Technical Seminar: by Naga Sravani Maguluri (M-Tech) 18L31D5803

TECHNICAL
SEMINAR
BY NAGA SRAVANI MAGULURI(M-
TECH)
18L31D5803
THIS BOOK HAS THE DETAILS ABOUT TECHNICAL SEMINAR TOPICS WHICH
HAS BEEN EXPLAINED BY ME SRAVANI MAGULURI,STUDENT OF OUR
COLLEGE PURSUING M_TECH GRADUATION
Block chain technology& Bitcoin technology
DATA ENCODING AND STORAGE ON DNA

A seminar report submitted in fulfillment of the requirements
for the technical seminar of
MASTERS OF TECHNOLOGY
In
COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING
Submitted By
M.N.SRAVANI (18L31D5803)
Under esteemed guidance of
V.MAMATHA, M.TECH
Associate Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

VIGNAN’S INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
Kurmannapalem, Duvvada, Visakhapatnam-530046

(2017-2019)
Dept of Cse, VIIT 2018-20 Page 2

Table of Contents
1.BLOCK CHAIN TECHNOLOGY
1.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................4
1.2 STRUCTURE...........................................................................................................4
1.2.1 BLOCKS...........................................................................................................5
1.2.2 BLOCK TIME...................................................................................................7
1.2.3 HARD FORKS..................................................................................................7
1.2.4 DECENTRALIZATION....................................................................................7
1.2.5 OPENNESS.......................................................................................................7
1.2.6 PERMISSIONLESS..........................................................................................7
1.3 PERMISSIONED(PRIVATE) BLOCKCHAIN........................................................4
1.3.1DISADVANTAGES...........................................................................................7
1.4 USES .......................................................................................................................4
1.4.1 CRYPTOCURRENCY......................................................................................7
1.4.2 SMARTCONTRACTS......................................................................................7
1.4.3 FINANCIAL SERVICES..................................................................................7
1.4.4 BLOCK CHAIN WITH VEDIO GAMES.........................................................7
1.4.5 SUPPLY CHAIN...............................................................................................7
1.4.6 BLOCKCHAIN IN SPACE...............................................................................7
1.4.7 OTHER USES...................................................................................................7
1.5 OTHER DESIGN INCLUDE ..................................................................................4
1.6 TYPES OF BLOCKCHAINS ..................................................................................4
1.6.1 PUBLIC BLOCKCHAINS................................................................................7
1.6.2 PRIVATE BLOCKCHAINS..............................................................................7
1.6.3 CONSORTIUM BLOCKCHAINS....................................................................7
1.6.4 HYBRID BLOCKCHAINS...............................................................................7
2. BITCOIN.....................................................................................................................27
2.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................29
2.1 BITCOIN TRANSACTION PROPERTY..............................................................29
2.3 STORING BITCOIN?............................................................................................29
3. DNA.............................................................................................................................30

3.1 INTRODUCTION:.................................................................................................30
3.2 DNA DEFINITION:...............................................................................................30
3.3 SYNTHETIC DNA:...............................................................................................30
3.3.1 BENFITS OF SYNTHESIS DNA.....................................................................7
3.3.2 DNA SYNTHESIS............................................................................................7
3.4 SEQUENCING:.....................................................................................................30
3.5 SEQUENCING AND SYNTHESIS:......................................................................30
3.6 DNA STORAGE SYSTEM:...................................................................................30
3.7 DNA CRYPTOGRAPHY:......................................................................................30
3.8 DNA ENCRYPTION:.............................................................................................30
3.9 DNA DECRYPTION:.............................................................................................30
3.10 DIGITAL DATA STORAGE ON DNA:...............................................................30
3.11 STORAGE LIMIT:...............................................................................................30
3.12 ADVANTAGES....................................................................................................30
3.13 DISADVANTAGES:............................................................................................30
4. DAVOS BITCOIN CHALLENGE...............................................................................34
4.1 INTRODUCTION:.................................................................................................35
4.2 OBTAIN DNA SAMPLE:......................................................................................35
4.3 SEQUENCING :....................................................................................................36
4.4 READ MERGING QUALITY CONTROL............................................................36
4.5 FILTERING AND PREPROCESSING:.................................................................38
4.6 DECODING PART 1:.............................................................................................41
4.7 DECODING PART 2:.............................................................................................42
4.8 DECODING PART 3:.............................................................................................43
4.9 BREAK THROUGH:.............................................................................................44
4.10 RESULT:..............................................................................................................45
5. CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................................................46
6. REFERENCES.............................................................................................................47

ABSTRACT
A blockchain is essentially a distributed database of records or public ledger of
all transactions or digital events that have been executed and shared among
participating parties. Each transaction in the public ledger is verified by
consensus of a majority of the participants in the system. And, once entered,
information can never be erased. The blockchain contains a certain and
verifiable record of every single transaction ever made. Bitcoin, the
decentralized peertopeer digital currency, is the most popular example that uses
blockchain technology. The digital currency bitcoin itself is highly controversial
but the underlying blockchain technology has worked flawlessly and found wide
range of applications in both financial and nonfinancial world. The main
hypothesis is that the blockchain establishes a system of creating a distributed
consensus in the digital online world. This allows participating entities to know
for certain that a digital event happened by creating an irrefutable record in a
public ledger. It opens the door for developing a democratic open and scalable
digital economy from a centralized one. There are tremendous opportunities in
this disruptive technology and revolution in this space has just begun.
We report on a strong capacity boost in storing digital data in synthetic DNA. In
principle, synthetic DNA is an ideal media to archive digital data for very long
times because the achievable data density and longevity outperforms today’s
digital data storage media by far. On the other hand, neither the
synthesis, nor the amplification and the sequencing of DNA strands can be
performed error-free today and in the foreseeable future. In order to make
synthetic DNA available as digital data storage media, specifically tailored
forward error correction schemes have to be applied.For the purpose of realizing
a DNA data storage, we have developed an efficient and robust forwarderror-
correcting scheme adapted to the DNA channel. We based the design of the
needed DNA channel model on data from a proof-of-concept conducted 2012 by
a team from the Harvard Medical School [1].Our forward error correction
scheme is able to cope with all error types of today’s DNA synthesis,
amplification and sequencing processes, e.g. insertion, deletion, and swap
errors.In a successful experiment, we were able to store and retrieve error-free
22 MByte of digital data in synthetic DNA recently.
Keywords: Bio-technology, DNA, DNA synthesis and sequencing, digital data storage, data
preservation, archiving

BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Blockchain was invented by a person (or group of people) using the
name Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 to serve as the public transaction ledger of
the cryptocurrency bitcoin. The identity of Satoshi Nakamoto is unknown. The
invention of the blockchain for bitcoin made it the first digital currency to solve
the double-spending problem without the need of a trusted authority or
central server. The bitcoin design has inspired other applications, and
blockchains which are readable by the public are widely used
by cryptocurrencies. Blockchain is considered a type of payment rail.
Fig1:A Brief History of Blockchain
To start, let’s talk about the history of the blockchain. Before it was ever used in
cryptocurrency, it had humble beginnings as a concept in computer science —
particularly, in the domains of cryptography and data structures.

The very primitive form of the blockchain was the hash tree, also known as a
Merkle tree. This data structure was patented by Ralph Merkle in 1979, and
functioned by verifying and handling data between computer systems. In a peer-
to-peer network of computers, validating data was important to make sure
nothing was altered or changed during transfer. It also helped to ensure that false
data was not sent. In essence, it is used to maintain and prove the integrity of
data being shared.
Fig2:Blockchain technology services
In 1991, the Merkle tree was used to create a “secured chain of blocks” — a
series of data records, each connected to the one before it. The newest record in
this chain would contain the history of the entire chain. And thus, the blockchain
was created.

In 2008, Satoshi Nakamato conceptualized the distributed blockchain. It would

contain a secure history of data exchanges, utilize a peer-to-peer network to time
stamp and verify each exchange, and could be managed autonomously without a
central authority. This became the backbone of Bitcoin. And thus, the
blockchain we know today was born, as well as the world of cryptocurrencies.
1.2 Structure:
A blockchain is a decentralized, distributed and public digital ledger that is used
to record transactions across many computers so that any involved record cannot
be altered retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks. [1][18] This
allows the participants to verify and audit transactions independently and
relatively inexpensively.[19] A blockchain database is managed autonomously
using a peer-to-peer network and a distributed timestamping server. They
are authenticated by mass collaboration powered by collective self-interests.
[20]
Such a design facilitates robust workflow where participants' uncertainty
regarding data security is marginal. The use of a blockchain removes the
characteristic of infinite reproducibility from a digital asset. It confirms that
each unit of value was transferred only once, solving the long-standing problem
of double spending. A blockchain has been described as a value-exchange
protocol.[21] A blockchain can maintain title rights because, when properly set up
to detail the exchange agreement, it provides a record that compels offer and
acceptance.

Fig 3: structure of technology
1.2.1 Blocks:-
Blocks hold batches of valid transactions that are hashed and encoded into
a Merkle tree.[1] Each block includes the cryptographic hash of the prior block in
the blockchain, linking the two. The linked blocks form a chain.
[1]
This iterative process confirms the integrity of the previous block, all the way
back to the original genesis block.[22]
Sometimes separate blocks can be produced concurrently, creating a temporary
fork. In addition to a secure hash-based history, any blockchain has a specified
algorithm for scoring different versions of the history so that one with a higher
value can be selected over others. Blocks not selected for inclusion in the chain
are called orphan blocks.[22] Peers supporting the database have different
versions of the history from time to time. They keep only the highest-scoring
version of the database known to them. Whenever a peer receives a higher-
scoring version (usually the old version with a single new block added) they
extend or overwrite their own database and retransmit the improvement to their
peers. There is never an absolute guarantee that any particular entry will remain
in the best version of the history forever. Blockchains are typically built to add
the score of new blocks onto old blocks and are given incentives to extend with

new blocks rather than overwrite old blocks. Therefore, the probability of an
entry becoming superseded decreases exponentially[23] as more blocks are built
on top of it, eventually becoming very low. [1][24]:ch. 08[25] For example, bitcoin uses
a proof-of-work system, where the chain with the most cumulative proof-of-
work is considered the valid one by the network. There are a number of methods
that can be used to demonstrate a sufficient level of computation. Within a
blockchain the computation is carried out redundantly rather than in the
traditional segregated and parallel manner.[26]
Fig 4 : Blocks connectivity
1.2.2 Block time

The block time is the average time it takes for the network to generate one extra
block in the blockchain. Some blockchains create a new block as frequently as
every five seconds.[27] By the time of block completion, the included data
becomes verifiable. In cryptocurrency, this is practically when the transaction
takes place, so a shorter block time means faster transactions. The block time
for Ethereum is set to between 14 and 15 seconds, while for bitcoin it is 10
minutes.[28]
1.2.3 Hard forks
A hard fork is a rule change such that the software validating according to the
old rules will see the blocks produced according to the new rules as invalid. In
case of a hard fork, all nodes meant to work in accordance with the new rules
need to upgrade their software.
If one group of nodes continues to use the old software while the other nodes
use the new software, a split can occur. For example, Ethereum has hard-forked
to "make whole" the investors in The DAO, which had been hacked by

exploiting a vulnerability in its code. In this case, the fork resulted in a split
creating Ethereum and Ethereum Classic chains. In 2014 the Nxt community
was asked to consider a hard fork that would have led to a rollback of the
blockchain records to mitigate the effects of a theft of 50 million NXT from a
major cryptocurrency exchange. The hard fork proposal was rejected, and some
of the funds were recovered after negotiations and ransom payment.
Alternatively, to prevent a permanent split, a majority of nodes using the new
software may return to the old rules, as was the case of bitcoin split on 12 March
2013.[29]
1.2.4 Decentralization:
By storing data across its peer-to-peer network, the blockchain eliminates a
number of risks that come with data being held centrally. [1] The decentralized
blockchain may use ad-hocmessage passing and distributed networking.
Peer-to-peer blockchain networks lack centralized points of vulnerability
that computer crackers can exploit; likewise, it has no central point of failure.
Blockchain security methods include the use of public-key cryptography.
[4]:5
A public key (a long, random-looking string of numbers) is an address on the
blockchain. Value tokens sent across the network are recorded as belonging to
that address. A private key is like a password that gives its owner access to their
digital assets or the means to otherwise interact with the various capabilities that
blockchains now support. Data stored on the blockchain is generally considered
incorruptible.[1]
Every node in a decentralized system has a copy of the blockchain. Data
quality is maintained by massive database replication[8] and computational trust.
No centralized "official" copy exists and no user is "trusted" more than any
other.[4] Transactions are broadcast to the network using software. Messages are
delivered on a best-effort basis. Mining nodes validate transactions,[22] add them
to the block they are building, and then broadcast the completed block to other
nodes.[24]:ch. 08 Blockchains use various time-stamping schemes, such as proof-of-
work, to serialize changes.[30] Alternative consensus methods include proof-of-
stake.[22] Growth of a decentralized blockchain is accompanied by the risk
of centralization because the computer resources required to process larger
amounts of data become more expensive.[31]

1.2.5 Openness :
Open blockchains are more user-friendly than some traditional ownership
records, which, while open to the public, still require physical access to view.
Because all early blockchains were permissionless, controversy has arisen over
the blockchain definition. An issue in this ongoing debate is whether a private
system with verifiers tasked and authorized (permissioned) by a central
authority should be considered a blockchain.[32][33][34][35][36] Proponents of
permissioned or private chains argue that the term "blockchain" may be applied
to any data structure that batches data into time-stamped blocks. These
blockchains serve as a distributed version of multiversion concurrency
control (MVCC) in databases.[37] Just as MVCC prevents two transactions from
concurrently modifying a single object in a database, blockchains prevent two
transactions from spending the same single output in a blockchain. [38]:30–
31
Opponents say that permissioned systems resemble traditional corporate
databases, not supporting decentralized data verification, and that such systems
are not hardened against operator tampering and revision.[32][34] Nikolai Hampton
of Computerworld said that "many in-house blockchain solutions will be
nothing more than cumbersome databases," and "without a clear security model,
proprietary blockchains should be eyed with suspicion."[10][39]
1.2.6 Permissionless :
The great advantage to an open, permissionless, or public, blockchain network
is that guarding against bad actors is not required and no access control is
needed.[23] This means that applications can be added to the network without the
approval or trust of others, using the blockchain as a transport layer.[23]
Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies currently secure their blockchain by
requiring new entries to include a proof of work. To prolong the blockchain,
bitcoin uses Hashcash puzzles. While Hashcash was designed in 1997 by Adam
Back, the original idea was first proposed by Cynthia Dwork and Moni
Naor and Eli Ponyatovski in their 1992 paper "Pricing via Processing or
Combatting Junk Mail".
Financial companies have not prioritised decentralized blockchains.[40] In
2016, venture capital investment for blockchain-related projects was weakening
in the USA but increasing in China. [41] Bitcoin and many other cryptocurrencies
use open (public) blockchains. As of April 2018, bitcoin has the highest market
capitalization.

1.3 Permissioned (private) blockchain :

Permissioned block chains use an access control layer to govern who has access
to the network. In contrast to public block chain networks, validators on private
block chain networks are vetted by the network owner. They do not rely on
anonymous nodes to validate transactions nor do they benefit from the network
effect.Permissioned blockchains can also go by the name of 'consortium'
blockchains.
The New York Times noted in both 2016 and 2017 that many corporations are
using blockchain networks "with private blockchains, independent of the public
system.
1.3.1 Disadvantages of private blockchain
Nikolai Hampton pointed out in Computerworld that "There is also no need for
a '51 percent' attack on a private blockchain, as the private blockchain (most
likely) already controls 100 percent of all block creation resources. If you could
attack or damage the blockchain creation tools on a private corporate server, you
could effectively control 100 percent of their network and alter transactions
however you wished."[10] This has a set of particularly profound adverse
implications during a financial crisis or debt crisis like the financial crisis of
2007–08, where politically powerful actors may make decisions that favor some
groups at the expense of others, and "the bitcoin blockchain is protected by the
massive group mining effort. It's unlikely that any private blockchain will try to
protect records using gigawatts of computing power — it's time consuming and
expensive. He also said, "Within a private blockchain there is also no 'race';
there's no incentive to use more power or discover blocks faster than
competitors. This means that many in-house blockchain solutions will be
nothing more than cumbersome databases.

Fig 5: Applications
1.4 Uses:
Blockchain technology can be integrated into multiple areas. The primary use of
blockchains today is as a distributed ledger for cryptocurrencies, most
notably bitcoin. There are a few operational products maturing from proof of
concept by late 2016.[41]
As of 2016, some observers remain skeptical. Steve Wilson, of Constellation
Research, believes the technology has been hyped with unrealistic claims.[49] To
mitigate risk, businesses are reluctant to place blockchain at the core of the
business structure.[50]
1.4.1 Cryptocurrencies:
Most cryptocurrencies use blockchain technology to record transactions. For
example, the bitcoin network and Ethereum network are both based on
blockchain. On May 8, 2018 Facebook confirmed that it is opening a new

blockchain group[51] which will be headed by David Marcus who previously was
in charge of Messenger. According to The VergeFacebook is planning to launch
its own cryptocurrency for facilitating payments on the platform.
Fig 6: Cryptocurrency(bitcoin)
1.4.2 Smart contracts

Blockchain-based smart contracts are proposed contracts that could be partially
or fully executed or enforced without human interaction.[53] One of the main
objectives of a smart contract is automated escrow. An IMF staff discussion
reported that smart contracts based on blockchain technology might

reduce moral hazards and optimize the use of contracts in general. But "no
viable smart contract systems have yet emerged." Due to the lack of widespread
use their legal status is unclear.[54]
Fig 7: how smart contracts work
1.4.3 Financial services :

Major portions of the financial industry are implementing distributed ledgers for
use in banking,[55][56][57] and according to a September 2016 IBM study, this is
occurring faster than expected.[58]
Banks are interested in this technology because it has potential to speed up back
office settlement systems.[59]
Banks such as UBS are opening new research labs dedicated to blockchain
technology in order to explore how blockchain can be used in financial services
to increase efficiency and reduce costs.[60][61]
Berenberg, a German bank, believes that blockchain is an "overhyped
technology" that has had a large number of "proofs of concept", but still has
major challenges, and very few success stories.[62]

Fig 8 : financial services
1.4.4 Blockchain with video games:

Some video games are based on blockchain technology. The first such
game, Huntercoin, was released in February, 2014.[63][unreliable source] Another
blockchain game is CryptoKitties, launched in November 2017.[64] The game
made headlines in December 2017 when a cryptokitty character - an-in
game virtual pet - was sold for US$100,000.[65][irrelevant
citation]
CryptoKitties illustrated scalability problems for games on Ethereum when
it created significant congestion on the Ethereum network with about 30% of all
Ethereum transactions being for the game.[66][irrelevant citation]
Cryptokitties also demonstrated how blockchains can be used to catalog game
assets (digital assets).[67]
The Blockchain Game Alliance was formed in September 2018 to explore
alternative uses of blockchains in video gaming with support of Ubisoft and Fig,
among others.[68]

Fig 9: vedio gaming through blockchain
1.4.5 Supply chain:

There are a number of efforts and industry organizations working to employ
blockchains in supply chain logistics and supply chain management.
The Blockchain in Transport Alliance (BITA) works to develop open standards
for supply chains.
Everledger is one of the inaugural clients of IBM's blockchain-based tracking
service.
Walmart and IBM are running a trial to use a blockchain-backed system
for supply chain monitoring — all nodes of the blockchain are administered by
Walmart and are located on the IBM cloud.
Hyperledger Grid develops open components for blockchain supply chain
solutions.
1.4.6 Blockchain in space:

Several blockchain companies have taken blockchain to space. Spacechain
launched two nanosatellite-based blockchain nodes into orbit in February and

October 2018. Its first use case is decentralized storage of data and files in
space, but the end goal is to reduce reliance on big corporations like Google and
Facebook, who also explore ways to bring internet to everyone through satellites
in space.
Fig 10: blockchain in space
1.4.7 Other uses:

Blockchain technology can be used to create a permanent, public, transparent
ledger system for compiling data on sales, tracking digital use and payments to
content creators, such as wireless users or musicians In 2017, IBM partnered
with ASCAP and PRS for Music to adopt blockchain technology in music
distribution. Imogen Heap's Mycelia service has also been proposed as
blockchain-based alternative "that gives artists more control over how their
songs and associated data circulate among fans and other musicians.
New distribution methods are available for the insurance industry such as peer-
to-peer insurance, parametric insurance and microinsurance following the
adoption of blockchain. The sharing economy and IoT are also set to benefit

from blockchains because they involve many collaborating peers. Online

voting is another application of the blockchain.
1.5 Other designs include:

 Hyperledger is a cross-industry collaborative effort from the Linux
Foundation to support blockchain-based distributed ledgers, with projects
under this initiative including Hyperledger Burrow (by Monax) and
Hyperledger Fabric (spearheaded by IBM)
 Quorum – a permissionable private blockchain by JPMorgan Chase with

private storage, used for contract applications
 Tezos, decentralized voting.
 Proof of Existence is an online service that verifies the existence of

computer files as of a specific time
1.6 Types of blockchains:

Currently, there are at least four types of blockchain networks — public
blockchains, private blockchains, consortium blockchains and hybrid
blockchains.
Fig 11:Types of blockchain

1.6.1 Public blockchains

A public blockchain has absolutely no access restrictions. Anyone with
an Internet connection can send transactions to it as well as become
a validator (i.e., participate in the execution of a consensus protocol). Usually,
such networks offer economic incentives for those who secure them and utilize
some type of a Proof of Stake or Proof of Work algorithm.
Some of the largest, most known public blockchains are the bitcoin blockchain
and the Ethereum blockchain.
1.6.2 Private blockchains
A private blockchain is permissioned.[42] One cannot join it unless invited by the
network administrators. Participant and validator access is restricted.
This type of blockchains can be considered a middle-ground for companies that
are interested in the blockchain technology in general but are not comfortable
with a level of control offered by public networks. Typically, they seek
to incorporate blockchain into their accounting and record-keeping procedures
without sacrificing autonomy and running the risk of exposing sensitive data to
the public internet.
1.6.3 Consortium blockchains
A consortium blockchain is often said to be semi-decentralized. It, too, is
permissioned but instead of a single organization controlling it, a number of
companies might each operate a node on such a network. The administrators of
a consortium chain restrict users' reading rights as they see fit and only allow a
limited set of trusted nodes to execute a consensus protocol.
1.6.4 Hybrid blockchains
A hybrid blockchain simply explained is a combination between different
characteristics both public and private blockchains have by design. It allows to
determine what information stays private and what information is made public.
Further decentralization in relation to primarily centralized private blockchains
can be achieved in various ways. Instead of keeping transactions inside their
own network of community run or private nodes, the hash (with or without
payload) can be posted on completely decentralized blockchains such as
bitcoin. Dragonchain uses Interchain] to host transactions on other blockchains.
This allows users to operate on different blockchains, where they can selectively

share data or business logic. Other blockchains like Wanchain use

interoperability mechanisms such as bridges. By submitting the hash of a
transaction (with or without the sensitive business logic) on public blockchains
like bitcoin or Ethereum, some of the privacy and blockchain concerns are
resolved, as no personal identifiable information is stored on a public
blockchain. Depending on the hybrid blockchain its architecture, multicloud
solutions allow to store data in compliance with General Data Protection
Regulation and other geographical limitations while also leveraging bitcoin's
global hashpower to decentralize transactions.
BITCOIN(Tech sem Topic-2)

1.INTRODUCTION:
Bitcoin (₿) is a cryptocurrency, a form of electronic cash. It is a
decentralized digital currency without a central bank or single administrator that
can be sent from user to user on the peer-to-peer bitcoin network without the
need for intermediaries.

Fig 12 bitcoin
Transactions are verified by network nodes through cryptography and recorded
in a public distributed ledger called a blockchain. Bitcoin was invented by an
unknown person or group of people using the name, Satoshi Nakamoto,[9] and
released as open-source software in 2009.[10] Bitcoins are created as a reward for
a process known as mining. They can be exchanged for other currencies,
products, and services.[11] Research produced by University of
Cambridge estimates that in 2017, there were 2.9 to 5.8 million unique users
using a cryptocurrency wallet, most of them using bitcoin.[12]
Bitcoin has been criticized for its use in illegal transactions, its high electricity
consumption, price volatility, thefts from exchanges, and the possibility that
bitcoin is an economic bubble.[13] Bitcoin has also been used as an investment,
although several regulatory agencies have issued investor alerts about bitcoin.[14]
1.2 Bitcoin Transactional properties:
 Irreversible: After confirmation, a transaction can‘t be reversed. By

nobody. And nobody means nobody. Not you, not your bank, not the
president of the United States, not Satoshi, not your miner. Nobody. If
you send money, you send it. Period. No one can help you, if you sent

your funds to a scammer or if a hacker stole them from your computer.

There is no safety net.
 Pseudonymous: Neither transactions or accounts are connected to real-

world identities. You receive Bitcoins on so-called addresses, which are
randomly seeming chains of around 30 characters. While it is usually
possible to analyze the transaction flow, it is not necessarily possible to
connect the real world identity of users with those addresses.
 Fast and global: Transaction is propagated nearly instantly in the

network and are confirmed in a couple of minutes. Since they happen in a
global network of computers they are completely indifferent of your
physical location. It doesn‘t matter if I send Bitcoin to my neighbor or to
someone on the other side of the world.
 Secure: Bitcoin funds are locked in a public key cryptography system.

Only the owner of the private key can send cryptocurrency. Strong
cryptography and the magic of big numbers makes it impossible to break
this scheme. A Bitcoin address is more secure than Fort Knox.
 Permissionless: You don‘t have to ask anybody to use cryptocurrency.

It‘s just a software that everybody can download for free. After you
installed it, you can receive and send Bitcoins or other cryptocurrencies.
No one can prevent you. There is no gatekeeper.
1.3 How can store bitcoins?

 To see how the system works, imagine someone called Alice who’s trying
out Bitcoins. She’d sign up for a cryptocurrency wallet to put her bitcoins
in.
 The Bitcoin Wallets
 There are three different applications that Alice could use.
 Full client – This is like a standalone email server that handles all aspects
of the process without relying on third-party servers. Alice would control
her whole transaction from beginning to end by herself. Understandably,
this is not for beginners.
 Lightweight client – This is a standalone email client that connects to a

mail server for access to a mailbox. It would store Alice’s bitcoins, but it

needs a third-party-owned server to access the network and make the

transaction.
 Web client – This is the opposite of “full client” and resembles webmail
in that it totally relies on a third-party server. The third party replaces
Alice and operates her entire transaction.
DNA Data Storage(Tech sem Topic-3)
3.1 INTRODUCTION

It is well known that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) stores our genetic

information. However, an increasing number of scientists and futurists are
recognizing the potential of DNA to store non-genetic information.
3.2 DNA DEFINITION:
DNA is found in almost every cell in the human body. It stores biological
information, such as eye color, hair color and skin tone. The genetic data
contained in DNA serves as a blueprint for each cell to perform its functions. So,
DNA essentially ‘programs’ the human body.
DNA is made up of four base components: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and

Thymine (known as AGCT). From these four bases, DNA forms groups of three
nucleotides (known as codons). A codon is the unit that gives our cells
instructions on protein formation.

Fig 13: How to Store Non-Genetic Information in DNA
Our information technology infrastructure is based on the storage of information

in bits (which are made up of two digits: 0s and 1s), whereas DNA information is
stored in strings of four potential base units. For example:
Bits (1001100111)
DNA Sequence (AGTCATGAC)
So, to store non-genetic information in DNA, we must first translate binary data
from bits to the four unit (AGCT) structure of DNA data.
While this is not difficult theoretically, it presents some complications in

practice.
Fig 14:Converting Bits into DNA sequence.
3.3 Synthetic DNA
Since DNA uses organic matter, DNA data storage will be far more efficient than
our current data storage mechanisms. Data stored in molecular form will use
only the bare minimum number of atoms necessary for storage.

Scientists have successfully stored data in synthetic DNA. Synthetic DNA is like
real DNA, but is created from scratch by scientists. The data stored on synthetic
DNA is kept in test tubes, and not attached to any living organisms.
3.3.1 Benefits of Synthetic DNA Data Storage
There are several benefits of synthetic DNA data storage. DNA lasts for
thousands of years, whereas data in traditional hard drives can get corrupted or
damaged within 30 years.
Due to the efficiency of DNA storage, the storage capacity of DNA is massive: a
single gram of synthetic DNA can store over 215 petabytes of data!
Additionally, DNA can be copied endlessly for free.
Fig 15 Drawbacks of Synthetic DNA Data Storage

The major drawbacks of synthetic DNA storage include prohibitive costs and
access time. While it currently costs a lot to store data in DNA form, this cost can
be expected to drop precipitously as the technology evolves. It currently takes
hours to input and retrieve data from DNA, rendering it impractical for most
real-time applications. Scientists are working on reducing this access time.
3.3.2 DNA synthesis
Arbitrary single-strand DNA sequences can be synthesized chemically,

nucleotide by nucleotide . The coupling efficiency of a synthesis process is the
probability that a nucleotide binds to an existing partial strand at each step of the
process. Although the coupling efficiency for each step can be higher than 99%,
this small error still results in an exponential decrease of product yield with
increasing length and limits the size of oligo nucleotides that can be efficiently
synthesized to about 200 nucleotides. In practice, synthesis of a given sequence
uses a large number of parallel start sites and results in many truncated by
products (the dominant error in DNA synthesis), in addition to many copies of
the full length target sequence. Thus, despite errors in synthesizing any specific
strand, a given synthesis batch will usually produce many perfect strands.
Moreover, modern array synthesis techniques can synthesize complex pools of
nearly 10⁵ different oligo nucleotides in parallel.
3.4 DNA sequencing
There are several high-throughput sequencing techniques, but the most popular
methods (such as that used by Illumina) use DNA polymerase enzymes and are
commonly referred to as “sequencing by synthesis”. The strand of interest
serves as a template for the polymerase, which creates a complement of the
strand. Importantly, fluorescent nucleotides are used during this synthesis
process. Since each type of fluorescent nucleotide emits a different color, it is
possible to read out the complement sequence optically. Sequencing is error-
prone, but as with synthesis, in aggregate, sequencing typically produces enough
precise reads of each strand.

Fig 16: Transmitting rate of dna yearly productivity

Carlson curves trends in DNA synthesis and sequencing technology compared
to Moore’s Law. DNA productivity is measured in nucleotides per person per
day. Recent growth in sequencing technology eclipses Moore.
3.5 Sequencing and synthesis improvement projections

Today, neither the performance nor the cost of DNA synthesis and sequencing is
viable for data storage purposes. However, they have historically seen
exponential improvements. Their cost reductions and throughput improvements
have been compared to Moore’s Law in Carlson’s Curves , as shown in Figure
1. It shows that sequencing productivity has been growing faster than Moore’s
Law. Important biotechnology applications such as genomics and the
development of smart drugs are expected to continue driving these
improvements, eventually making data storage a viable application.
3.6 A DNA Storage System

We envision DNA storage as the very last level of a deep storage hierarchy,
providing very dense and durable archival storage with access times of many
hours to days (Figure 2). DNA synthesis and sequencing can be made arbitrarily
parallel, making the necessary read and write bandwidths attainable. We now
describe our proposal of a system for DNA-based storage with random access
support.

Fig 17:DNA storage as the bottom level of the storage hierarchy
3.7 DNA Cryptography
Multiple efforts are underway to explore the potential of DNA to store

cryptographic keys and other private information. One idea is to bury sensitive
information in the DNA, so that it is sufficiently well hidden that it need not be
encrypted. This method is known as ‘DNA Steganography’. The startup Carverr
is pursuing one implementation of this idea by attempting to store Bitcoin
passwords (known as private keys) in DNA.
3.8 DNA ENCRYPTION
Fig 18:Dna Encryption

Fig19 :Encoding data on dna
3.9 DNA DECRYPTION :
Fig 20: Dna decryption
3.10 Digital Data storage in DNA :

We may all have storage devices like SSDs, flash memory devices and SD cards
of different capacities but we might need a new storage device as they all get

full with time but now we may not have to worry about their capacities as the
Scientists at New York Genome Center have come up with a new way to encode
digital data in DNA to create the highest density large scale data storage scheme
ever invented. It is capable of storing 215 petabytes (215 million gigabytes) in a
single gram of DNA(It means it could store every bit of datum ever recorded by
humans in a container about the size and weight of a couple of pickup trucks)
and it could potentially last for hundreds of thousands of years. Isn’t that cool?
3.10.1 How did they do it?
The DNA in our cells contains the instructions for building all the proteins that
keep us running. DNA is made up of repeating sequences of the nucleic acids
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine (A, G, C, and T) which are sometimes
called base pairs. Each sequence of three bases translates to a different amino
acid, which are the building blocks of proteins. It’s data storage just like what
we do with hard drives but with much higher potential density.
The four-lettered nucleobase alphabet of DNA (A, C, G and T) can be
transformed into binary code—for example, as 00 for A, 01 for C, 10 for G and
11 for T. Scientists looked at the algorithms that were being used to encode and
decode the data and first converted the files into binary strings of 1s and 0s
compressing them into one master file and then split the data into short strings
of binary code. They devised an algorithm called a DNA Fountain which
randomly packaged the strings into droplets, to which they added extra tags to
put the file back together.
They started with six files including a full computer operating system and a
computer virus. In all, the researchers generated a digital list of 72,000 DNA
strands, each 200 bases long. They sent these as text files and later, the
sequences were fed into a computer which translated the genetic code back into
binary and used the tags to reassemble the six original files. The approach
worked so well that the new files contained no errors and were also able to make
a virtually unlimited number of error free copies of their files.
3.11 Storage Limits

Estimates based on bacterial genetics suggest that digital DNA could one day
rival or exceed today’s storage technology.

FLASH BACTERIAL
HARD DISK MEMORY DNA
Read-write speed ~3,000 –
(µs per bit) 5,000 ~100 <100
Data retention
(years) >10 >10 >100
Power usage
(watts per
gigabyte) ~0.04 ~0.01 – 0.04 <10-10
Data density
(bits per cm3) ~1013 ~1016 ~1019
Fig 21 density table

3.12 Advantages:
 It is ultracompact.
 It can last hundreds of thousands of years if kept in a cool, dry place.
 As long as human societies are reading and writing DNA, they will be
able to decode it.
 DNA won’t degrade over time like cassette tapes and CDs, and it won’t
become obsolete.
3.13 Disadvantages:
 High cost.

 DNA is significantly harder and slower to read than conventional

computer transistors i.e., in terms of access speed it is actually less RAM-
like than our average computer SSD or spinning magnetic hard-drive.
Davos Bitcoin Challenge(Tech sem Topic-4)
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
On January 21, 2015, Nick Goldman from the European Bioinformatics

Institute (EBI), one of the original authors of the 2013 Nature paper, announced
the Davos Bitcoin Challenge at the World Economic Forum annual meeting in
Davos. During his presentation, DNA-tubes were handed out to the audience
with the message that each tube contained the private key of exactly one bitcoin,
all coded in DNA. The first one to sequence and decode the DNA could claim
the bitcoin and win the challenge. The challenge was set for three years and
would close if nobody claimed the prize before January 21, 2018.
Almost three years later on January 19, 2018, the EBI announced that a Belgian
PhD student, Sander Wuyts of the University of Antwerp and Vrije Universiteit

Brussel, was the first one to complete the challenge. Next to the instructions on
how to claim the bitcoin (stored as a plain text and pdf file), the logo of the EBI,
the logo of the company that printed the DNA (CustomArray) and a sketch
of James Joyce were retrieved from the DNA.
4.2 Obtain a DNA-sample:

The first thing we realised is that the hardest part of this challenge could be
obtaining a DNA-sample. I knew that they handed out samples at the Davos
meeting, but no other DNA-samples were spot in the wild since then. I tried
using my Twitter network to get hold of one:
However, one day later, I received a direct message from Prof. Goldman himself
who told me that if I have a good set of reasons and if I’m qualified for the
job, he might send over a DNA-sample. I drafted an e-mail and one week later
we were very lucky to receive an interesting package.
Fig 22 storage

4.3 Sequencing:
In our lab we’ve got quite some experience in 16S rRNA (microbiome) and
whole genome bacterial sequencing. Moreover, we have direct access to a
MiSeq, so sequencing the sample seemed to be very doable. Especially with the
support of my colleague Eline, who helped in choosing the best kit for the job
and loaded the MiSeq at the Center of Medical Genetics (University Hospital
Antwerp). If you’re interested in the details: in the end we used a 2 x 75 bp (150
cycle) V3 MiSeq sequencing kit, we reached a cluster density of 1,108 ± 12
K/MM² with 23 million reads passing filter. The total yield was 3.41 Gbp.
4.4. Read merging and quality control

The first thing I did when the sequencing data arrived was read merging
using Pear(v.0.9.11) resulting in a total of 20,710,106 / 23,047,704 (89.858%)
assembled reads.
Next, a quality report was generated using FastQC. Things looked pretty good:

Fig 23: Graph on positions
I was especially excited to learn that almost all sequences started with either T
or A. This is a property designed to make sure that the reads were decoded in the
right orientation. Other graphs (not shown here) showed that the reads had the
expected length of 117 nucleotides and that no undefined bases (N) were
detected.
4.5 Filtering and preprocessing

Before I started the real decoding process, I wanted to reduce the amount of
reads in order to save some of that precious computation time. Therefore, I
wrote a bash script that performs the following steps:
1. Converting FastQ to FASTA (using the pullseq package)
2. Filter out reads longer or shorter than 117 nt (using the pullseq package)
In addition, as stated above, reads should start with either a T or an A. If not,

that means that the orientation of the reads was changed due to e.g. PCR
amplification. The reverse complement of that read should be taken. This was
all handled in a bash script with these key steps:
1. Identify reads that start with G or C (grep)

2. Take the reverse complement of the reads starting with this wrong
orientation (fastarevcomp from the exonerate package)
3. Trim the first and last nucleotide which are the orientation identifiers
(fastx_trimmer from the FASTX-Toolkit)
4. Dereplicate the reads to reduce computation time (fastx_collapser from

the FASTX-Toolkit)
5. Convert from FASTA to dataframe (fasta_formatter from the FASTX-

Toolkit)
4.6 Decoding part I

This is where the real fun starts! The whole encoding process is summarised
here below. As stated in the supplementary file of the Nature paper, decoding
is just the reverse of encoding:

Fig 24: schematic of dna fragment encoding of computer files
Encoded DNA fragments contain two parts:

 DNA encoding a sub part of the real original file (green and purple)
 DNA encoding additional indexing information (yellow ends)
My first job was to split the sequences as such, so that we can decode the
indexing information. This indexing information (yellow ends) contains a few
very important key features we need for further processing:
 File identifier:
This piece of information will tell you to what file this DNA-fragment

belongs. In the original paper they used any number from 0 to 8, which
means that in total 9 different files could be encoded.
 Index:
The index tells us at what position of the total DNA-sequence this DNA-
fragment can be found. For example, the first DNA-fragment (green in
panel d) has index 0, the second one (purple) has index 1, etc.
 Parity trit:
The parity trit has been build in as a security check. Only reads that don’t
show any errors in their file identifier and index, will have the right parity
trit. Its principle is similar to a parity bit.
 After I’ve split up the indexing information in these three sub parts, I
needed to translate these from DNA to the ternary system according to the
following scheme:
Fig 25 Base-3 to DNA
That’s how I ended up with 3 different ternary numbers (ID, index and Parity
trit) which I subsequently translated into the decimal system et voilà. This was
the first time I laid my eyes on information decrypted from the DNA which
was completely understandable for me. After checking the parity trit
checksum, I could figure out how many reads per sample we had:

Fig 26 : Graph for read count
From this graph I learned that 5/9 files were very well sequenced, while 4 of
them definitely show a much lower read count. This result was quite exciting
to me as I only expected one single file. Time to get to the real decoding!
4.7. Decoding part II

 Now that we’ve determined the right file ID and index for every sequence
in our dataset, we can start the real decoding process. This means that for
each file we need to start with the read with index 0, merge it with the
read with index 1, then merge this with the read with index 3 and so on, in
the hope that we end up with a long DNA-string as shown in panel c) of
Figure 2.
 This was definitely one of the most tricky parts of the challenge for
several reasons:
 The first time I tried this, I was using the supplementary PDF of the
Nature paper. However, for the bitcoin challenge an updated version was

released on the EMBL/EBI website. In this updated version an additional

step was added that randomises DNA after encoding using a keystream. It
took me a while to realise this and it was my colleague Stijn who helped
me figure out which keystream we needed to apply to which DNA
sequence.
 The script that we needed to use to remove the keystream was not
supplied as a separate script but was instead just attached in the PDF-file.
It was hard to get it out in the right format, so I just ended up copying it
word for word into a new file.
 That same script was written in Perl, a programming language completely

unknown to me.
 I wrote at least three different variants of an algorithm that merges all of

these reads together. The first two of them produced a very bad final
assembly, only the last one seemed to be doing a decent job.
 HOWEVER, I wrote all of these algorithms in R.

I know, R.
It’s super slow.
There’s definitely room for improvement there.
 After all of this, I ended up with one long string of DNA per file. In
theory we are now only one step removed from finally reading out the
content of the files.
4.8 Decoding part III

In this very last step we just need to take our final long DNA-sequence, convert
it to trits according to the scheme described above ( 5. Decoding part I) and then
convert those trits back to their original bytes using a Huffman code, which was
provided in the original manuscript. All of this is implemented in a Python script
which I obtained from this interesting Github Repository by Allan Costa.
However, the Python script was still based on the 2013 methods, so I updated it
to include the 2015 additions.
When running this script on my long DNA-strings, I quickly realised that their
quality was far from good. I manually had to remove some homopolymers to get
the script running and it produced an output that did not make any sense to me.

Fig 27: ID8 file
At least I did figure out that ID8 was a probably a JPEG-file due to the fact that
it started with FF D8 FF E0.
4.9. The breakthrough

At this time, I’ve already spent 4 weeks trying to decode this thing and it was
frustrating to realise that the crucial assembly step was just too erroneous. In
addition I already started to think that we did not sequence deep enough and that
we would never be able to get something useful out of the data.
I decided that I’ve been doing too much work myself and that an extra pair of
eyes could be useful. Fortunately, my colleague Stijn was eager to help me out
again and we decided to organise a small hackathon on Saturday with the two of
us. During this hackathon he wrote two new algorithms which could potentially
make a less error prone final assembly. He also wrote those implementations in
Python (he’s a smart guy), making them at least 1 bazillion time faster than my
R algorithms. However, we both were a little bit disappointed that it did not
seem to solve our problem as the final DNA-sequence still seemed to be too
erroneous. Again we started to think that the quality of the data just was not
sufficient enough.
Despite this setback, we still managed to make some progress. One of them was
the realisation that one text file (ID0) was still encoded in hexadecimal. So after
manually removing all the homopolymers, decoding using the Python script,
we’ve put it trough an online translator:

Fig 28 hexadecimal to text coversion
We were psyched! This was the very first time we managed to get a readable result
out of our erroneous DNA-assemblies. However, the result was definitely not good
enough as the bitcoin’s private key was still full of unreadable characters. We had to
get a better assembly.
4.10. The result

The most crucial turning point definitely was my realisation, after a discussion
with Stijn, that I was probably filtering a little bit to stringent in one of the
previous steps. In that step I only kept the read with highest count per index per
file ID. I did this to reduce computation time as my precious R-scripts did not
manage to process the full dataset in a decent amount of time. As soon as I
realised this, I removed this filtering step and reran the whole analysis
overnight.
The next day I had a look at the results. Did my usual manual check for
homopolymers and to my surprise only a few were found. I ran the final
decoding script without any errors, which was also new to me. And there it
was. The very first fully decoded file without any obvious errors:

fig 29 ID0
At this point, I spent the next 20 minutes trying to figure out how to sweep the
bitcoin to my own wallet, in which I succeeded.
The challenge was finally over, after almost three years.
5.CONCLUSION
Blockchain has shown its potential for transforming traditional industry with its
key characteristics: decentralization, persistency, anonymity and auditability. In
this paper, we present a comprehensive overview on blockchain. We first give
an overview of blockchain technologies including blockchain architecture and
key characteristics of blockchain. We then discuss the typical consensus
algorithms used in blockchain. We analyzed and compared these protocols in
different respects. Furthermore, we listed some challenges and problems that
would hinder blockchain development and summarized some existing
approaches for solving these problems. Some possible future directions are also
proposed. Nowadays blockchainbased applications are springing up and we plan
to conduct in-depth investigations on blockchain-based applications in the
future.Synthetic DNA is an excellent candidate to become the urgently needed
long-term preservation medium for valuable digital data. DNA molecules, if
stored dry, cold, and dark, are certainly robust enough to stay intact for at least
several thousands of years, while no high data migration costs arise as with
common mass technologies. Further strong arguments to use DNA molecules to
archive digital data are the possible storage density in the order of 5 PB per

gram, the simplicity to copy DNA molecules at any time and that there is in fact
no format obsolescence risk. As proven with our here described successful 22
Mbyte experiments, the problem of intrinsic errors of the synthesizer, PCR,
sequencer, and storage chain can be solved efficiently with a robust FEC FEC
for DNA Data Storage Blawat, Gaedke, Huetter, Chen, Turczyk, Inverso, Pruitt,
Church
1020 scheme ensuring the integrity of the stored data. The achievable residual
error is in any case certainly smaller than the residual error of traditional storage
media. In an already planned next development step we will increase the amount
of stored data into the GB range. The presented FEC scheme is already designed
for such and even much higher volumes of data.Nevertheless, incremental
changes like a bigger RS block size will reduce the already achieved residual
error further.
6.REFERENCES
1. "Blockchains: The great chain of being sure about things". The
Economist. 31 October 2015. Archived from the original on 3 July 2016.
Retrieved 18 June 2016. The technology behind bitcoin lets people who
do not know or trust each other build a dependable ledger. This has
implications far beyond the crypto currency.
2. Morris, David Z. (15 May 2016). "Leaderless, Blockchain-Based Venture

Capital Fund Raises $100 Million, And
Counting". Fortune. Archived from the original on 21 May 2016.
Retrieved 23 May 2016.
3. Jump up to: Popper, Nathan (21 May 2016). "A Venture Fund With
Plenty of Virtual Capital, but No Capitalist". The New York
Times. Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 23
May 2016.
4. Jump up to: Brito, Jerry; Castillo, Andrea (2013). Bitcoin: A Primer for
Policymakers (PDF)(Report). Fairfax, VA: Mercatus Center, George
Mason University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 September
2013. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
5. Trottier, Leo (18 June 2016). "original-bitcoin" (self-published code

collection). github. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016.
Retrieved 18 June 2016. This is a historical repository of Satoshi
Nakamoto's original bit coin sourcecode

6. Jump up to: Narayanan, Arvind; Bonneau, Joseph; Felten, Edward;

Miller, Andrew; Goldfeder, Steven (2016). Bitcoin and cryptocurrency
technologies: a comprehensive introduction. Princeton: Princeton
University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17169-2.
7. Extance, Andy (2016-08-31). "How DNA could store all the world's
data". Nature. 537 (7618): 22–24. doi:10.1038/537022a. ISSN 0028-
0836.
8. Skinner, Gary M.; Visscher, Koen; Mansuripur, Masud (2007-06-01).

"Biocompatible Writing of Data into DNA". Journal of
Bionanoscience. 1 (1): 17–21. doi:10.1166/jbns.2007.005.
9. Church, G. M.; Gao, Y.; Kosuri, S. (2012). "Next-Generation Digital

Information Storage in DNA". Science. 337 (6102):
1628. Bibcode:2012Sci...337.1628C. doi:10.1126/science.1226355. PMI
D 22903519.
10. Jump up to:a b c Yong, E. (2013). "Synthetic double-helix faithfully stores

Shakespeare's sonnets". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.12279.
11. Jump up to:a b Goldman, N.; Bertone, P.; Chen, S.; Dessimoz, C.;
Leproust, E. M.; Sipos, B.; Birney, E. (2013). "Towards practical, high-
capacity, low-maintenance information storage in synthesized
DNA". Nature. 494 (7435): 77–
80. Bibcode:2013Natur.494...77G. doi:10.1038/nature11875. PMC 36729
58. PMID 23354052.
12. Shah, Shalin; Limbachiya, Dixita; Gupta, Manish K. (2013-10-25).

"DNACloud: A Potential Tool for storing Big Data on
DNA". arXiv:1310.6992 [cs.ET].
13. Limbachiya, D.; Dhameliya, V.; Khakhar, M.; Gupta, M. K. (25 April
2016). On optimal family of codes for archival DNA storage. 2015
Seventh International Workshop on Signal Design and its Applications in
Communications (IWSDA). pp. 123–
127. doi:10.1109/IWSDA.2015.7458386. ISBN 978-1-4673-8308-0.
14. Grass, R. N.; Heckel, R.; Puddu, M.; Paunescu, D.; Stark, W. J. (2015).
"Robust Chemical Preservation of Digital Information on DNA in Silica
with Error-Correcting Codes". Angewandte Chemie International
Edition. 54 (8): 2552–5. doi:10.1002/anie.201411378. PMID 25650567.

15. Blawat, M.; Gaedke, K.; Hütter, I.; Chen, X.-M.; Turczyk, B.; Inverso, S.;
Pruitt, B. W.; Church, G. M. (2016). "Forward Error Correction for DNA
Data Storage". Procedia Computer Science. 80: 1011–
1022. doi:10.1016/j.procs.2016.05.398.
16. Yong, Ed. "This Speck of DNA Contains a Movie, a Computer Virus, and
an Amazon Gift Card". The Atlantic. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
17. "DNA could store all of the world's data in one room". Science
Magazine. 2 March 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2017.

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TECHNICAL

DATA ENCODING AND STORAGE ON DNA

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Kurmannapalem, Duvvada, Visakhapatnam-530046

Dept of Cse, VIIT 2018-20 Page 2

1.BLOCK CHAIN TECHNOLOGY

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Fig1:A Brief History of Blockchain

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Fig2:Blockchain technology services

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In 2008, Satoshi Nakamato conceptualized the distributed blockchain. It would

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Fig 3: structure of technology

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Fig 4 : Blocks connectivity

1.2.2 Block time

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1.3 Permissioned (private) blockchain :

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1.4.2 Smart contracts

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Fig 7: how smart contracts work

1.4.3 Financial services :

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Fig 8 : financial services

1.4.4 Blockchain with video games:

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Fig 9: vedio gaming through blockchain

1.4.5 Supply chain:

1.4.6 Blockchain in space:

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Fig 10: blockchain in space

1.4.7 Other uses:

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from blockchains because they involve many collaborating peers. Online

1.5 Other designs include:

 Quorum – a permissionable private blockchain by JPMorgan Chase with

 Tezos, decentralized voting.

 Proof of Existence is an online service that verifies the existence of

1.6 Types of blockchains:

Fig 11:Types of blockchain

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1.6.1 Public blockchains

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share data or business logic. Other blockchains like Wanchain use

BITCOIN(Tech sem Topic-2)

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 Irreversible: After confirmation, a transaction can‘t be reversed. By

Dept of Cse, VIIT 2018-20 Page 23

your funds to a scammer or if a hacker stole them from your computer.

 Pseudonymous: Neither transactions or accounts are connected to real-

 Fast and global: Transaction is propagated nearly instantly in the

 Secure: Bitcoin funds are locked in a public key cryptography system.

 Permissionless: You don‘t have to ask anybody to use cryptocurrency.

1.3 How can store bitcoins?

 Lightweight client – This is a standalone email client that connects to a