Wind Turbine Project

text]
Determination of the Power Curve of a Wind Turbine from

Field Measurements and an Assessment of Suitability of the
Turbine at a Proposed Wind Farm
Dundalk Institute Of Technology

Department of the Built Environmental
Mohammed Alsaiari
2018-04-20
Determination of the Power Curve of a Wind Turbine from Field Measurements and an Assessment
of Suitability of the Turbine at a Proposed Wind Farm i
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost, I would like to thank God Almighty for giving me the strength,
knowledge, ability and opportunity to undertake this research study and to persevere and
complete it satisfactorily. Without his blessings, this achievement would not have been
possible.
I would like to express my very great appreciation to Mr. Thomas Kelly for his valuable and
constructive suggestions during the planning and development of this research work. His
willingness to give his time so generously has been very much appreciated
Further, a heartfelt thanks to all my friends and family who supported me during this
endeavour and also to my local peer group for keeping me motivated and ensuring I stay on
track
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of Suitability of the Turbine at a Proposed Wind Farm ii
Declaration
Declaration
I hereby certify that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the programme of
study leading to the award of B.Sc. (Hons.) in Civil Engineering is entirely my own work and
has not been taken form the work of others save where and to the extent that such work has
been cited and acknowledged within the text.
Name: ____________________________________
Student ID: ________________________________
Date: _____________________________________
Signature: _________________________________
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Determination of the Power Curve of a Wind Turbine from Field Measurements and an Assessment ii
of Suitability of the Turbine at a Proposed Wind Farm i
ABSTRACT
Determination of the Power Curve of a Wind Turbine from Field
Measurements and an Assessment of Suitability of the Turbine at a
Proposed Wind Farm
Energy is one of the most important challenges facing the world today. On the
other hand the ways we produce and use energy have the major impact on our
environment. To reduce the negative environmental impacts, our dependency on
fossil fuel power source has to be controlled and reduced. Therefore there is a
remarkable interest to achieve sustainable energy supply from renewable sources
including solar, wind, wave and etc.
Geographically Ireland is located in an area with significant potential of the
access to the wind power for most time of the year so it is commonly accepted that
there is a need to develop and establish wind farms. Unfortunately, one of the main
challenges here is misunderstandings about how much power can be achieved from
wind turbines of all sizes and therefore the economic return of them. This economic
return is directly related to the performance of the turbines itself and also other
factors such as the efficiency of power gridlines and etc.
Mohammed Alsaiari
2018
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Determination of the Power Curve of a Wind Turbine from Field Measurements and an Assessment i
of Suitability of the Turbine at a Proposed Wind Farm v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT...................................................................................................i
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................iii
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE....................................................1
1.1. Introduction................................................................................................................2
1.2. Aim and Objectives....................................................................................................3
1.3. Hypothesis................................................................................................................. 4
1.4. Outline of Methodology.............................................................................................4
CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO WIND ENERGY.................................................5
2.2.1. Geographical Variation..........................................................................................6
2.2.2. Temporal Variations...............................................................................................8
CHAPTER 3 – WIND RESOURCE ANALYSIS............................................................9
3.1. Site Identification.....................................................................................................10
3.1.1. Site Selection.......................................................................................................11
3.1.2. Regional Wind Resource Information..................................................................12
3.1.3. Field Surveys.......................................................................................................14
3.1.4. Tower Placement.................................................................................................14
3.2. Resource Monitoring...............................................................................................16
3.2.1. Basic Measurements...........................................................................................16
3.2.2. Recorded Parameters and Sampling Intervals....................................................18
3.2.3. Data Loggers.......................................................................................................19
3.3. Resource Analysis...................................................................................................20
3.3.1. Data Validation....................................................................................................20
3.3.2. Characterization of Wind Resource.....................................................................20
3.3.3. Wind Flow Modelling...........................................................................................25
CHAPTER 4 – WIND TURBINES...............................................................................27
4.1. Rotor......................................................................................................................... 28
4.1.1. Blades................................................................................................................. 29
4.1.2. Aerodynamic Control Surfaces............................................................................30
4.1.3. Hubs.................................................................................................................... 30
4.2. Drive Train................................................................................................................ 31
4.2.1. Main Shaft........................................................................................................... 31
4.2.2. Couplings............................................................................................................ 31
4.2.3. Gearbox.............................................................................................................. 31
4.2.4. Generator............................................................................................................ 32
4.2.5. Brakes................................................................................................................. 32
4.3. Yaw System.............................................................................................................. 33
4.4. Main Frame and Nacelle..........................................................................................33
4.4.1. Main Frame......................................................................................................... 33
4.4.2. Nacelle Housing..................................................................................................34
4.5. Tower........................................................................................................................ 34
CHAPTER 5 – METHODOLOGY...............................................................................35
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of Suitability of the Turbine at a Proposed Wind Farm v
5.1. Assumptions of Vital Importance...........................................................................36

5.2. Energy Profile Based on Empirical Data................................................................37
5.2.1. Power Curve Based on Turbine Data..................................................................37
5.2.2. Turbine Data Curve Smoothing...........................................................................37
5.3. Wind Turbine Performance Basis and Evaluation Criteria...................................37
5.3.1. Energy Output and Generation Revenue............................................................38
5.3.2. Coefficient of Power and Tip Speed Ratio...........................................................38
5.3.3. Capacity Factor...................................................................................................38
5.3.4. Payback Period...................................................................................................38
5.3.5. Wind Turbine Model Suitability............................................................................39
CHAPTER 6 – RESULTS AND OPTIMISATION........................................................42
6.1. Wind Turbine Design and Empirical Power Curve................................................43
6.2. Wind Turbine Performance.....................................................................................45
6.2.1. Annual Generation and Revenue.........................................................................45
6.2.2. Capacity Factor...................................................................................................46
6.2.3. Cp – λ Curve.........................................................................................................47
6.2.4. Investment Payback............................................................................................49
6.3. Wind Turbine Optimisation and Suitability............................................................51
6.3.1. Turbine Optimisation...........................................................................................51
6.3.2. Wind Turbine Suitability.......................................................................................52
CHAPTER 7 – CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS....................................53
7.1. Conclusion............................................................................................................... 54
7.2. Recommendations...................................................................................................55
LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging)...........................................................................55
Wind Farm Optimisation Tools.......................................................................................55
WindFarm as Tool for Future Work................................................................................56
APPENDICES.............................................................................................................58
Appendix A: Matlab Code for PowerEstimator-2.........................................................59
Appendix B: Matlab Code for Generating the Cp-λ Curve...........................................62
Appendix C: Vestas V52 850 kW Technical Specifications.........................................63
Appendix D: Vestas V52 850 kW Technical Data.........................................................64
Appendix E: WindFarm 3D Visualization Example......................................................65
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................66
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of Suitability of the Turbine at a Proposed Wind Farm 1
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION AND

RATIONALE
1
1.1. Introduction
First of all, this study will focus on the performance of wind turbine itself therefore in
principle data and information of an existing turbine (in this case DkIT’s wind turbine - Fig.
1.1) will be investigated for better understanding of the calculations.
Fig. 1.1 The Location of DkIT Wind Turbine (Source: Google Maps, 2018)
The mean power and annual energy outputs and also the economics of this particular
turbine will be estimated in line with all other data such as wind speed and topography of the
site this turbine located. Meanwhile, power curve of a wind turbine shows the connection
between output power and wind speed and is an important characteristic of the turbine.
Power curve aids in energy assessment, warranty formulations, and performance monitoring
of the turbines. Accurate models of power curves can play an important role in improving the
performance of wind energy based systems.
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Fig. 1.2 A sketch of how the power output from a wind turbine
varies with steady wind speed.
The key aspect of this study is firstly how to use field measurements and data of the
noted wind turbine to calculate power curve of this turbine and secondly how to extend the
results to assess a suitable circumstances for a wind turbine at a possible location.
Therefore the main purpose is to analyse available data from a current situation and use it to
find a reliable scenario to establish a wind turbine.
1.2. Aim and Objectives
The aim of this study is to explore how to use the power curve of an existing wind
turbine to assess a suitability of a wind turbine at a proposed wind farm.
The main objectives of this research include:
 The mean power and annual energy output of an existing wind turbine (DkIT turbine)
as a function of mean wind speed and the level of wind variability using meteorology
data.
 Estimation of the return on investment as a function of mean wind speed and

reference electricity costs.
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 A power output profile of an existing wind turbine (DkIT turbine) showing the
percentage of time that the turbine produces different levels of power including the
zero-power output case.
 The goal of the power curve estimated from previous stage is to characterize the
suitability of the wind turbine in a proposed location.
1.3. Hypothesis
It is possible to hypothesise that data from the power curve of an existing wind
turbine will help us to find out the best characterization and also suitability of a new wind
turbine for a specific location.
1.4. Outline of Methodology
Due to the calculation difficulties, the development of wind turbines especially in a

small scale scenario is still uncertain. The difficulties are due to various reasons such as
wind resource temporal variations (2.2.2.) and free-stream wind speed measurements
issues (3.1.4), and uncertainties (3.3) that will be tackled in the subsequent chapters, in
addition to non-linearity of wind turbines [7] and the limited number of publicly available
empirical research data, though there are research done involving modelling techniques [8].
So this study propose an operative methodology to evaluate the energy potential of a

micro wind turbine in an urban area like Dundalk Institute of Technology in County Louth.
Some techniques used for the site wind energy production evaluation is given below:
 Analysis the existing wind turbine data to characterise the turbine
 Use MET official data, analysis how well the turbine would perform at another site
where an existing MET station is located using the MET data
 The WindFarm 3D software will be looked into as a tool for wind turbine simulation
and optimisation
This research will consider the existing wind turbine located at Dundalk Institute of
Technology, Adam’s Hill site. Empirical data from that site will be used as reference for the
case study in the proposed new wind farm to be located in Oak Park, County Carlow,
Ireland.
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CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO WIND

ENERGY
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2.1. Wind Energy and Its Importance
Wind is a sustainable energy source since it is renewable, widely distributed, and

plentiful. In addition, it contributes to reducing the greenhouse gas emissions since it can be
used as an alternative to fossil-fuel-based power generation. Wind is the airflow that consists
of many gases in the atmosphere of the earth. Rotation of the earth, uneven heating of the
atmosphere and the irregularities of the ground surface are the main factors that create
winds. Motion energy of the wind flow is used by humans for many purposes such as water
pumping, grain milling, etc., through windmills for centuries. The use of windmills for
electricity generation is traced back to late nineteenth century. Windmills that are used for
electricity generation are called wind turbines in order to distinguish them from the traditional
mechanical wind power applications.
Wind turbines capture the kinetic energy of winds and convert it into a usable form of
energy. The kinetic energy of winds rotates the blades of a wind turbine. The blades are
connected to a shaft. The shaft is coupled to an electric generator. The generator converts
the mechanical power into electrical power. The energy available in the wind varies as the
cube of the wind speed. Understanding the characteristics of wind is critical as many aspects
like wind energy exploitation, identification of suitable sites, predictions of the economic
viability of wind farm projects, design of wind turbines and its effect on electricity distribution
networks and consumers.
2.2. Variability of Wind Resources
The most important characteristic of wind resource is its variability. It varies both
geographically and temporally and the variability persists over a very wide range of scales
both in space and time. This variability is amplified by the cubic relationship to available
energy.
2.2.1. Geographical Variation
There are many different climatic regions in the world. Some are having higher wind
resources than the other. This fact is described by the spatial variability on a large scale.
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These regions are mainly dictated by latitudes, which affects the amount of insolation. Within
one climatic region also, there is a variation on a small scale dictated by physical geography,
size of land mass, presence of mountains and plains, etc. The type of vegetation also has
influence on the variability, as the absorption and reflection of solar radiation affects the
humidity and surface temperatures. The topography of a region has major effect on its wind
resource. For instance, more wind is experienced on the tops of hills and mountains than in
the lee of high ground or in sheltered valleys. Wind velocities are significantly reduced by
obstacles such as trees or buildings.
There are two types of local winds:
a. Onshore and Offshore winds

b. Mountain-Valley breezes
A. Onshore and Offshore Winds
Onshore and off shore winds are generated along the shores of the large lakes and
along the coast lines of seas and oceans. These winds blow regularly, nearly every day of
the year. They are produced by differential heating of land and water cause by solar
radiation.
When the sun’s light falls on the earth surface, the land and water simultaneously get
heated up. As they begin to warm, they radiate some of the heat into the atmosphere, which
in turn warms the air above them. As the air is heated, it expands and becomes less dense
and rises. Even though, both land and water get heat up when exposed to the sun, the land
masses get heated more quickly than the neighbouring water body. As a result, the air over
land heats more quickly and that over water and creates differential in the air pressures over
land and water. This results in steady breeze towards the land known as onshore wind.
During the night, the land cools more rapidly when compared to water which creates
and pressure differential. This results in steady breeze towards water known as offshore
wind.
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B. Mountain-Valley Breezes
Similar to coastal winds, the mountain-valley breezes arise from differential heating
across the earth’s surface. On a clear day, as the sun rays struck the mountain, valley walls
and ground, they get heated and in turn warm up the air above them. This air, then expands
and begins to flows upward. As the warmed air moves up a valley, cooler air from
surrounding areas flows in to replace it. This wind is known as a valley breeze. Through the
morning and till late afternoon, the breeze tend to flow up-valley – from valley floor to the
mountain.
During the night, as the mountains get cooled quicker than the valley, the cool and
dense air from mountains flows down the valley. This is called down-valley or mountain
breeze. These valley and mountain winds together are known as mountain-valley breezes.
Since, the air is much cooler in night than that in day, the mountains breeze will be much
stronger than the valley breeze. These breezes typically occur in summer when the solar
radiation is very high.
2.2.2. Temporal Variations
Temporal variability indicates the variations of wind resources with respect to time.
On a large scale, the amount of wind may vary from one year to the other. On smaller time
scales (i.e., within a year), there are seasonal variations. The long term variations are not
well understood and create difficulty in making accurate predictions on the economic viability
of the wind farm in a selected region where as the seasonal variations are more predictable
and help in days ahead planning of wind farm operations.
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CHAPTER 3 – WIND RESOURCE ANALYSIS
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Determination of the Power Curve of a Wind Turbine from Field Measurements and an Assessment 1
Wind resource, as mentioned in the previous chapter, is having wide range of

variability across the space and time. Both the geographical conditions (like type of terrain,
location of the site) and temporal conditions (like time of the day, seasons) have impact on
the available wind resource at a selected location. Wind Resource Assessment is process of
estimating the availability of wind resource available for a wind turbine over the course of its
useful life. This process is the single most important step for determining the amount of
energy the plant will produce, and ultimately the profits it will earn for its owners. For a wind
project to be successful, accurate wind resource assessment is therefore essential.
An accurate energy estimate for a large wind farm does not solely depend on the
measure of wind speed at a particular and place. The requirement is to characterize the
climatic and atmospheric conditions at a project site for wide range of spatial and temporal
scales – meters to kilometers and seconds to years.
A wind resource assessment campaign can be divided into three main steps: site
identification, resource monitoring, and resource analysis.
3.1. Site Identification
The first stage of the wind resource assessment campaign identifies one or more
candidate wind energy project sites. This may involve surveying a relatively large region
(e.g., a county, province or state, or country). A leading consideration is usually the wind
resource, which may be estimated using wind maps and publicly available wind data. Other
considerations may include market conditions, transmission access and capacity, site
constructability and access, community and government support, and environmental and
cultural sensitivities. The following sections of this chapter discuss siting criteria and some
widely used tools and techniques. They also outlines steps to be taken following the initial
site selection, including field surveys, choosing appropriate tower locations, obtaining
permits for tower installation, and entering option agreements with landowners.
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3.1.1. Site Selection
Below are the few major factors that might be considered while selecting a wind
project site:
a. Wind Resource: This is always a key consideration because the better the resource,
the greater the potential power production and project revenues. Before a wind
monitoring campaign is conducted, the developer must consider sources of regional
wind resource information to identify potentially attractive sites.
b. Buildable wind area: The larger the area where turbines can be installed with an
adequate resource, the larger the wind project can be. The buildable windy area is
often constrained by topography and also by other factors described below
c. Proximity to existing Transmission Lines: The costs and risks associated with building
new lines to connect wind projects to the existing transmission grid are substantial. In
general, wind project developers try to minimize the distance that must be covered.
d. Road Access: The developer should consider whether it is feasible to transport wind
monitoring equipment to the site by truck through the existing roads and trails and the
possible need to build new roads or upgrade existing roads to support the eventual
delivery of wind turbines.
e. Land Cover: All other things being equal, development costs are generally greater in
forested terrain than elsewhere, as trees have to be cleared for wind monitoring
masts and eventually for wind turbines, service roads, and other plant needs.
Conversely, some land cover types, such as cropland and rangeland, may be
especially conducive to wind energy development.
f. Land Use Restrictions: Areas may be off-limits for a variety of reasons, such as for
military use or wildlife protection. Such restrictions may eliminate a site from
consideration or constrain its buildable area.
g. Proximity to Residential Areas: A common concern for communities is the proximity
of wind turbines to residential areas. Residents may fear the turbines will generate
too much noise or create blight on the landscape. In many regions, these concerns
are codified in the form of required setbacks from existing homes and other buildings.
h. Cultural, Environmental, and Other Concerns: These issues can extend well beyond
officially designated restricted areas. For example, some sites may be especially
important to particular groups for historical or religious reasons. Others may
encroach on sensitive wildlife habitats not under official protection. Yet others may be
deemed by the local community to have exceptional scenic or esthetic value.
Although issues like these may not strictly rule out development, they can arouse
public opposition to a project and thereby impede the development process and
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increase costs. The developer should be aware of objections that could be raised
and take them into account in the site selection.
With the appropriate data, most of the factors described above are amenable to
quantitative analysis using a GIS. Such systems have become an integral part of today’s
site-selection process, as they enable analysts to efficiently organize and analyse a large
amount of information and to screen sites against a number of often competing criteria. The
most useful geographic data to incorporate into a GIS during this phase typically include the
following:
 wind resource maps

 topographic data (digital elevation or terrain model)
 land cover data (classified by vegetation type or use)
 water bodies
 administrative boundaries
 Excluded areas (natural parks, military zones, urban areas, etc.)
 buildings and other structures requiring setbacks
 roads, railroads, and paths
 transmission lines and substations
 pipelines (natural gas, oil)
 radar and airspace restrictions
 Competing or neighboring projects.
3.1.2. Regional Wind Resource Information
Two common sources of regional wind resource information are wind resource maps
and publicly available wind measurements.
Regional Wind Resource Maps
Regional wind resource maps can be a useful starting point for identifying attractive
wind project sites. However, these maps must be used with caution, as their accuracy and
spatial resolution vary widely. The types of information presented in wind resource maps
also vary. Some maps indicate the estimated long-term mean wind speed, while others
indicate the expected mean wind power density in watts per square meter of swept rotor
area. Neither parameter can be translated directly into production by a wind turbine, which
depends also on other factors such as the speed frequency distribution and air density, as
well as on the specific turbine model and hub height.
Wind Measurements
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Publicly available wind data can be useful for assessing the wind resource in a
region, especially if the wind monitoring stations are in locations that are representative of
sites of interest for wind projects. Tall towers instrumented specifically for wind energy
assessment are greatly preferred, but airports and other weather stations can provide a
helpful indication of the wind resource as well. It is important in all cases to obtain as much
information as possible about each station to determine whether or not the data are reliable.
Wind data tend to be more representative of the surrounding area where the terrain
is relatively flat. In complex terrain or near coastlines, the ability to reliably extrapolate the
information beyond a station’s immediate vicinity is more limited and may require expert
judgment and wind flow modelling. Also, the height of the tower instrumented for wind
resource assessment has impact on the measured data. Generally, the heights of towers
employed for creating the wind resource maps will be varying from 3m to 50m depending on
the purpose for installation. However, in recent times, the wind turbines are installed at
heights more than 80m. The measured data at various heights must be extrapolated to bring
them to same reference height.
This can be done conveniently by using the Power Law:
Where:
: the projected speed at the desired height
: the observed speed at the measured height
: A non-dimensional wind shear component. Typical values of α
ranges from 0.07 to 0.60 depending on the type of terrain.
3.1.3. Field Surveys
It is recommended that all candidate wind project sites be visited in person. The main
goals of the visits are (i) to confirm the assumptions and data used in a GIS-based site-
screening (ii) to obtain additional information not available in a map or GIS format, and (iii) to
select places to install wind monitoring systems. Field visits also provide an opportunity for
the developer to become acquainted with landowners, community representatives, business
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leaders, government officials, and others who may be involved in or affected by the
proposed wind project or who may have a say in its approval.
3.1.4. Tower Placement
There are two distinct types of monitoring towers: dedicated towers installed
specifically for wind resource monitoring and pre-existing multi-use tall towers.
Dedicated Towers
One approach to tower placement is to keep the distance between any proposed
turbine and the nearest tower within specified limits. With this method, it is necessary to
envision a specific turbine layout (or at least its outlines) before siting the towers. Distance is
not the only criterion that should be considered, however. It is equally important that the
mast locations be representative of the terrain in which the turbines will eventually be
installed.
Pre-existing Towers
At first glance, existing multi-use tall towers might appear to be a convenient and
cost-effective alternative to new, dedicated towers. However, such towers may have
significant drawbacks that make accurate wind resource assessment difficult. The following
points must be considered when using pre-existing towers for assessment:
 If the tower is well outside the proposed turbine array, its value to the monitoring
campaign will likely be limited.
 If the tower is unusually wide or it carries a lot of equipment such as communications
dishes and radar repeaters, it may be difficult to obtain an accurate reading of the
free-stream wind speed.
 The number of instruments that can be mounted and their heights and boom lengths
may be constrained by the tower owner or by structural considerations.
 It may not be possible to access the tower whenever necessary to replace or repair
wind monitoring equipment.
For these reasons, in practice, very few wind projects are assessed solely or mainly on the
basis of data collected from existing multi-use towers.
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3.2. Resource Monitoring
Once a site is identified, the second stage involves the measurement and
characterization of the wind resource. It is at this stage that wind monitoring towers are likely
to be installed. The most common objectives of the monitoring are as follows:
 To verify whether a sufficient wind resource exists to justify further investigation.

 To compare and rank the wind resources between different candidate sites.
 To obtain representative data for estimating the performance and economic viability
of different wind turbine models.
 To provide a sound basis for wind resource analysis.
3.2.1. Basic Measurements
Horizontal Wind Speed
Wind speed is the most important indicator of a site’s wind resource. Obtaining
accurate readings of the free-stream wind speed over a representative period is, therefore, is
a top priority of any wind resource assessment program. In order to achieve the accurate
wind speed data, careful attention to the choice of instruments, mounting configuration, and
tower design is required. Multiple redundant anemometers and measurement heights are
strongly encouraged to maximize data recovery and to accurately determine a site’s wind
shear. The device used for measuring the wind speed is called as anemometer. There are
three types of anemometers: (a) Cup Anemometer, (b) Propeller Anemometer and (c) Sonic
Anemometers.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3.1 Different Types of Anemometers (Source: www.lakescientist.com, 2018)
Cup Anemometers are most commonly used they are inexpensive. When there is a
requirement to measure very low speeds propeller anemometers are used. For measuring
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the variations in wind speed and directions at very small intervals of time, sonic
anemometers are used.
Wind Direction
Wind direction measurements are a necessary ingredient for modelling the spatial
distribution of the wind resource across a project area and for optimizing the layout of the
wind turbines. A wind vane is usually used to measure wind direction. To define the wind
direction with adequate redundancy, it is recommended that wind vanes be installed on at
least two monitoring levels. Ideally, they should not be mounted on the same booms or even
at the same heights as the anemometers, as they could interfere with obtaining accurate
speed readings. It is customary to mount the direction vanes 1 or 2 m below the
anemometers.
Fig. 3.2 Wind Vane (Source: www.windlogger.eu, 2018)
Air Temperature
Air temperature is an important characteristic of a wind farm’s operating environment.

It is normally measured 2–3 m above ground level or near hub height, or at both levels. In
most locations, the average air temperature near ground level is within 1°C of the average at
hub height. Air temperature is used to estimate air density, which affects the calculation of
power production. The air temperature readings are also utilized in the data validation
process to detect icing.
16
Fig. 3.3 Ambient Temperature Sensor (Source: www.youngusa.com, 2018)
Additional Measurements
Depending on the site conditions and the needs, priorities and the budget of the
monitoring program, additional parameters are also measured. Additional parameters like
vertical wind speed, vertical temperature gradients, relative humidity, barometric pressure
and solar radiation can be measured by installing the additional sensors in the weather
station. Each additional sensor consumes power and there are limitations to number of
instrument channels supported by the data loggers. So, this must be considered whenever
any additional sensor is installed.
3.2.2. Recorded Parameters and Sampling Intervals
The parameters that are sampled and measured must conform to the adhered
industry standards. Industry standard recording interval is 10min and is sampled for every 1s
or 2s depending on the data loggers’ make and model. Depending on the parameter, the
data logger records interval averages, standard deviations, and maximum and minimum
values.
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Standard Deviation
The standard deviation should be determined for both wind speed and wind direction
and is defined as the population standard deviation (σ) for all 1- or 2-s samples within each
10-min interval. The standard deviations of wind speed and wind direction are indicators of
turbulence. They are also useful for detecting suspect or erroneous data.
Maximum and Minimum
The maximum and minimum values observed during each interval should be
recorded for all parameters. This is especially important for the maximum 3-s gust (speed),
which can affect whether a particular turbine model is deemed suitable for the site. If
possible, the coincident directions corresponding to the maximum and minimum wind
speeds should also be recorded.
3.2.3. Data Loggers
Data loggers store data locally, and many can transfer the data to another location
through cellular telephone, radio frequency (RF) telemetry, or satellite link. Remote data
transfer allows the user to obtain and inspect data without making frequent site visits and
also to verify that the logger is operating correctly. The data logger must be compatible with
the sensor types employed and must be able to support the desired number of sensors,
measurement parameters, and sampling and recording intervals. It is recommended that the
data logger
 Be capable of storing data values in a sequential format with corresponding time and
date stamps;
 Contribute negligible errors to the signals received from the sensors;
 Have an internal data storage capacity of at least 40 days;
 Possess an onboard real-time clock so that the time stamps will remain accurate
even if the logger loses power;
 Operate in the same environmental extremes as those listed in Table 4-1;
 Offer retrievable data storage media when a remote uplink is not possible;
 Offer remote data collection options;
 Operate on battery power (which may be augmented by other sources such as a
solar panel);
 Offer nonvolatile memory storage so that data are not lost if power fails.
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3.3. Resource Analysis
The third stage of the wind resource assessment process entails the description of
the wind resource at all relevant temporal and spatial scales to support the optimal
placement of turbines within the project area and the most accurate possible estimation of
energy production. It includes data validation, characterization of the observed resource,
adjustments for wind shear and long-term wind climate, numerical wind flow modelling,
project design and energy production calculations, and uncertainty.
3.3.1. Data Validation
Once the data from the monitoring system have been successfully transferred to a
computing environment, the data must be checked for errors and validated. The
completeness and reasonableness of the data are assessed, and invalid or suspect values
are flagged. This process also serves to detect potential problems with the instrumentation
or data logger. Data validation usually proceeds in two phases: automated screening and in-
depth review.
The automated screening uses a series of algorithms to flag suspect data records.
Suspect records contain values that fall outside the normal range based on either prior
knowledge or information from other sensors on the same tower. The algorithms commonly
include relational tests, range tests, and trend tests
The second phase, sometimes called verification, involves a case-by-case decision

about what to do with the suspect values—retain them as valid or reject them as invalid. This
is where judgment by an experienced person familiar with the monitoring equipment and
local meteorology is most helpful. Information that is not part of the automated screening,
such as regional weather data, may also be brought into play.
3.3.2. Characterization of Wind Resource
Once the data validation is complete, the data can be analysed to produce a variety
of wind resource statistics and informative reports. This type of analysis provides a useful
summary of the wind resource observed over the course of the monitoring program.
Software to do this is available from several vendors, including some data logger
manufacturers. Customized reports can also be created with spreadsheet and database
software. Commonly provided wind resource reports contain the following summary of
statistics:
19
 Data Recovery (DR) fraction

 Mean and annualized mean wind speed
 Mean Wind power density
 Wind Shear
 Turbulence Intensity
 Mena Air temperature
 Mean air density
 Speed frequency distribution
 Weibull A and k parameters
 Wind rose
 Daily and Hourly distribution
Data Recovery (DR) Fraction
The data recovery (DR) is defined as the number of valid data records (N valid) divided
by the total possible number of records (N) for the reporting period. It is usually expressed as
a percentage. The equation is as follows:
Mean and Annualized Mean Wind Speeds
The mean wind speed is simply the average of the valid speed values for the period
in question:
However, the mean wind speed can sometimes be a misleading indicator of the wind
resource. If the data span a period much shorter than a full year, the mean will not reflect the
full seasonal cycle of wind variations. Even if the data span a full year, there may be large
gaps in the record that can bias the mean in favor of months with more complete data
coverage. And if the data cover more than 1 year but not an integer number of years, some
calendar months may occur more often than others, also possibly resulting in a bias in the
estimated mean speed.
20
Wind Shear
The wind shear (the rate of change in horizontal wind speed with height) is typically
expressed as a dimensionless Power Law exponent known as alpha (α). The Power Law
equation relates the wind speeds at two different heights in the following manner:
Where:
The wind speed at height
The wind speed at height
Turbulence Intensity
Wind turbulence, defined as rapid fluctuations in wind speed and direction, can have
a significant impact on turbine performance and loading. The most common indicator of
turbulence is the standard deviation (σ) of the wind speed calculated from 1- or 2-s samples
over a 10-min recording interval. Dividing this value by the mean wind speed for the same
interval gives the turbulence intensity (TI):
Where the standard deviation of wind speed for the recording interval
is the mean wind speed for the recording interval
Wind Power Density (WPD)
WPD is defined as the flux of kinetic energy in the wind per unit cross-sectional area.
Combining the site’s wind speed distribution with air density, it provides an indication of the
wind energy production potential of the site. It is calculated in the following way:
Where
21
the number of records in the period
the air density (kg/m3)
the wind speed for record i (m/s)

Air Density
The air density depends on temperature and pressure (and thus altitude) and can
vary by as much as 10–15% seasonally. If the site pressure is measured, the air density can
be calculated from the ideal gas law:
Where
the site air pressure (Pa or N/m2)
the specific gas constant for dry air (287.04 J/kg · K)
the air temperature in degrees Kelvin (°C + 273.15)
Speed frequency distribution and Weibull parameters
The speed frequency distribution is a critical piece of information as it is used directly

in estimating the power output of a wind turbine. The frequency distribution represents the
number of times in the period of record that the observed speed falls within particular
ranges, or bins. The speed bins are typically 0.5 or 1 m/s wide and span at least the range of
speeds defined for the turbine power curve, that is, from 0 to 25 m/s and above. It is usually
presented in reports as a bar chart, or histogram, covering all directions.
Wind Rose
In most projects, it is desirable to space turbines much further apart along the
principle wind direction than perpendicular to it to minimize wake interference between the
turbines. For this reason, the directional frequency distribution is a key characteristic of the
wind resources.
A polar plot displaying the frequency of occurrence by direction is called a wind rose.
Wind rose plots often display the percentage of time the wind blows in certain speed ranges
22
by dividing each segment of the plot into different color bands. Another type of plot, known
as an energy rose, displays the percentage of total energy in the wind coming from each
direction. Sometimes these plots are combined into one. Wind and energy rose plots are
created by sorting the wind data into the desired number of sectors, typically either 12 or 16,
and calculating the relevant statistics for each sector.
Frequency (%):
Percentage of total energy:
Fig. 3.5 Wind and energy rose plot example (Source: AWS Truepower, 2012)
In these equations, Ni refers to the number of records in direction sector i, N is the

total number of records in the data set, WPDi is the average wind power density for direction
sector i, and WPD is the average wind power density for all records. Above figure (Fig(3.5)
shows a typical plot showing both frequency and percent of energy.
23
3.3.3. Wind Flow Modelling
The main purpose of wind flow modelling is to estimate the wind resource at every
proposed or potential wind turbine location so that the wind plant’s energy production can be
calculated and its design optimized. This usually means extrapolating from the wind
resource measured at one or more meteorological towers using a numerical wind flow model
of some kind. While doing wind resource assessment for any wind farm, ideally it is preferred
to estimate the wind speed at each and every proposed turbine location which will be an
expensive affair. By doing wind flow modelling, the wind speed at each and every proposed
turbine location can be estimated. In addition to this, wind flow modelling is used in
estimating each turbine’s influence on the other turbines. They are many methods to perform
wind flow modelling, with diverse characteristics and applications.
24
CHAPTER 4 – WIND TURBINES
25
Wind turbines are the machines that convert the kinetic energy of the wind into
electrical energy. There are two types of wind turbines. The most general type of wind
turbine is ‘Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine’ and the other is ‘Vertical Axis Wind Turbine’.
Throughout this book, we will be discussing on horizontal axis wind turbines. Fig.4.1 shows a
typical horizontal axis wind turbine and generic identification of various parts in the system
Fig. 4.1 Typical horizontal axis wind turbine (Source: albionalumni.org, 2018)
The major components groups in a wind turbine are the rotor, the drive train, the
main frame, the yaw system and the tower. The following sections of this chapter will discuss
each of the component groups and its subcomponents in detail.
4.1. Rotor
Rotor is unique among the other component groups. It is designed for the purpose of
extracting significant power from the wind and converting it to rotary motion. They must
operate under conditions that include steady as well as periodically and stochastically
varying loads. The rotor includes the following components.
26
1. Blades
2. Aerodynamic control surfaces
3. Hubs
4.1.1. Blades
Blades are the fundamental component of the rotor which converter the force of the
wind to torque needed to generate useful power. There are many things to consider for
designing the blades, but most importantly the aerodynamic performance and structural
strength are to be considered in order to minimize the costs and maximize the life time of the
wind turbine.
Aerodynamic Performance
The primary aerodynamic factors affecting the blade design are design rated power
and rated wind speed; design tip speed ratio; solidity; airfoil; number of blades; rotor power
control (stalled or variable pitch) and rotor orientation (upwind or downwind of the tower).
Structural Strength
The exterior shape of the blades is based on the aerodynamics, but the interior of the
blade is primarily by consideration of the structural strength. The blade structure must be
strong enough to withstand extreme loads and to survive many fatigue cycles. In order to
provide sufficient strength, near the root of the blade, the inboard sections are relatively
thick.
Apart from the aerodynamic performance and the structural strength, the following
aspects are also considered for designing the blades.
a. Blade material
b. Recyclability
c. Blade manufacturing
d. Worker health and safety
e. Noise reduction
f. Condition and health monitoring
g. Blade roots and hub attachment
h. Passive control or smart blade options
i. Costs
4.1.2. Aerodynamic Control Surfaces
There are number ways to modify the aerodynamic performance of the blade such as
pitch control, control surface and passive control.
27
Control Surface
An aerodynamic control surface is a device which can be moved to change the

aerodynamics of a rotor. A variety of types of aerodynamic control surfaces can be
incorporated in wind turbine blades. They must be designed in conjunction with the rest of
the rotor.
In the conventional wind turbine the aerodynamic performance is pitch controlled

where the entire blade rotates about the blade’s long axis. Another type of aerodynamic
control surface is aileron, which is a movable flap located at the trailing edge of the blade.
Passive Control
Passive controlled wind turbines have the rotor blades bolted onto the hub at a fixed
angle. The advantage of the passive control is to avoid the moving parts in the rotor blade
itself and complex system to control it. The rotor blade for a passive controlled wind turbine
will be twisted slightly as you move along its longitudinal axis. This is partly done in order to
ensure that the rotor blade stalls gradually rather than abruptly when the wind speed
reaches its critical value.
4.1.3. Hubs
The hub of a wind turbine is component that connects the blades to the main shaft
and to the rest of the drive train. The hub transmits all the load generated by the blades to
the drive train and should withstand the loads. For a horizontal axis wind turbine, there are
three types of hub design Rigid Hub, Teetering hub and Hubs for hinged blades.
Rigid hubs have all the major parts fixed relative to the shaft. Teetering hub allows
relative motion between the parts that connect the blades and that connect to the main shaft.
Hubs for hinged blades allow flapping motion relative to the plane of rotation.
28
4.2. Drive Train
The drive train of a wind turbine consists of all rotating components: rotor, main shaft,
couplings, gearbox, brakes and generator.
4.2.1. Main Shaft
The main shaft is the principal rotating element, providing for the transfer of torque
from the rotor to the rest of the drive train. The main shaft is sized taking into account the
combined loads of torque and bending. Main shafts are normally made of steel.
4.2.2. Couplings
Couplings are used to connect shafts together. There are two locations in particular
where large couplings are likely to be used in wind turbines: between the main shaft and the
gearbox and between the gearbox output shaft and the generator. The primary function of
the coupling is to transmit torque between two shafts. In some cases, they are used to
dampen torque fluctuations in the main shaft before the power is converted to electricity.
4.2.3. Gearbox
Gearbox is used to increase the speed of the input shaft of the generator. In large
wind turbines, the rotor and main shaft will turn at lower speeds than required by the
electrical generators. The gearbox also acts as support for the main shaft bearings. The
gearbox is one of the heaviest and most expensive components in the wind turbine.
Experience shows that under designed gear boxes are one of the main reasons for wind
turbine operational problems. Gearbox consists of torque transmitting parts such as, shafts
and gears, machine elements such as bearings and seals and structural elements such as
the case. There are basically two types of gearboxes: (a) parallel shaft gearbox and (b)
planetary gearbox.
In parallel shaft gearbox, gears are carried on two or more parallel shafts. In a single
stage gearbox, there are two shafts one with low speed and one with high speed. Both these
shafts pass through the case. The one with low speed is connected to the main shaft or the
rotor and the one with high speed is connected to the generator.
Planetary gearbox is significantly different from the parallel shaft gearbox. The major
difference is both the input and output shaft are coaxial. There are multiple pairs of gear
29
teeth meshing at any time reducing the load on each gear. In planetary gearboxes, a low-
speed shaft, supported by bearings in the case, is rigidly connected to a planet carrier. The
carrier holds three identical small gears, known as planets. These gears are mounted on
short shafts and bearings and are free to turn. These planets mesh with a large-diameter
internal or ring gear and a small-diameter sun gear. When the low-speed shaft and carrier
rotate, meshing of the planets in the ring gear forces the planets to rotate, and to do so at a
speed higher than the speed of the carrier. The meshing of the planets with the sun gear
causes it to rotate as well. The sun gear then drives the high-speed shaft, to which it is
rigidly connected. The high-speed shaft is supported by bearings mounted in the case.
4.2.4. Generator
The generator converts the mechanical power from the rotor into electrical power.
They consist of two main parts: a set of stationary windings, known as the stator; and a set
of rotating magnets, known as the rotor. Wind turbines, therefore, first convert the kinetic
energy of the wind into mechanical energy (rotation). The mechanical energy is then
converted into electrical energy in the generator.
Electricity leaves the alternator via wires that attach to the stator. In most turbines,
these wires terminate on metal brushes. The brushes, in turn, contact slip rings, which are
brass rings located near the yaw bearing. The yaw bearing allows the turbine to turn in
response to changes in the wind direction. The brushes transfer electricity from the
alternator to the slip rings. The slip rings, in turn, connect to a cable (electric wire) that runs
down the length of the tower. Electricity flows from the alternator to the brushes to the slip
rings and then down the tower.
4.2.5. Brakes
Almost all the wind turbines employ a mechanical brake somewhere in the drive train.
In most cases, the mechanical brake is capable of stopping the turbine. In other cases, the
mechanical brake is used only for parking i.e., it keeps the rotor from turning when the
turbine is not in operation. There are two types of mechanical brakes in the wind turbines:
disc brakes and clutch brakes.
Mechanical brakes can be at any location on the drive train. It is important to note
that a brake on the low-speed side of the gearbox must be able to exert a much higher
torque than would be the case with one on the high-speed side. It will thus be relatively
massive. On the other hand, if the brake is on the high-speed side, it will necessarily act
30
through the gearbox, possibly increasing the gearbox wear. Furthermore, in the event of an
internal failure in the gearbox, a brake on the high-speed side might be unable to slow the
rotor.
4.3. Yaw System
As the direction of the wind is variable, all horizontal axis wind turbines must be able
to yaw so as to orient themselves in line with the wind direction. Sometimes, turbines use
active yaw system for power regulation also. A mechanism must be provided to enable the
yawing to take place, and at a slow enough rate so that the large gyroscopic forces are
avoided. There are two basic types of yaw system: active yaw and free yaw. Turbines with
active yaw are normally upwind machines. They employ a motor to actively align the turbine.
Turbines with free yaw are normally downwind machines. They rely on the aerodynamics of
the rotor to align the turbine. As turbines get larger, however, active yaw will likely be
considered for downwind turbines as well.
4.4. Main Frame and Nacelle
The nacelle is the housing for the principal components of the wind turbine except
the rotor. It includes main frame and nacelle cover.
4.4.1. Main Frame
The main frame is the structural component to which the gearbox, generator, and
brake are attached. It provides a rigid structure to maintain the proper alignment among
those other components. It also provides a point of attachment for the yaw bearing, which in
turn is bolted to the top of the tower. The main frame must transmit all the loads from the
rotor and reaction loads from the generator and brake to the tower. It must also be rigid
enough that it allows no relative movement between the rotor support bearings, gearbox,
generator, and brake.
4.4.2. Nacelle Housing
The nacelle housing provides weather protection for the wind turbine components
which are located in the nacelle. These include, in particular, electrical and mechanical
components that could be affected by sunlight, rain, ice, or snow. On larger machines the
31
nacelle housing is of sufficient size that it can be entered by personnel for inspecting or
maintaining the internal components.
4.5. Tower
Towers are supports to raise the main part of the turbine up in the air. A tower is
normally at least as high as the diameter of the rotor. For smaller turbines the tower may be
much higher than that. Generally, tower height should not be less than 24 m because the
wind speed is lower and more turbulent so close to the ground. There are three types of
towers are used in common for horizontal axis wind turbines.
a. Free standing lattice (truss)

b. Cantilevered pipe (tubular tower)
c. Guyed lattice or pole.
Tubular towers have a number of advantages. Unlike lattice towers, they do not rely
on many bolted connections which need to be torqued and checked periodically. They
provide a protected area for climbing to access the machine. Guyed towers have never been
very common for machines of medium size or larger.
32
CHAPTER 5 – METHODOLOGY
33
5.1. Assumptions of Vital Importance
It is essential that assumptions are put forward to have a common ground before any
analysis and address possible issues that may arise due to different expectations. Any
deviation from these assumptions would make the comparison difficult and complicated.
Assumptions in this study starts with the wind turbine units at the DkIT and in the
proposed Oak site being of identical design, with only one installed at each site, and with
both units' operating and maintenance requirements and incurred costs to be the same.
It is also assumed that the MET data for the Oak site reflects the net available wind
energy influenced by the site’s terrain, existing structures or buildings, wind obstacles, site
roughness, turbulence, or local weather conditions. Further assumption is that year to year
or long term variations of meteorological data don’t vary at significant magnitude so that Year
2008 MET data would prove useful for this study. Seasonal variations to consider is only
within a year thus involve smaller time scales.
For the economics aspect, it is presumed that power sales rate fixed and not affected
by the variations of currency purchasing power and inflation rates, electricity market
conditions or other market factors, variations in feed-in tariff as an investment incentive,
interests of loans used in the energy project funding, statutory or regulatory fees, equipment
economic value depreciation and decommissioning, or whether the generating unit is
connected to electric grid network or just to an island grid supplying site power consumers.
Presumptions on wind turbine technical aspect are that the turbine configuration
used, the type of machine and control system technology utilized, wind turbine performance
degradation due to aging, site selection, or electrical configuration implemented would not
matter in the carrying out relevant case studies. Also for practicality, maximum wind speed
will be used in-lieu of maximum 3-second gust the basis of suitability assessment as the
former is what has been provided in the wind turbine manufacturer’s specification.
For the data analyses, Matlab will be used while the database would be served by
Excel files containing wind turbine data or relevant MET data.
Wrapping it up, it goes to say that for the relevant analyses done in this study, the
wind energy investment revenue would rely on fixed power sales rate, on the projected and
34
actual energy output, the actual wind turbine performance would be based on gathered
historical data, and wind turbine suitability assessed based on implemented design.
5.2. Energy Profile Based on Empirical Data
Annual energy production of the DkIT wind turbine will be determined based on its
12-month turbine data for 2008.
5.2.1. Power Curve Based on Turbine Data
The power curve is determined using the Matlab code presented in Appendix A with
the graph generated using that 2008 turbine data, is shown in Fig. 6.1 (b) of the next
chapter. Turbine data were recorded every 10 minutes for the whole year period. A Matlab
script in that code is used to exclude all data that do not contribute to energy production
such as those of less than zero power output, with the streamlined curve drawn through
averaging the data by segments.
5.2.2. Turbine Data Curve Smoothing
As field data can be affected by wind characteristic variability compounded by

instrument limitation or errors, data validation (see 3.3.1) is implemented through a data
filtering scheme as a practical way to check its completeness or reasonableness and arrive
at a smooth curve for its visual representation. The information needed are those that would
illustrate how the wind turbine behaves in terms of its power output in relation to the wind
characteristic. The script to carry out the method is part of the routine implemented by the
functions as included in the PowerEstimator-2 Matlab code file in Appendix A.
5.3. Wind Turbine Performance Basis and Evaluation Criteria
Wind turbine performance and suitability can be assessed in various ways. This
study makes use of practical ways conforming with the operative methodology as intended.
Assessing wind turbine performance would involve both existing DkIT and proposed
Oak site annual energy production, capacity factor (CF), payback period (PP), and C p-λ
curve. Performance evaluation criteria would involve comparison of these quantities. Wind
turbine suitability will be assessed based on wind characteristics.
35
5.3.1. Energy Output and Generation Revenue
In determining the performance of the wind turbine in DkIT site (see Fig. 5.1) in the
proposed Oak Park site (Fig. 5.2), a practical approach would be considered. This would
involve determination of the actual energy output and generation revenue that can be used
in assessing its sustainability and payback. The empirical analysis would use historical data
based on site performance power curve and meteorological data available for the period
considered. Wind turbine performance based on actual energy output is considered to reflect
actual site net performance notwithstanding further details on all performance-degrading
factors, so is deemed a criteria item of practical importance for this study.
5.3.2. Coefficient of Power and Tip Speed Ratio
In this study, the relationship between the coefficient of power (C p) and rotor tip
speed ratio, represented by lambda (λ) will be evaluated and the wind turbine characteristic
would be analysed from the resulting Cp–λ curve. The Cp–λ curve will be generated from
empirical turbine data for a certain year under consideration.
5.3.3. Capacity Factor
Another criterion in assessing the performance of a wind turbine is the capacity factor
(CF). As the ratio of the annual energy output to the theoretical maximum energy output
based on design rating, utilizing capacity factor is one of the practical method of measuring
wind turbine performance. Also called intermittent factor, it portrays how well the wind turbine
fares in power generation for the whole year compared to its capacity intended to generate
revenue for the same period.
5.3.4. Payback Period
Just as any corporate assets that entails substantial investment, return on investment
for the proposed Oak Park wind turbine electric generating unit is desired to materialize
within an acceptable period. Payback needs to happen in due time and it is required to be
sized up according to established methods. As a simple technique in appraising an energy
investment, payback period for a power generating unit is determined as the time in which
36
the initial cost of investment is expected to be recovered from the revenue out of the energy
sales.
5.3.5. Wind Turbine Model Suitability
A practical approach on wind turbine suitability evaluation would involve investigation

of the DkIT Vestas V52 model’s exposure to the maximum wind speed compared to its
designed capability. The manufacturer has declared certain survival maximum wind speed
this particular wind turbine model can handle without damage. MET data obtained for the
Oak Park site will be the basis of field information.
Fig. 5.1 Street view of the existing Vestas V52-850 kW wind turbine at
DkIT campus. (Source: Google Maps, 2018)
37
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.2 Proposed new wind farm site at Oak Park area: (a) satellite
view of the site, located about 160 km to the south of DkIT
campus; (b) proposed site street view showing the terrain,
topography, and nearby vegetation. (Source: Google Maps,
2018)
38
CHAPTER 6 – RESULTS AND

OPTIMISATION
39
6.1. Wind Turbine Design and Empirical Power Curve
The desired power curve is considered to reflect the actual site performance of the
Vestas V52 850-kilowatt rated wind turbine, wherein all site and meteorological factors
assumed to be practically counted in. Comparing the manufacturer-provided power curve in
Fig. 6.1 (a) and Matlab-generated curve in Fig. 6.1 (b), no huge difference can be observed.
The Oak Park site wind speed distribution is shown in Fig. 6.2, which is based on
2016 MET data. This is the histogram generated using Matlab for frequency distribution of
the number of hours certain wind speeds persists for that year period. PowerEstimator 2
program would utilize these data in its routines for creating power estimation matrix that
would be used in calculating generated power for particular binned wind speeds.
(a)
40
(b)
Fig. 6.1 Power curve for the DkIT wind turbine rated 850
kW (a) curve provided by the manufacturer, and
(b) generated using Matlab based on 2008
data.
Fig. 6.2 Matlab histogram for wind speed distribution of

the Oak Park site based on 2016 MET data.
41
6.2. Wind Turbine Performance
The subsequent calculations will deal on assessing the performance of the wind
turbine in this study according to its energy production, generation revenue, and capacity
factor. Relationship between coefficient of power and rotor tip speed ratio will also be
determined thus completing the criteria on wind turbine performance evaluation this study
sought.
The power curve and MET data generated above form the basis of the succeeding
analyses.
6.2.1. Annual Generation and Revenue
With the wind speed distribution considered uniform through the years, the Oak Park
site wind speed distribution shown in Fig. 6.2 is fitted with the DkIT wind turbine power curve
given in Fig. 6.3 (b) thereby obtaining the annual energy generation.
Using PowerEstimator 2,
Oak Park Estimated Annual Generation
For One Wind Turbine = 2,687,807 kWh or 2,687.807 MWh
Oak Park Estimated Annual Revenue Generation
For One Wind Turbine = 194,745.048 Euros
DkIT Estimated Annual Generation
For One Wind Turbine = 1,817,146.467 kWh or 1,817.146 MWh
DkIT Estimated Annual Revenue Generation
For One Wind Turbine = 131,661.347 Euros
Where:
- Estimated generation-associated computations

excludes wind speeds below cut-in speed (3
m/s) and above cut-out speed (22 m/s) of which
the wind turbine power output is not more than
zero, and;
42
- Power sales rate is based on 72.455 Euros per

MWh.
6.2.2. Capacity Factor
This unit-less quantity, though derived from energy calculations, is basically of

economic significance. The subsequent calculations determine the respective wind turbine
capacity factor.
∑ WTGGen
CF =
WTGRating x ∑ HoursPeriod
Where:
- CF is the capacity factor

- WTGGen is the energy generation for the period
- WTGRating equals the wind turbine rating
- HoursPeriod is the total number of hours for the
period
DkIT 2008 Rated Capacity
per Wind Turbine = 850 kW x 8760 h
= 7,446,000 kWh or 7,446 MWh
CFDkIT per Wind Turbine = 1,817.146 MWh ÷ 7,446 MWh
= 0.24 or 24%
Oak Park Projected Rated Capacity
per Wind Turbine = 850 kW x 8760 h
= 7,446,000 kWh or 7,446 MWh
CFOak per Wind Turbine = 2,687.807 MWh ÷ 7,446 MWh
= 0.36 or 36%
The higher the capacity factor, the better the performance of a wind turbine with
respect to attaining its expected economic value. It is apparent from the above calculation
that the DkIT unit, at 24% CF, would be outperformed by the proposed Oak Park installation
predicted to operate at 36% CF. These results tend to be consistent with the findings of the
study of Kealy, et al, about recorded capacity factors for numerous wind farms in Ireland [8].
43
6.2.3. Cp – λ Curve
The coefficient of power and the λ characteristics of a wind turbine influence its net
energy yield and consequently its economic performance by way of generation revenue.
While Cp serves as an indicator in depicting a wind turbine’s performance or efficiency on
converting the wind’s kinetic energy into electrical energy, λ, described as a wind turbine
rotor tip-speed ratio, represents the rotor’s behaviour as it turns in terms of the created noise
and the blades’ rigidity requirement due to the ensuing centrifugal forces. A C p – λ curve is
used in wind turbine design to determine the rotor power for any wind to rotor speed
combination.
Fig. 6.3 Cp-λ curve generated through Matlab using the

2008 turbine data.
This graphical illustration of the relationship between C p and λ is produced in Matlab

using the CpLambda.m codes provided in Appendix B. Fig. 6.3 shows maximum C p at about
0.44, corresponding to the turbine’s optimum performance where λ is around 8. This value of
λ would be maintained for any wind speed by the pitch control system by adjusting the rotor
speed thereby maintaining optimal power output.
The curve also shows that at around 39 m/s power output is zero (Cp = 0) which
means that even if the rotor is rotating, it is seen as a “blocking disc” by the incoming wind.
44
Presumably zero output due to zero speed is not shown as relevant data were filtered during
Matlab curve generation.
An example is shown below to illustrate the importance of Cp – λ relationship.
From the relationship that:
Where:
- ω is the rotor rotational speed in rad/s

- R equals rotor radius in meters
- ν represents wind speed in m/s
A wind speed of say 12 m/s and desired λ = 8 results to:
(8) (12 m/s) (1 rev) (60s)

ω = = 35.3 rev/min
(26 m) (2π) (1 min)
The pitch control system adjusts the blade pitch so as to have a rotor speed of
35.3 rpm from either previous higher or lower rotor speed to maintain the optimal power
output where Cp is around 0.44. Automatic pitch controls do this routine up to its capability,
with operational and safety limits according to cut-in and cut-out wind speeds.
For fixed-pitch blades, rotor speed increases with wind speed and no such
optimization happens so turbine efficiency goes down. In such wind turbines, control and
operational safety are limited to its cut-in and cut-out.
6.2.4. Investment Payback
Economic gain for an investment is what propels investors to support a wind energy
venture. In its simplest form, the formula for a simple payback period for an even periodic
revenue comes as:
∑ WTGCost
PP =
∑ WTGRevenue
Where:
45
- PP as the payback period

- WTGCost represents the various incurred costs
for the wind turbine generator (when summed
up equals to the cost of Investment of the wind
turbine project
- WTGRevenue represents the revenue from energy
sales for the period
An even revenue for the period considered is assumed since a uniform yearly energy
production is projected as implied in the assumptions already stated. The estimated payback
period would be one criteria in assessing the feasibility of utilizing the same design in the
proposed new wind farm location in Oak Park. This estimated payback period can be
considered as a deciding factor for investment and to predict future revenue that equates to
profit for the investor after capital recovery for the duration of the wind turbine’s useful life.
In its complete context, determining the cost of investment of the wind turbine would
require numerous items that need to be provided with numbers or quantified. These could
include costs on wind turbine procurement and locality-influenced cost items such as
transportation, installation or site assembly, civil and foundation works, and annual
operations and maintenance which are comprised of house load due to auxiliary electrical
equipment, maintenance activities and spare parts, and operating personnel required to
properly make the wind energy investment continue running.
Information about the cost of wind turbine installations could vary amongst
manufacturers. Vestas, presumably one of the world’s largest wind turbine system
manufacturer, produces their commercial renewable energy generation units at
approximately EUR 967,742 per MW of capacity updated as of 2014 [9]. In the related case
study [8] mentioned earlier, a more generalized wind turbine project costing is presented.
That study dealt on a multi-megawatt wind farm within Ireland making the economics aspect
of that study applicable in the cost analysis of the Oak Park proposed wind farm. Derived
overall capital cost per MW in [8] is EUR 1,543,528.57 based on that 2015 case study.
Assuming that capital cost per MW applies to fractional megawatt or kW-rated wind turbine
projects, this latter information can be a good start in determining the economic aspect of
wind turbine systems involved in this case study, being supplied also by Vestas intended for
electrical energy revenue generation, particularly the envisaged payback period. Relevant
calculation follows to determine the desired payback period for the proposed new location at
Oak Park site.
46
With all the cost items already factored-in, the cost of investment and the estimated
payback period for the wind turbine at the Oak Park site can now be determined as follows.
47
Projected Cost of Investment for Oak Park
Site Wind Turbine = 0.850 MW x 1,543,528.57 Euros per MW
= 1,311,999.29 Euros
1,311,999.29 Euros
PPOak Site = = 6.7 years
194,745.048 Euros per year
The payback period computed above is a simple payback time when the initial cost of
the project is recovered and the ensuing net power sales revenue can safely be resumed as
a profit. For comparison purpose, payback period for the DkIT unit is calculated as:
1,311,999.29 Euros
PPDkIT Site = = 9.96 ≈10 years
131,661.347 Euros per year
The above results further manifest the better performance payback-wise of an

identical wind turbine installed at the proposed Oak Park site. The predicted 6.7-year PP for
the Oak site and the calculated 10-year PP of the DkIT wind turbine fare better than the
recorded 23-year PP of one case study mentioned in [8] but slightly inferior than the 5.2-year
PP for an 80-meter hub height wind turbine as dealt with in the same referenced study. The
same research work suggests that acceptable simple payback period is less than 7 years.
Other resource provides that acceptable PP is anything less than 10 years [10].
6.3. Wind Turbine Optimisation and Suitability
Optimising a wind turbine could involve various activities starting from design, site
investigation, data gathering, in-depth theoretical analyses, cost analyses, to visualization or
simulation using certain tools. This undertaking has the main purpose of maximizing the
energy yield of a wind turbine in relation to material design, incurred cost, payback period,
and other relevant constraints. Wind turbine model suitability will be assessed as well.
6.3.1. Turbine Optimisation
With the wind speed distribution considered uniform through the years, the Oak Park
site wind speed distribution shown in Fig. 6.2 is fitted with the DkIT wind turbine power curve
48
given in Fig. 6.3 (b) thereby obtaining the annual energy generation. The wind speed
distribution influences turbine optimisation with respect to its performance.
As this study has considered only one wind turbine for a specific site, taken into
account is the machine’s performance with respect to available wind energy using site data
and meteorological records. Optimum wind turbine performance is already considered in the
design of the machine, with the OptiSpeed and OptiTip control features provided in all sets
of Vestas V52 850 kW units, taking care of real-time performance optimisation. Fig. 6.3
shows the actual power production performance of this wind turbine model that utilised these
optimisation controls.
Wind turbine optimisation should be differentiated from wind farm optimisation

because the former deals on a particular renewable energy machine while the latter involve
an array or multiple units that are at some degree affected by each others adjacent
positions, prevalent wind behaviour, and site conditions. Wind farm optimisation, being
different from individual turbine optimisation, can be done in some other studies such as in a
future undertaking to be discussed shortly thus details are not included in this report.
6.3.2. Wind Turbine Suitability
Verifying the suitability of the DkIT wind turbine model in the proposed location would
involve evaluation of the physical capability of the Vestas V52 850 kW as designed against
the predicted wind conditions in the Oak Park site by which it could be possibly subjected
upon. This involves the determination of the maximum wind speed that the Vestas V52
model can be subjected to, based on the MET data for the Oak Park site.
The 2016 Oak Park MET data has a recorded 29 m/s maximum mean wind speed.
Back tracking MET data of Oak Park site, there is a 43 m/s maximum in 2003. In any case,
these two recorded maximum values are still far less than the V52 model survival wind
speed of 60 m/s specified by Vestas [11].
49
CHAPTER 7 – CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
50
7.1. Conclusion
The calculations in the preceding chapters show that the wind turbine at the Oak
Park site would perform better in comparison with the identical wind turbine installed at the
DkIT site in terms of energy output, power sales revenue, and capacity factor. We are
looking here at the practical point of view as reference data are based on actual site
instrument readings, data logs, and meteorological information. Economic aspect has been
considered as with any investment requiring financial funding, where returns in terms of
revenue is part of the over-all project life cycle.
When both turbine data and MET data are scrutinized, yearly mean wind speed in
the DkIT site is determined to be just around 6 m/s while the Oak Park site maintains about 7
m/s. Site topography, terrain, existing structures or buildings, wind obstacles, or site
roughness of the proposed Oak Park site (Fig. 5.2 (b)) influence this higher mean wind
speed compared to the present site in DkIT campus (Fig. 5.1) mean wind speed. This further
proves that calculation results in this study and the estimated energy production and
generation revenue in favour of the Oak Park site is supported by the available data.
It should be further noted that the 2016 Oak Park site MET data is based on a 62 m
station height that corresponds to the hub height, while the relevant DkIT data are based on
the 86 m hub elevation. Various wind turbine literature and studies generalizes that as the
hub height increases, wind characteristics tend to become uniform and wind turbine
performance tends become unaffected by the various factors that could reduce the available
wind energy for the turbine. The possible improvement of available wind energy as the hub
height is increased can be in part due to the wind shear as described in Section 3.3.
Provided all the other constraints are the same for both wind turbines, it could be
safe to state that if the Oak site wind turbine would be installed at the same 86 m hub height
as that in the DkIT site, resulting calculated and the actual available wind energy thereby
actual energy production in the new location would be better. The relationship between hub
height and wind speed can be determined using the Power Law introduced earlier. Simply
put, the wind turbine in the proposed site would outperform the generating unit in the existing
installation site.
51
I has been determined that the Vestas V52 wind turbine model is suitable for the Oak
Park as it can withstand extreme wind speeds at site it would possibly be subjected to.
7.2. Recommendations
The success or failure of wind turbine installations as major investments is eventually

a product of diverse factors. Some recommendations, which may consider the factors that
were previously set aside or considerations that were part of the exclusions as stated in the
assumptions presented in this study, are now being forwarded to further optimise the turbine
performance individually or as a group in a wind farm in the new location at Oak Park.
LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging)
In the technical specifications shown in Appendices C and D, it can be noticed that

microprocessor-based yaw, pitch, speed, and load controls are provided and served by
Vestas’ proprietary OptiTip and OptiSpeed control systems. As a vital aspect of its control
system, wind speed and direction is essentially measured and done using ultrasonic wind
sensor. An ultrasonic wind sensor is indeed a very reliable wind measurement device,
however, there are also some limitations on its capabilities, especially the drawback of being
installed past the blades. Such issues would not be discussed further but it is recommended
to look into another emerging technology on wind measurements using LIDAR (light
detection and ranging) for feedforward control of wind turbines [7] that could possibly
improve the over-all performance.
Wind Farm Optimisation Tools
Though this study has presented proofs that a lone and DkIT-identical wind turbine
would perform better energy and revenue-wise when installed in the proposed Oak Park site,
multiple wind turbines that are identical or not, may have a different or to the worst, a
reduced performance for those located downstream in that new location. This is due to the
fact that upstream turbines have impact on downstream units as the former can serve as
obstacles to the wind reducing its velocity, due to a phenomenon known as the wake effect
thereby decreasing wind energy for the latter. For such a scenario, it is recommended that
wind farm optimisation should be accurately done to maximize energy yield for each wind
turbine.
According to a related study, energy output or energy yield is not the only best
computational function in creating the blue print for future development and optimisation of
52
wind farms. Functions to be taken into account include costs analyses involving discrete or a
combination of energy production, cost of energy, profit, and wind turbine degradation, with
optimisation tools utilized and applied to real test cases [12]. That research has defined wind
farm optimisation as “finding the positions of the wind turbines that maximize the value of
some objective function” which simply put, is the determination of the location for a wind
turbine such that maximum energy yield can be attained at a reasonable cost. This
optimisation is recommended to be applied in the proposed Oak Park wind farm project.
Wind farm optimisation is a complex activity utilizing certain algorithms, methods, and
modelling techniques for variables or phenomena and wind characteristics. Recommended
to be of much use for wind farm optimisation, a plethora of tools are available in the form of
software implementations such as WindSim, WindFarmer, OpenWind, and WindPro. Another
such a tool, recommended in this study, is WindFarm.
WindFarm as Tool for Future Work
Developed and trade marked by ReSoft Ltd for the design, visualization, analysis,
and optimisation of wind farms layout, WindFarm is found to be the only software that seems
capable of optimising wind farm layout from an economic perspective, that is, by factoring-in
annual energy production and the relevant costs [12].
WindFarm 3D is the three-dimensional landscape and wind turbines visualisations

module of the WindFarm suite. Useful capabilities of WindFarm include energy yield
calculation, full energy yield analysis, wind flow calculation and optimisation. Wind farm
layout can be designed and simulated with relative ease using this optimisation tool. Other
modules of the WindFarm suite are comprised of wind analysis, photomontage, zone of
visual influence (ZVI), and shadow flicker. WindFarm can be an essential tool for wind farm
development and is available online [13].
WindFarm is a powerful and flexible system with its various features. It could be of
such help in knowing how the Vestas V52 would behave at Oak Park site. For instance, the
results of the calculations, generated power curve, wind speed distribution, and turbine
performance determined in this study can be verified using WindFarm’s energy yield, wind
analysis and wind flow functionalities. The deliverables by the other modules of WindFarm
provide for a complete wind farm development process. A Windfarm 3D visualization
example is shown in Appendix E.
With such useful tools in its arsenal for wind farm optimisation, it is recommended to
use the WindFarm software as an all-encompassing, automated or computerized wind
53
power resource tool for the intended Vestas V52 wind turbine and the subsequent wind
turbines to be installed in the Oak Park site and for future wind energy projects to be
pursued by the project proponents and investors.
54
APPENDICES
55
Appendix A: Matlab Code for PowerEstimator-2
The Matlab scripts used in generating the wind turbine power curve as contained in
PowerEstimator-2.m code file is presented below.
%THIS ROUTINE READS DATA FROM XLS TURBINE FILE AND DISCARDS DATA WHEN
POWER
%IS BELOW ZERO. ALSO IT DRAWS THE POWER CURVE AVERAGING DATA BY
SEGMENTS
windspeed = xlsread('2008 Turbine data 12 months-2.xls',1, 'B2:B51910');
power = xlsread('2008 Turbine data 12 months-2.xls',1, 'F2:F51910');
data1=[windspeed, power];
out = power>0;
index=find(out);
data=sortrows(data1(index,:));
l=length(data);
curve1=[data(1,2),mean(reshape(data(1:40491,2),409,[])),data(end,2)];
disp(l);
figure(1);
plot(data(:,1),data(:,2),'xr')
hold on
plot(curve2,curve1,'k','LineWidth',2);
title('Power Curve For Turbine');
xlabel('Wind Speed(m/s)');
ylabel('Power(kW)');
hold off
%This routine is used to generate the curve (or relation between wind speed
%and power) that best fits the already generated power curve
%wind speed.
wdata=curve2(:);%converting the row vector 'curve2' to column vector
pdata=curve1(:); % converting the row vector 'curve1' to column vector
56
wspeed=linspace(0,33,34); % Vector of speeds at which we want to estimate the generation
%Piecewise Cubic Hermite Interpolating Polynomial (PCHIP). For finding out

%the curve which approximately fits the power curve.
curvefit1=pchip(wdata,pdata);
% Estimating the power values for different wind speeds in the vector 'wspeed'
p_est=ppval(curvefit1,wspeed);
% Matrix containing wind speed and estimated generation at each speed

p_data=[wspeed;p_est];
% extracting the wind speed data from the MET data file for the year 2016.
speed=csvread('Hourly Oak MET data-2.csv',38754,12,[38754,12,47537,12]);
%Generating histogram for the frequency distribution (hours) of wind speeds

edges=[0.25:.5:35.25];
cbin=[.5:.5:35];
figure(2);
h=histogram(speed, edges);
h.FaceColor = [1 0 0];
title('Wind Speed Distribution');
xlabel('Wind Speed (m/s)');
ylabel('Number of hours');
hours=h.Values(:,find(h.Values));
cspeed=cbin(:,find(h.Values));
%Modifying the estimates of power generation as per practical observation.

p_data(2,1:3)=0; % Estimated generation below cut-in speed(3 m/s) to zero
p_data(2,23:34)=0; %Estimated generation above cut-out speed(22 m/s) to zero
hours1=[0,hours];
p_estimator=[p_data;hours1]; %Power Estimation matrix. Includes wind speed, estimated
power generation and no. of hours of operation at a particular wind speed sequentially
p_estimator(4,:)=p_estimator(2,:).*p_estimator(3,:); %Adding four vector the amount of power
generated for the no. of hours of operaiton at a specified wind speed for the whole year.
Total_p=sum(p_estimator(2,:).*p_estimator(3,:)); %Total estimated generation for the year
57
fprintf('Estimated Annual Generation is %6.0f KWh \n', Total_p)

fprintf('Estimated Annual Revenue Generation is %6.3f Euros \n', Total_p*72.455/1000)
58
Appendix B: Matlab Code for Generating the Cp-λ Curve
The Matlab scripts used in generating the Cp-λ Curve of the wind turbine as contained in the
CpLambda.m code file is presented below.
%THIS ROUTINE READS DATA FROM XLS TURBINE FILE AND DISCARDS DATA
WHEN POWER
%IS BELOW ZERO. ALSO IT DRAWS THE POWER CURVE AVERAGING DATA BY
SEGMENTS
windspeed = xlsread('2008 Turbine data 12 months-2.xlsx',1, 'B2:B51910','basic');
power = xlsread('2008 Turbine data 12 months-2.xlsx',1, 'F2:F51910','basic');
data1=[windspeed, power];
out = power>=0;
index=find(out);
data=sortrows(data1(index,:));
l=length(data);
disp(l);
figure(1);
rho=1.225; %standard air density

b_lenght=26;%blade length
A= pi*26*26; %blade swept area. blade length taken as 26 metres
W_energy=0.5*rho*A*curve2.^3*2.77778e-7;
Cp=curve1./(W_energy*3600);
omega=26*2*pi/60; %rotor speed considered as 26 rpm
Lambda=omega*b_lenght./curve2;
plot(Lambda,Cp);
title('Cp-Lambda Characteristic')
xlabel('Lambda')
ylabel('Power Coefficient(Cp)')
59
Appendix C: Vestas V52 850 kW Technical Specifications
Technical specifications showing cut-out view of the Vestas V52 850 kW wind turbine.
(Source: Vestas Wind Systems A/S)
60
Appendix D: Vestas V52 850 kW Technical Data
(Source: Vestas Wind Systems A/S)
61
Appendix E: WindFarm 3D Visualization Example
Wind turbines and landscape visualised using WindFarm 3D.

(Source: http://www.resoft.co.uk)
62
REFERENCES
[1] Wind Power Fundamentals, Alex Kalmikov and Katherine Dykes, MIT Wind Energy
Group & Wind Energy Projects in Action, 2010
[2] The European Wind Energy Association, EWEA annual report 2012. Online access.
[3] Data collection from Irish Meteorological Service, Available online at www.met.ie
[4] The Stochastic Power Curve Analysis of Wind Turbines, Patrick Milan,
Hydrodynamics & Windenergy Group University of Oldenburg, Institute of Physics,
2008
[5] How to Improve the Estimation of Power Curves for Wind Turbines, J. Gottschall
and J. Peinke, Environmental Research Letters 3, 2008
[6] Data Collection from DkIT wind turbine and data from Met Éireann - The Irish
Meteorological Service
[7] Identification of Wind Energy Systems, G.J. van der Veen,
Dutch Institute of Systems and Control (DISC), 2013
[8] How Profitable are Wind Turbine Projects? An Empirical Analysis of a 3.5 MW Wind
Farm In Ireland, Tony Kealy, Martin Barrett and Derek Kearney, International Journal
on Recent Technologies in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (IJRMEE),
Volume: 2 Issue: 4
[9] “Unmasking turbine prices | Windpower Monthly”
https://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1228426/unmasking-turbine-prices
Retrieved 12 April 2018.
[10] “How Long Will It Take for Small Wind Turbine to Pay for Itself?”
http://www.tuge.ee/encyclopedia/how-to-calculate-small-wind-turbine-payback-period
[11] “Datasheet”
https://en.wind-turbine-models.com/turbines/71-vestas-v52#datasheet
[12] State of the Art of Wind Farm Optimization, Tesauro, A., Larsen, G. C,
DTU Wind Energy, 2012
[13] http://www.resoft.co.uk, Retrieved 19 April 2018.
[14] Wind Energy Handbook, Second Edition, Tony Burton, Nick Jenkins, David Sharpe,
Ervin Bossanyi, A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication
63

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Determination of the Power Curve of a Wind Turbine from

Dundalk Institute Of Technology

Student ID: ________________________________

5.1. Assumptions of Vital Importance...........................................................................36

CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION AND

1.2. Aim and Objectives

The main objectives of this research include:

 Estimation of the return on investment as a function of mean wind speed and

1.4. Outline of Methodology

Due to the calculation difficulties, the development of wind turbines especially in a

So this study propose an operative methodology to evaluate the energy potential of a

 Analysis the existing wind turbine data to characterise the turbine

CHAPTER 2 – INTRODUCTION TO WIND

2.1. Wind Energy and Its Importance

Wind is a sustainable energy source since it is renewable, widely distributed, and

2.2. Variability of Wind Resources

2.2.1. Geographical Variation

There are two types of local winds:

a. Onshore and Offshore winds

A. Onshore and Offshore Winds

2.2.2. Temporal Variations

CHAPTER 3 – WIND RESOURCE ANALYSIS

Wind resource, as mentioned in the previous chapter, is having wide range of

3.1. Site Identification

3.1.1. Site Selection

 wind resource maps

3.1.2. Regional Wind Resource Information

Regional Wind Resource Maps

This can be done conveniently by using the Power Law:

: the projected speed at the desired height

: the observed speed at the measured height

: A non-dimensional wind shear component. Typical values of α

ranges from 0.07 to 0.60 depending on the type of terrain.

3.1.3. Field Surveys

3.1.4. Tower Placement

3.2. Resource Monitoring

 To verify whether a sufficient wind resource exists to justify further investigation.

3.2.1. Basic Measurements

Horizontal Wind Speed

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.1 Different Types of Anemometers (Source: www.lakescientist.com, 2018)

Fig. 3.2 Wind Vane (Source: www.windlogger.eu, 2018)

Air temperature is an important characteristic of a wind farm’s operating environment.

Fig. 3.3 Ambient Temperature Sensor (Source: www.youngusa.com, 2018)

3.2.2. Recorded Parameters and Sampling Intervals

Maximum and Minimum

3.2.3. Data Loggers

3.3. Resource Analysis

3.3.1. Data Validation

The second phase, sometimes called verification, involves a case-by-case decision

3.3.2. Characterization of Wind Resource

 Data Recovery (DR) fraction

Data Recovery (DR) Fraction

Mean and Annualized Mean Wind Speeds

The wind speed at height

The wind speed at height

is the mean wind speed for the recording interval

Wind Power Density (WPD)

the number of records in the period

the air density (kg/m3)

the wind speed for record i (m/s)

the site air pressure (Pa or N/m2)