School of Chemical Engineering

Particulate Processes

Topic 5

Hazards of Fine Powder

Introduction
• There are various hazards associated with the handling,
processing, transport and storage of fine powders.
• From an operating point of view, the strongest motivation for
the prevention of a powder hazard is the health and safety of
the process operators and those in the surrounding
environment.
• Health and safety legislation varies from country to country,
and changes with new legislation and directives, so the
following discussion on standards and procedures should be
viewed only as an introduction to this topic.
• Here we consider two aspects of hazards by fine powders:
1. Fire and explosion within a process; and
2. Personal health hazards.

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Overview
Hazards of Fine Powder
1. Fire and explosion hazards
2. Health effects

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School of Chemical Engineering

Particulate Processes

Topic 5

Hazards of Fine Powder

Part 1
Fire and Explosion Hazards
Introduction
• Finely divided combustible solids (dusts) dispersed in air can give
rise to explosions in much the same way as flammable gases.
• With flammable gases, fuel concentration, O2 concentration, initial
temperature all affect ignition and resulting explosion
characteristics.
• In case of dusts (solid particles < 420 m), more variables are
involved (e.g. particle size, moisture) so analysis and prediction of
dust explosion characteristics is more complex.
• Dust explosions have been known to give rise to serious property
damage and loss of life.
• While dust explosions occurring in grain silos, flour mills and in the
processing of coal, are well known, explosions of dispersions of
fine particles of metals (e.g. Al, Mg), plastics, sugar and
pharmaceutical products have also occurred.
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Introduction
Dust Explosion

Grain Dust Explosion at Westwood LA in 1977 (36 killed, 9 injured)

Introduction
Dust Explosion

Sugar dust explosion at the Imperial Sugar refinery in Port

Wentworth, GA, USA on February 7, 2008. 14 workers killed.
Introduction
• Process industries where fine combustible powders are used and
where particular attention must be directed towards control of dust
explosion hazard include: plastics, food, metal processing,
pharmaceuticals, agricultural, chemicals, coal, ...
• Process steps where fine powders are heated have strong
association with dust explosion; e.g. dry grinding, pneumatic
conveying, spray drying, ...
• The basics of combustion and the fundamentals specific to dust
explosions are outlined.
• The measurement & application of dust explosion characteristics,
e.g. ignition temperature, range of flammable concentrations,
and minimum ignition energy are described.
• The available methods for control of dust explosion hazard are
also discussed.
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Dust Explosion
• Dust explosions are more insidious, and potentially more
dangerous, than vapour explosions.
• As fluids, flammable gases mix and diffuse through the
atmosphere more or less homogeneously. As a result, vapour
explosions tend to involve a single, relatively localized blast.
• Because they are solids, dusts and powders settle
heterogeneously onto equipment, on ledges and floors, and in
nooks and crannies of the plant superstructure.
• When airborne particles ignite, the blast front propels settled dust
into the air. The flame front from the initial fire then ignites the
newly airborne material causing successive explosions.
• The primary explosion typically damages a limited area;
secondary blasts can be much more destructive.

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Dust Explosion

Settled
Dust

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Conditions for Dust Explosions
• When dust explosion occurs following conditions are nearly
always present:
1. Oxygen (air)
2. Fuel source (the combustible dust itself)
3. Dust is mixed or suspended in air
4. Dust concentration exceeds minimum level needed for
the explosive reaction (20 – 50 g/m3 for most dusts)
5. Dust size capable of propagating a flame ( < 400 m)
6. Ignition source
7. Dry dust
8. Confined space

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Combustion Basics
Flames
• a gas rendered luminous by emission of energy produced by
chemical reaction.
• Stationary flame
 e.g. candle flame or gas stove flame
 unburned fuel and air flow into the flame front as combustion
products flow away.
 may form from either premixed fuel and air or by diffusion of air
into the combustion zone.
• Explosion flame
 moving flame front passes through a premixed fuel-air mixture.
 heat released and gases generated result in either uncontrolled
expansion effect or, if restricted, rapid build-up of pressure.
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Combustion Basics
Characteristics of Dust Explosion Flame

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Combustion Basics
Explosions and Detonations
• Explosion flames travel through the fuel-air mixture at velocities
ranging from a few m/s to 100’s m/s - this type of explosion is
called deflagration.
• Flame speeds governed by many factors including heat of
combustion of the fuel, degree of turbulence in the mixture and
amount of energy supplied to cause ignition.
• Possible for flames to reach supersonic velocities under some
circumstances. Such explosions, accompanied by pressure shock
waves, are far more destructive and called detonations.
• The increased velocities result from increased gas densities
generated by pressure waves.
• All detonations likely begin as deflagrations.

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Combustion Basics
Ignition Temperature & Ignition Energy
• Ignition: self-propagation of a combustion reaction through a
fuel-air mixture after the initial supply of energy.
• Ignition Temperature (Tig) for a fuel-air mixture:
 If the initial temperature (Ti) of mixture is greater than Tig, the
rate of heat generation within mixture by combustion will be
always greater than the rate of heat loss to surroundings and
so the element temperature will rise exponentially.
• Ignition Energy = the rate of energy that must be supplied
externally to raise the mixture temperature from Ti to Tig.
• Ignition Delay = time required for the reaction to go to completion
once Tig has been reached.
 ranges from few ms to minutes.
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Combustion Basics
Flammability Limits
• Lower flammability limit LFL (CFL) = minimum fuel
concentration in the fuel-air mixture for ignition to occur.
• Upper flammability limit UFL (CFU) = fuel concentration in
the mixture above which the heat release per unit volume of
mixture is too low to sustain a flame, i.e. a flame cannot be
propagated.
• Thus there is a range of fuel concentration in air within which
a flame can be propagated. This range will widen (CFL
decreases and CFU increases) as the initial temperature of
the mixture is increased.
• In practice flammability limits are measured and quoted at
standard temperatures (usually 20oC).
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Combustion Basics
Minimum Oxygen for Combustion (MOC)
• LFL (CFL) of the fuel-air mixture expressed in terms of the
equivalent stoichiometric oxygen:
 mol O2 
MOC  CFL  
 mol fuel Stoich
Example: CFL for propane in air at 20oC is 2.2% vol. For complete
combustion of propane according to the reaction:
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
stoichiometrically 5 mols of O2 are required per mol of C3H8
 MOC (C3H8) = 2.2  (5/1) = 11% vol oxygen
• possible to reduce O2 concentration in the fuel-air mixture while
still maintaining the ability to propagate a flame.
• If O2 is partially replaced by a gas with similar physical properties
(e.g. N2) effect on ability of the mixture to maintain a flame is
minimal until stoichiometric ratio of O2 to fuel is reached.
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Fundamentals Specific to Dust Explosions
• For dust explosion to occur the material of the particles must be
combustible, i.e. it must react exothermically with O2 in air.
• If particles small enough to be dispersed in air, the reaction rate
will be great enough to permit an explosion flame to propagate.
• Since rate of heat generation by combustion is inversely
proportional to dust particle size, the likelihood of flame
propagation and explosion increases with decreasing particle size.
• This is because finer fuel particles:
 more readily form a dispersion in air;
 have a larger surface area per unit mass of fuel;
 offer a greater surface area for reaction;
 consequently generate more heat per unit mass of fuel;
 have a greater heat-up rate.
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Process of Dust Explosion

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Process of Dust Explosion

Ignitability Explosion
Violence

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Characteristics of Dust Explosions
• Important to know the potential fire and explosion hazards
associated with a particulate solid made or used in a plant.
• Particle size distribution, surface properties and moisture content
all influence potential fire hazard of powder, so unless the powder
is identical to the material used for the published data available,
the explosion characteristics of the powder must be determined.
• International testing standards for combustible powders include
assessment of the following characteristics:
 min. Dust concentration for explosion;
 min. Ignition temperature;
 min. Energy for ignition;
 min. Oxygen for combustion;
 max. Explosion pressure;
 max. Rate of pressure rise during explosion.
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Dust Explosion Tests
The Vertical Tube (Hartmann) Apparatus
• Perspex or glass cylinder (1.3 L)
• Measured quantity of sample powder is
placed in the dispersion cup.
• Compressed dispersion air is delivered
to powder via solenoid valve.
• Ignition source by electrical spark
across electrodes or by heated coil
• used for testing the explosibility of
powder (classification test); and for
determining:
 min. Dust concentration for explosion (Cmin),
 min. Ignition energy (MIE),
 min. Oxygen for combustion (MOC).
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Dust Explosion Tests
The Vertical Tube (Hartmann) Apparatus
• Perspex or glass cylinder (1.3 L)
• Measured quantity of sample powder is
placed in the dispersion cup.
• Compressed dispersion air is delivered
to powder via solenoid valve.
• Ignition source by electrical spark
across electrodes or by heated coil
• used for testing the explosibility of
powder (classification test); and for
determining:
 min. Dust concentration for explosion (Cmin),
 min. Ignition energy (MIE),
 min. Oxygen for combustion (MOC).
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Dust Explosion Tests
The 20-L Spherical Explosion Apparatus
• Spherical 20-L pressure vessel
fitted with a pressure transducer.
• Test powder blown by air into the
sphere via a perforated ring.
• Vessel pressure reduced to 0.4 bar
before test, and rises to atm. upon
injection of the powder.
• Ignition by a pyrotechnical device
positioned at centre of the sphere.

• Used to determine max. Explosion pressure (Pmax) and max.

Rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)max during explosion.
• Test results give an indication of the severity of explosion and
enable the design of explosion protection equipment.
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Dust Explosion Tests
The 20-L Spherical Explosion Apparatus
• Spherical 20-L pressure vessel
fitted with a pressure transducer.
• Test powder blown by air into the
sphere via a perforated ring.
• Vessel pressure reduced to 0.4 bar
before test, and rises to atm. upon
injection of the powder.
• Ignition by a pyrotechnical device
positioned at centre of the sphere.

• Used to determine max. Explosion pressure (Pmax) and max.

Rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)max during explosion.
• Test results give an indication of the severity of explosion and
enable the design of explosion protection equipment.
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Characteristics of Dust Explosions
Minimum Dust Concentration for Explosion Cmin
• minimum concentration of
combustible dust in air (g/m3) for
explosion to occur.
• gives an indication of air quantities
to be used in extraction systems
for combustible dusts.
• Since dust concentrations can
vary widely with time and location
in a plant it is not considered wise
to use concentration control as the
sole method of protection against
dust explosion.

R.K. Eckhoff, Dust explosion in the process industries, Gulf Pub., 2003 30
Characteristics of Dust Explosions
Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE)
• used to determine whether a dust
cloud could be ignited by an
electrostatic spark.
• Ignition energies of dusts can be as
low as 15 mJ, which can be
supplied by an electrostatic
discharge.
• For many dusts, MIE increases
approx. with d3.
• Dust with d > 400 m will not ignite.
• MIE increases with moisture,
decreases with temperature.

R.K. Eckhoff, Dust explosion in the process industries, Gulf Pub., 2003 31
Characteristics of Dust Explosions
Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE)
Effect of Temperature Effect of Moisture
.

160
Minimum Ignition Energy mJ

MIE (mJ)
140 10
4 Tapioca

120

100 Corn
3 Starch
10
80
60 Flour
40 2
10
20

0
50 100 150 200
Temperature ° C 5 10 15 20

Moisture Content (wt%)

R.K. Eckhoff, Dust explosion in the process industries, Gulf Pub., 2003 32
Characteristics of Dust Explosions
Minimum Oxygen for Combustion (MOC)
Dust MOC % Fuel Gas MOC %
Adipic acid 5.9 Methane 10.5
Lactose 4.6 Ethane 10.9
Poly-ethylene 7.1 Ethylene 8.4
Sulfur 2.1 Benzene 10.3
Aluminium 6.1 Methanol 9.7
Iron 7.4 Ethanol 10.2

• Determines max. permissible oxygen concentration when

inerting (mixing air with inert gas) is selected as the means of
controlling the dust explosion.
• Organic dusts have an MOC of about 11% if nitrogen is the
diluent and 13% in carbon dioxide.
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Characteristics of Dust Explosions
Minimum Ignition Temperature (MIT)
• indicates maximum temperature for equipment surfaces
in contact with the powder; or
• max. temperature of heated powder in storage.

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Characteristics of Dust Explosions
Maximum Explosion Pressure
• usually in the range: 5 -13 bar
• used to design pressure for equipment when explosion
containment is opted for as the method of dust explosion control.

Pmax

Pmax

(dP/dt)max

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Characteristics of Dust Explosions
Maximum Rate of Pressure Rise during Explosion
• used in design of explosion

(dP/dt)max
relief
• (dP/dt)max increases with
decreasing particle size,
plateaus at d < 10 – 40 m

• (dP/dt)max inversely proportional to  dP  K St

the cube root of the vessel volume:  dt   V1/ 3
 max

• KSt = Explosion Severity (or Deflagration) Index,

quantifies the explosion violence for a specific powder.
• The severity of dust explosions is classified according to the
St class based on KSt value.
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Characteristics of Dust Explosions
Explosion Parameters for Some Common Materials

Dust explosion classes based on KSt values

M. Rhodes, Introduction to Particle technology (2008) 37

Control of Dust Explosion Hazard
Hierarchy of Approaches for Control
• Change the process to eliminate the dust;
• Design plant to withstand pressure generated by any explosion;
• Remove oxygen by complete inerting;
• Reduce oxygen to below MOC;
• Add moisture to the dust;
• Add diluent powder to the dust;
• Detect start of explosion and inject suppressant;
• Vent the vessel to relieve pressure generated by the explosion;
• Control dust concentration to be outside flammability limits;
• Minimize dust cloud formation;
• Exclude ignition sources.
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Ignition Sources

• Flames
• Hot surfaces
• Electric sparks
• Mechanical sparks & friction

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Ignition Sources
Flames
• Flames from burning of gases, liquids or solids are effective
sources of ignition for flammable dust clouds.
• Flame sources can be found in process plant during normal
operation (e.g. burners, pilot flames, etc.) and during maintenance
(e.g. welding & cutting flame)
• These flames would usually be external to the vessels and
equipment containing the dust.
• To avoid exposure of dust clouds to flames, good housekeeping
is required to avoid buildup of dust which may generate a cloud
and a good permit-to-work system in place to ensure safe
environment before maintenance commences.

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Ignition Sources
Hot surfaces
• Careful design required to ensure that surfaces likely to be in
contact with dust do not reach temperatures which can cause
ignition;
 e.g. Ledges inside equipment should be avoided to prevent
settling of dust and possible self ignition.
• Dust must not be able to build up on hot or heated surfaces,
otherwise surface temperatures will rise as heat dissipation from
the surface is reduced.
• Outside the vessel care must also be taken;
 e.g. If dust settles on electric motor housings, overheating and
ignition may occur.

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Ignition Sources
Electric Sparks
• Sparks produced in operation of electrical power sources (e.g.
switches, contact breakers, electric motors) can ignite dust clouds.
• Sparks from electrostatic discharges also able to ignite dust
clouds.
• Electrostatic charges developed in many processing operations
involving dry powders - care must be taken to ensure that such
charges are led to earth to prevent accumulation and discharge.
• Even the energy in the charge developed on a process operator
can be sufficient to ignite a dust cloud.
Mechanical Sparks and Friction
• Sparks and local heating caused by friction or impact between
metal surfaces or between a metal surface and foreign objects
inadvertently introduced into the plant may ignite dust clouds.
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Venting
• If dust explosion occurs in a closed vessel at 1atm, the pressure
will rise rapidly (up to and sometimes beyond 600 bar/s) to a
maximum of 10 bar.
• If the vessel is not designed to withstand such a pressure,
deformation and possible rupture will occur.
• The principle of explosion venting is to discharge the vessel
contents through an opening or vent to prevent the pressure rising
above the vessel design pressure.
• Venting is a relatively simple and inexpensive method of dust
explosion control but cannot be used when the dust, gas or
combustion products are toxic or hazardous, or when the rate of
pressure rise is greater than 600 bar/s.
• The mass and type of the vent determine the pressure at which
the vent opens and the delay before it is fully open.
• These factors together with size of the vent determine rate of
pressure rise and maximum pressure reached after vent opens. 43
Venting
Pressure variation with time for dust explosions:
(A) unvented, (B) vented with inadequate vent area,
(C) vented with adequate vent area.

M. Rhodes, Introduction to Particle technology (2008)

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Suppression
• The pressure rise accompanying a dust explosion is rapid
but can be detected in time to initiate some action to
suppress the explosion.
• Suppression involves discharging a quantity of inert gas or
powder (commonly, sodium bicarbonate) into the vessel in
which explosion has commenced.
• Modern suppression systems triggered by the pressure rise
at start of explosion have response times of order of
milliseconds and are able to effectively extinguish the
explosion.
• Fast acting trigger devices can also be used to vent the
explosion, isolate the plant item or shut down the plant if
necessary.

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Inerting
• N2 and CO2 are commonly used to reduce O2 concentration
of air to below the Minimum Oxygen for Combustion (MOC).

• Even if O2 concentration is not reduced as far as the MOC,

the maximum explosion pressure and the maximum rate of
pressure rise can be much reduced.

• Total replacement of O2 is expensive, but would provide

added degree of safety.

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Minimize Dust Cloud Formation
• Examples include:
1. Use of dense phase conveying as an alternative to dilute
phase transport;
2. Use of cyclone separators and filters instead of settling
vessels for separation of conveyed powder from air;
3. Avoid situations where powder is allowed to fall freely
through air (e.g. in charging a storage hopper).
• Good housekeeping practice should ensure deposits of
powder are not allowed to build up on ledges and surfaces
within a building.
 This avoids secondary dust explosions caused when dust
deposits are disturbed and dispersed by a primary explosion or
shock wave.
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Containment
• Where plant vessels are of small dimensions it may be
economic to design them to withstand the maximum
pressure generated by the dust explosion.
• The vessel may be designed to contain the explosion and be
replaced afterwards or to withstand the explosion and be
reusable.
• In both cases design of the vessel and its accompanying
connections and ductwork is a specialist task.
• For large vessels the cost of design and construction to
contain dust explosions is usually prohibitive.

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Safety Devices
Some common safety devices used to prevent dust explosions:
• Motion sensors can be used to detect when machinery
moves in ways that they are not designed (vibrations, friction,
etc, that might cause sparks).
• Belt alignment sensors alert the condition where rubbing of
non-aligned belts can cause friction, which can generate heat
that could be an ignition source.
• Heat sensors can alert operators to trouble spots so that
heat sources can be eliminated before an explosion occurs.
• Magnets can remove iron and other metals that when
conveyed in the powder can cause sparks.

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References for Further Study
1. M. Rhodes, Introduction to Particle Technology, 2ed.,
Wiley, and Sons, 2008.
2. R. Holdich, Fundamentals of Particle Technology, Midland
publishing, 2002.
3. P.R. Amyotte et al., Reduce dust explosion the inherently
safer way, Chem. Eng. Progr., 37-43, Oct. 2003.

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