 nd 5.6 1.9
dolomitization, and that later diagenesis only 16-14 4533 4.4 nd 5.6 2.7
accentuated those porosity and permeability vari-
*Por = porosity, Perm = permeability, δ13C and δ18O are in ‰ PDB, nd =
ations. Anhydr ite has been impor tant as a no data.
cement, filling intergranular porosity in grain-
stones (samples with grain densities of 2.87 and
2.88 g/cm 3 in the 6-20 well in Figure 16), but
replacive nodular and poikilotopic anhydrite have Discussion
not been factors controlling porosity in most
wackestones and packstones. As Lucia and Excellent discussions of factors important to
Ruppel (1996) suggested, replacive nodular and variations in porosity in dolomites are found in
poikilotopic anhydrite had only a minor effect on Purser et al. (1994), Lucia and Major (1994), and
porosity and permeability at South Cowden. Sun (1995). Porosity can be created or destroyed
 Saller and Henderson 1543

1000 Figure 14—Plots of permeability

vs. porosity for the middle Clear
Northern North Riley (Basinward) Fork in cored wells at North
Riley field.
100
Permeability (md)

10

NRU 232
.1
NRU 44R
NRU 272

.01
0 5 10 15 20 25
Porosity (%)

1000
Southern North Riley (Landward)
100
Permeability (md)

10

NRU 294
.1 NRU 337
NRU 357

0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25
Porosity (%)

during dolomitization depending on the chemistry where solid volume decreases by 12%.
of the dolomitizing waters. Volumetric changes
( )2
associated with dolomitization can be represented
by two different (end-member) equations (similar CaCO3 + Mg 2 + + CO23 − → CaMg CO3 (2)
to Weyl, 1960; Sun, 1995).
where solid volume increases by 75%.
2CaCO3 + Mg 2+
(
→ CaMg CO3 )2 + Ca 2+
(1)
Dolomitization by equation 1 would cause a vol-
ume decrease of approximately 12%, resulting in
1544 Platform Dolomites: Porosity and Permeability

South Cowden more porosity (Weyl, 1960). Dolomitization by

1000 equation 2 would result in a volume increase of
Western Wells approximately 75%, greatly reducing porosity.
(Platform Interior) Dolomitization requires large amounts of magne-
100 sium, hence good circulation of magnesium-rich
water. If seawater is the source of magnesium
(Mg2+), CO32– can usually also enter the dolomitiz-
Permeability (md)

10
ing system allowing equation 2. The amount of
CO 3 2– and efficiency of the dolomitizing system
1
determine which equation will dominate (Weyl,
1960; Lucia and Major, 1994). Most natural dolomi-
tizing systems probably work with a combination
0.1 MOSS 13-11
of the two equations. After a limestone is complete-
MOSS 13-6 ly dolomitized, waters supersaturated with respect
to dolomite can continue to flow through the car-
.01 bonate rock, allowing precipitation of additional
0 5 10 15 20 25 dolomite, which decreases porosity (overdolomiti-
Porosity (%)
zation of Schmoker and Halley, 1982; Lucia and
1000 Major, 1994; Sun, 1995).
Central Wells Porosity in these Clear Fork and Grayburg
dolomites could have formed by dissolution in one
100 of four general environments: (1) evaporatively
concentrated seawater penecontemporaneous
dolomitization, (2) fresh water moving through
Permeability (md)

10 partially dolomitized strata during times of subaeri-

al exposure, (3) moderate to deep burial, with
1
acidic waters being expelled from adjacent forma-
tions (basinal siltstones, sandstones, and mud-
stones), or (4) dissolution of evaporites by deep
0.1 MOSS 9-17
meteoric water. Because dolomitization involves
MOSS 16-14 the dissolution of calcium carbonate and precipita-
MOSS 8-12 tion of dolomite, dolomitizing solutions must be
.01
undersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate
0 5 10 15 20 25 and supersaturated with respect to dolomite (Sun,
Porosity (%)
1995). Because dolomitization is interpreted as
1000 occurring in evaporatively concentrated seawater,
Eastern Wells (Basinward) it is logical to propose that dissolution also
occurred in those waters. Dissolution by evapora-
100 tively concentrated seawater has been described by
Sun (1992) and is our preferred explanation for the
origin of most porosity in the Clear Fork and
Permeability (md)

10 Grayburg dolomites studied here. None of the

other mechanisms explain petrographic features,
stable isotopic data, and the distribution of porosity
1
as well.
Two relationships suggest that leaching by
0.1
meteoric water during subaerial exposure was not
MOSS 6-16
MOSS 6-20 (<4785) a major factor contributing to the development of
MOSS 6-20 (>4785) porosity in the North Riley or South Cowden
0.01 reservoirs. First, porosity in dolomites 0–10 m
0 5 10 15 20 25 below major exposure surfaces (top-middle Clear
Porosity (%) Fork, top Grayburg A, top Grayburg B) is not sub-
stantially higher than surrounding dolomites
Figure 15—Plots of permeability vs. porosity for the
Grayburg A in cored wells in the Moss unit, South
(Figures 9, 10). Second, dolomites are generally
Cowden field. less porous on the depositional highs where sub-
aerial exposure and meteoric diagenesis would
have gone on longer dur ing sea level drops.
Although porosity does not increase in association
 Saller and Henderson 1545

Table 5. Avearage Porosity in Depositional Facies by Well, Grayburg A, Moss Unit, South Cowden Field*

West (Landward) East (Basinward)

Well 6-20 Well 6-20
Well Well Well Well Well Well Above Below
13-11 13-6 9-17 16-14 8-12 6-16 4785 ft 4785 ft**
Facies 1 n=7 n=7 n=3
3.2% 3.6% 4.3%
Facies 5 n = 97 n = 38 n = 100 n = 77 n = 63 n = 50 n = 48
5.9% 6.8% 5.0% 5.0% 5.5% 11.2% 10.5%

Facies 6 n = 21 n = 21 n=5 n = 11 n = 12 n=8

4.7% 5.0% 6.1% 5.0% 11.2% 7.7%
Facies 7 n=4 n = 20 n = 23 n = 58 n = 106 n = 96 n = 94
4.2% 4.0% 4.8% 7.1% 7.6% 9.7% 13.4%
Facies 8 n=3 n = 10 n=7 n = 16 n = 26 n = 33 n = 38
4.6% 3.8% 3.8% 4.4% 4.6% 8.6% 7.4%
Facies 10 n=5 n = 20 n = 19 n = 14 n = 11 n=7 n=6
3.8% 4.2% 5.4% 4.7% 4.5% 7.8% 13.6%
Facies 11 n=3 n = 14 n = 14 n = 15 n=4 n=5 n = 17
7.3% 5.8% 6.5% 6.3% 6.7% 11.5% 9.7%

Total n = 140 n = 89 n = 184 n = 150 n = 173 n = 218 n = 213 n = 94

5.5% 5.5% 5.0% 5.0% 5.8% 9.0% 9.5% 13.4%
*n = number of samples (generally 1/ft); See Table 1 for description of facies.
**Samples below 4785 ft in the 6-20 well are in the zone of anhydrite dissolution.

with the subaerial exposure at the middle Clear
Fork sequence boundary at North Riley, permeabil-
ity apparently does. The interval around that
sequence boundary has small open fractures and
takes large quantities of injection water, indicating
a thief zone with high permeability. The open frac-
tures cut across early diagenetic features, suggest-
ing the fractures have a later burial origin and prob-
ably formed by differential compaction associated
with lithification during subaerial exposure.
Dissolution of dolomite, which could be deeper
burial in origin, created some porosity in the Clear
Fork and Grayburg formations; however, dissolu-
tion of dolomite is not the main volumetric control
on porosity. In some small areas of altered dolomite
(approximately 1–5 cm across), porosity within
dolomite crystals is substantial (up to 10% of a
given sample); however, that “dolomoldic” porosi-
ty is minor in both formations as a whole. Data in
Ruppel and Lucia (1996, their figure 7) indicated
intervals with “altered” dolomite (which contain
the leached dolomite) constitute less than 20% of
the porous section in South Cowden wells; there-
fore, porosity possibly formed by late dissolution of
dolomite is considered to be minor in the reservoir
as a whole.
Anhydrite dissolution occurred near and below
the oil/water contact in the easternmost part of
South Cowden field (6-20 well and wells along
trend in adjacent units), apparently in response to a
period of late dissolution (Lucia and Ruppel, 1996;
Ruppel and Lucia, 1996); however, anhydrite disso-
lution is not widespread enough to explain the gen-
eral basinward increase in porosity at South
Cowden (Figure 10). Anhydritic dolomites adjacent
to the leached areas have relatively high porosity
and permeability, suggesting that even the lower
part of the 6-20 well had substantial porosity and
permeability prior to anhydrite dissolution.
Although other mechanisms are possible, avail-
able data strongly suggest anhydrite dissolution at
South Cowden involved late Cenozoic meteoric
waters. Six calcite samples associated with anhy-
drite dissolution at South Cowden have δ13C com-
positions of –18.4 to –21.3‰ (PDB) and δ18O com-
positions of –8.7 to –9.2‰ (PDB). These isotopic
values are similar to those of Leary and Vogt (1986,
1990) for calcites associated with anhydrite dissolu-
tion in the San Andres in fields to the nor th.
Assuming modern formation temperatures (43°C;
110°F), water precipitating the calcites would have
a δ 1 8 O composition of approximately –3.3‰
(SMOW) [using equation from Friedman and O’Neil
(1977)]. Formation waters from the San Andres
Formation near Andrews, Texas [60 km (37.26 mi)
north of South Cowden], have δ18O compositions
of –5.9 to –7.6‰ (SMOW) and are interpreted to be
saline meteoric waters (rainwater that dissolved
upper Permian salt) recharged during the late
Cenozoic from southeast New Mexico (A.M.
1546 Platform Dolomites: Porosity and Permeability

West East Figure 16—Plots of porosity in dolomites and anhydritic

dolomites in South Cowden (Moss unit) wells according
20
to grain density. Similar grain densities indicate similar
Grain Density = 2.83 g/cm3 amounts of anhydrite. Higher grain densities indicate a
15
higher percentage of anhydrite relative to dolomite.
Porosity (%)

Horizontal bars show average values. See Figure 5 for

location of wells.
10

5
Stueber, 1996, personal communication). Pre-
cursor saline connate waters have δ18O composi-
0 tions of approximately +5‰ (A. M. Stueber, 1996,
personal communication); therefore, stable oxygen
20 isotopic compositions suggest that anhydrite disso-
Grain Density = 2.84 g/cm3
lution and calcite precipitation took place in a mix-
ture of approximately 70% meteoric water and 30%
15 saline connate water. The light stable carbon iso-
Porosity (%)

topic compositions of the calcites require an organ-

ic source of carbon. Leary and Vogt (1986, 1990)
10 proposed that similar carbon isotopes in late cal-
cites were derived from sulfate reduction involving
5
hydrocarbons and bacteria. We support a similar
mechanism at South Cowden, with the meteoric
More Anhydrite

groundwaters supplying bacteria to mediate sulfate

0 reduction.
Regional groundwater data suggest that meteoric
20 water is flowing through the San Andres/Grayburg
Grain Density = 2.85 g/cm3 interval from outcrops in southeast New Mexico to
the northern Central Basin platform (Dutton and
15 Orr, 1986). A. M. Stueber (1996, personal commu-
Porosity (%)

nication) found saline meteoric waters in the upper

San Andres Formation at Blackwatch field (near
10
North Riley field) at the north end of the Central
Basin platform and in the middle-to-upper San
5 Andres on the eastern margin of the Central Basin
platform near Andrews, Texas [60 km (37 mi) south
of Blackwatch field and 60 km (37 mi) north of
0 South Cowden]. That aquifer trend apparently con-
tinues to the south to South Cowden field. Actively
20 circulating waters that interfinger with the margins
Grain Density = 2.86 g/cm3 of South Cowden field would explain observed
variations in the elevation of the oil/water contact.
15
Porosity (%)

10 Model for Porosity Distribution in Platform

Dolomites

5 At North Riley and South Cowden fields, dolomi-

tization apparently occurred in refluxing saline
brines that flowed from platform-interior lagoons
0 toward the basin. That trend coincides with porosi-
13-11 13-6 9-17 16-14 8-12 6-16 6-20
ty increasing toward the platform margin (Figures
Platform Average Basin 9, 10). Variations in carbonate saturation in differ-
Interior
ent parts of the dolomitizing system should cause
differences in the amount of dolomite precipitated,
which should, in tur n, cause differences in
dolomite porosity. Ref luxing waters would be
 Saller and Henderson 1547

greatly supersaturated with respect to dolomite in 25

proximal parts of the dolomitizing system; hence Moss 13-11
much dolomite should precipitate there. After pre-
cipitation of dolomite in proximal parts of the sys- 20

Porosity (%)
tem, the dolomitizing waters would be less super-
saturated with respect to dolomite in distal parts of 15
the refluxing system, and thus less dolomite would
precipitate there (Figure 18). After replacive
dolomitization is complete, waters supersaturated 10
with respect to dolomite may continue to f low
through the dolomite, precipitating more dolomite 5
(i.e., dolomite cement), further decreasing porosi-
ty, similar to the “overdolomitization” of Schmoker
and Halley (1982). The result of both processes 0
should be less porosity in proximal (lagoonal) por- 2.7 2.75 2.8 2.85 2.9 2.95
tions of the system and more porosity in distal (bas- More Anhydrite
inward) portions of the system. 25
Variations in stable carbon and oxygen isotopic Moss 6-16
compositions of South Cowden dolomites support
20
this model. Lighter stable isotopes generally occur in

more porous and more basinward dolomites at South
Cowden (Figure 13). Higher δ18O and δ13C composi-
tions would be expected in proximal (platform-
interior, westward) parts of a reflux dolomitizing
system (Lloyd, 1966), whereas distal (basinward)
parts of the dolomitizing system could have a mix-
ture of evaporatively concentrated seawater and
normal seawater, resulting in lower δ18O and δ13C
compositions (see Figure 18). Two alternative
explanations for the isotopic data are (1) early, iso-
topically heavy dolomite (higher δ18O values) was
selectively dissolved in more porous dolomites,
lowering the δ18O of the remaining dolomite, and
(2) more burial dolomite that precipitated at a high-
er temperature is present in porous, basinward
dolomites, lowering their δ18O values (ideas pro-
posed by Major et al., 1990). Those two alternate
explanations have difficulties explaining trends in
δ13C. There is no obvious reason why later dissolu-
tion should preferentially remove δ 13 C in basin-
ward dolomites, nor why burial dolomite should
have consistently lighter carbon isotopes than an
early dolomite. Paired isotope samples suggest that
later dolomite rims have δ13C values similar to the
cores of the dolomite crystals. Similar isotopic
trends were not observed in North Riley dolomites
because the isotopic difference between evapora-
tive waters and seawater was not as great in that
system, and alteration related to subaerial exposure
caused lighter isotopic compositions in proximal
parts of the system.
Lower porosity in the proximal par ts of
dolomitizing systems and higher porosity in the
distal part of dolomitizing systems have been rec-
ognized by other workers (Purser et al., 1994).
Lucia and Major (1994) concluded that dolomitiza-
tion in Pliocene–Pleistocene carbonates on the
island of Bonaire occurred in refluxing evaporative
Porosity (%)
15
10
5
0
2.7 2.75 2.8 2.85 2.9 2.95
Grain Density (g/cm3)
Figure 17—Plots of porosity vs. grain density for a land-
ward well at South Cowden (Moss 13-11) and a basin-
ward well (Moss 6-16). Note that porosity does not
increase substantially with lower grain densities (less
anhydrite) within wells; however, the basinward well
(6-16) has slightly less anhydrite and substantially more
porosity than the landward well (13-11). See Figure 5 for
location of wells.
brines, and less porosity was present in updip
dolomites than downdip dolomites (near the lime-
stone/dolomite transition). Lower porosity in prox-
imal (updip) parts of the dolomitizing system was
attributed to more dolomite cement growing on
the original replacement dolomite (Lucia and
Major, 1994). Sun (1995) expanded the conclusions
of Lucia and Major (1994), and mentioned similar
porosity distributions in association with dolomite
reservoirs. Sun (1995) explained that evaporative
tidal-flat dolomites had less porosity than adjacent
subtidal dolomites due to overdolomitization, or
excess dolomite precipitation in proximal parts of
the system. Our interpretations support many of
the ideas proposed by Sun (1995). Aissaoui et al.
1548 Platform Dolomites: Porosity and Permeability
Figure 18—Model for
dolomitization and
porosity development
PLATFORM
in carbonate platforms INTERIOR
dolomitized by refluxing
brines generated by
evaporation of seawater in HYPERSALINE WATERS
restricted lagoons [similar HIGHLY SUPERSATURATED
WITH DOLOMITE
to Adams and Rhodes
(1960) and Lucia and
Major (1994)].
Nonporous Dolomite
Much Dolomite Precipitated
Reducing Porosity
Dolomitizing Waters
(1986) proposed that dolomites in the subsurface
of Mururoa Atoll, French Polynesia, formed in sea-
water circulating through the atoll from the open
ocean toward the lagoon. In general, Aissaoui et al.
(1986) found lower porosities in dolomites at the
seaward edge of the atoll and more porous
dolomites near the lagoon; therefore, porosity is
again lowest in proximal parts of the dolomitizing
system and highest in distal parts of the system
(Aissaoui et al., 1986; Purser, 1991).
Effects of Porosity and Permeability
Distribution on Production
Lateral variations in reservoir rocks had a minor
impact on initial potential production rates, but had
a profound impact on ultimate oil recovery at North
Riley and South Cowden fields. The existing struc-
tures at North Riley and South Cowden fields
(Figures 3, 5) were mainly the result of differential
compaction over deeper structures, which also
influenced Permian deposition and early diagenesis.
Both fields were initially developed on 16.2 ha
(40 ac) well spacing. At North Riley, the original
wells in the porous northern, basinward, and
downdip part of the field (area between wells 272
and 232) generally had initial potential production
rates of 100–200 bbl of oil per day and cumulative
primary recoveries of 200,000–350,000 bbl of oil per
well. Wells in the less porous, southern (landward)
part of North Riley field (on the crest of the struc-
ture, near well 357; Figure 3) also had initial potential
production rates of 100–200 bbl of oil per day, but
their ultimate primary recoveries were generally only
30,000–80,000 bbl of oil per well. At South
Cowden field, many primary development wells
BASIN
MIXED HYPERSALINE & MARINE
WATER LESS SUPERSATURATED
WITH RESPECT TO DOLOMITE
Porous Dolomite
Less Dolomite Precipitated Nonporous
Resulting In More Porosity Limestone
in the southeastern and eastern (basinward) parts
of the field (off the crest of the structure; along
strike with well 6-16) had initial potential produc-
tion rates of 100–300 bbl of oil per day and cumu-
lative recoveries (including waterflood) of 0.5–1.2
million bbl of oil. The structurally highest wells in
the central to western (landward) part of South
Cowden field (between wells 13-11 and 9-17)
(Figure 5) had similar initial potential production
rates; however, cumulative recoveries (including
waterflood) were much lower, only 40,000–80,000
bbl of oil per well. (See Lucia and Ruppel [1996] for
a map South Cowden production.)
CONCLUSIONS
Porosity and permeability in many dolomites are
controlled by diagenetic processes. Although they
are heterogeneous, porosity and permeability show
some patterns in large dolomitized systems such as
the Clear Fork and Grayburg of the Central Basin
platform. Dolomitized strata tend to have lower
porosity close to where dolomitizing brines form
and higher porosity in distal portions of the dolomi-
tizing system. Dolomitizing brines in the Permian
of the Permian basin commonly were generated in
evaporative lagoons in platform-interior areas. As a
result, many platform-interior dolomites have lower
porosity and per meability than do dolomites
formed in distal parts of the dolomitizing system,
near the platform margin (Figure 18). Differential
compaction dur ing deposition caused many
platform-interior dolomites to occur over structural
highs and platform-margin dolomites to occur in
downdip and basinward positions. Differential
compaction after deposition has resulted in the

structural crest of fields having the worst reservoir
rocks, and dolomites on the basinward flanks of
the structure having the best reservoir characteris-
tics. This is the case at North Riley and South
Cowden fields, where the best reservoir rocks are
near and even below the oil/water contact. Similar
trends are present in other Permian dolomite reser-
voirs in the Permian basin (Cowan and Harris,
1986), and possibly similar dolomite reservoirs
around the world.
Later diagenetic processes may accentuate vari-
ations in porosity and permeability imparted dur-
ing the original dolomitization. Burial fluids may
preferentially flow along those preexisting porosi-
ty and permeability conduits and cause dissolu-
tion that further increases porosity and perme-
ability. If dissolution and karstification associated
with subaerial exposure are important to reser-
voir development, our generalizations may not
hold, and the highest porosity or permeability
may occur over the depositional high and crest of
the structure; however, many platform dolomites
form in areas with arid climates where karstifica-
tion is not intense.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Arthur Saller
Art Saller did undergraduate stud-
ies at the University of Kansas
(1974–1978), received a Master’s
degree from Stanford University in
1980, and a Ph.D. in geology from
Louisiana State University in 1984.
From 1984 to 1986, he worked as a
research geologist with Cities
Service Oil and Gas in Tulsa, Ok-
lahoma, and joined UNOCAL in
1986. At UNOCAL, Art performs
technical service work and teaches courses related to
exploration and development of hydrocarbon reservoirs
in carbonate rocks.
ability development in a highly cyclic, shallow-water carbonate
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in dolomite reservoirs in the Ordovician Red River Formation,
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Nuel Henderson
Nuel Henderson received his B.A.
degree in earth science from Cal-
ifornia State University at Fullerton,
and his M.S. degree in geological sci-
ences from the University of South-
ern California. His portion of the
work presented in this paper was
conducted while he was employed
at UNOCAL in Brea, California, at
which time his research interests
included carbonate sedimentology,
diagenesis, and reservoir characterization. He currently is
a senior staff geologist with Advanced GeoEnvironmental,
Inc., in Stockton, California.