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REFLEXIONES

RAYANAS

VOL. I

PEDRO TOMÉ MARTÍN


Los contenidos expresados en el libro son de exclusiva res-
ponsabilidad de sus autores. La Asociación de Antropología
de Castilla y León Michael Kenny solamente se hace respon-
sable del interés científico de la obra.
Reservados todos los derechos por la legislación en materia
de Propiedad Intelectual.
Esta obra está licenciada bajo la Licencia Creative Commons
Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional.

Para ver una copia de esta licencia, visita http://creativecom-


mons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

Colaboran:

© De los textos. Sus autores


© De la edición. Pedro Tomé y Asociación de Antropología de
Castilla y León “Michael Kenny”
Imagen de cubierta: “El Barco de Ávila”.
Grabado de Jorge Perellón.
(http://www.tallerdejorgeperellon.com/)
Diseño de Cubierta: Andrés Rodríguez (CCHS-CSIC)

I.S.B.N.: 978-84-617-6634-5
D.L.: AV-61-2017
Impresión: Imagen Gráfica de Ávila, S.L.
Pol. Ind. Las Hervencias
C/ Río Tera, 52
05004 Ávila

Impreso en España
ÍNDICE DEL VOLUMEN 1

Prólogo: Antropologías en que reconocerse: mirando más allá de las fronteras.


Luis Díaz Viana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Reflexiones rayanas.
Pedro Tomé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Celebraciones. Évora patrimonio mundial.
María Cátedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Festivalização e políticas públicas: Lorient e o fil numa leitura lusitana.
Jorge Freitas Branco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Desarrollo y sostenibilidad sanitaria: un debate de derechos y mercancías.
José María Uribe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Etnografia e pensamento crítico na antecâmara de políticas públicas.
Manuela I. Cunha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Investigar el laberinto. Etnografías de respuesta rápida en el estudio de las
exhumaciones de fosas comunes en la España contemporánea
Francisco Ferrándiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Presas por um fio: costureiras de Verín, modalidades da produção têxtil local
e trânsitos mundiais.
Paulo Godinho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Desplazados por el desarrollo: Temacapulín (México) visto desde Riaño
(España).
Miguel Ángel Casillas Báez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
A patrimonialização e turistificação das práticas culturais como estratégia de
desenvolvimento sustentável: contradições, incertezas e expectativas na raia
do Baixo Alentejo.
Dulce Simões . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Patrimonio mundial: advocaciones para el desarrollo en el Pirineo catalán.
Camila del Mármol Cartañá . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Pintura de paisagem, etnografia e nacionalização da cultura: Na Barca de
Passagem em Serreleis.
António Medeiros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
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