The Fall of the Aztec Empire:
Challenging Traditional Explanations
Connor J. Smith (‘04)
On April 22, 1519 Hernán Cortez landed on the coast
of what is now Veracruz. By August 13, 1521,
Cortez and his band of five hundred and fifty Spanish
soldiers had captured Tenochtitlán, the capital and
largest city of the Aztec empire (Leon-Portilla, p.
xxv, Introduction). In a history book one will read
that the main reasons for the Spaniards’ relatively
easy conquest was their technological superiority and
the Aztec belief that the Spanish, specifically Cortez,
was the god Quetzalcoatl returning to fulfill an
ancient prophecy: This is only part of the story.
These two reasons may very well have been over
emphasized throughout history. During the course of
this paper, I will use background information about
Aztec society and religion to relate back to the main
theme of this paper: How large of a role did the myth
of Quetzalcoatl play in the fall of the Aztec empire?
Using sources by Inga Clendinnen, Charles L. Mee
Jr. and several others, I hope to point out weaknesses
in the “gods and technology” explanation for the
collapse of the empire. I will also examine the
legitimacy of many of the omens and prophecies
surrounding the fall of the Aztecs, and look at new
theories put forth as reasons for the collapse. By
following this format I hope to give adequate
evidence showing that another way of understanding
the fall of the Aztecs involves the expansion of their
empire, enemies they made due to their imperial
conquest as well as their initial misinterpretations and
tactical errors they, and specifically, their ruler
Montezuma, made during the conquest.
Who were the Aztecs?
The indigenous group calling themselves
Mexica, but known to most of the world as the
Aztecs, arrived in central Mexico during the
thirteenth century A.D. as a nomadic tribe. Through
warfare and alliances, the people known as the Aztec
soon became the leading military and political power
in all of central Mexico (Berdan, p.2). They did not
stay nomadic for long and soon developed a highly
organized state.
As this system grew so did the organization
and stratification within it. In Aztec society one was
born into a social rank, of which there were many. In
the hierarchy of the Aztec Empire, there existed a
range of different political, economic, and social
classes, including peasants, merchants, craftsmen
(metal workers, stone masons, and feather workers),
the nobility, and the priesthood (Berdan, p. 45). All
of these classes, with the exception of the priests,
Kings and any women, were at one point or another
during their lives, part of the military. Schools for
both nobles and commoners alike emphasized the
martial arts and other military training. To achieve
victory on the battlefield was one of the highest
honors in Aztec society (Berdan, p.105).
Military expansion was an everyday part of
Aztec life. Since Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital city
and the site of present day Mexico City, was not self-
sufficient, new lands were always needed for
cultivation to support the empire and the city
(Berdan, p.105). Through this expansion, the Aztec
Empire assimilated many different groups of people,
several of which held a deep resentment towards the
Aztecs on account of their conquests. The Aztec
Empire was a conglomerate of peoples from all
around the area of central Mexico. By the time the
Spanish arrived, there were up to twenty different
languages spoken in the empire (Mee, p.60).
Along with the use of a conquered people as
resources, the Aztec used prisoners of war for human
sacrifices in their religious ceremonies. Religion
played an enormous part in the everyday life of the
Aztec, the gods were the creators of the universe and
their will determined what happened to everyone
throughout the Aztec world.
Religion
The Aztec Empire was a polytheistic one
that included a large pantheon of gods. There were
gods for every aspect of life ranging from agriculture
to the elements and even celestial bodies (Taube,
p.32). Of all of these gods Ometeolt, the creator god
and god of duality, was the most powerful. One of
Ometeolt’s sons was the plumed serpent god known
as Quetzalcoatl. Quetzalcoatl is identified with
water, fertility, and wind. He is also a cultural hero
in the Aztec religion, and one who is responsible for
the balance and harmony of life along with, by
extension, life itself (Taube, p.31). Quetzalcoatl also
has the odd appearance of being light skinned and
having a long beard, which is very unlike any other
Aztec god. Nevertheless, many historians have
overemphasized the importance of this similarity in
appearance to the Spanish.
Like the Maya and other Mesoamerican
peoples, the Aztec believed that there were previous
worlds or “suns” as they referred to them, each with a
designated number within their calendar and
identified with a particular god and race of humans
(Taube, p.33). The Aztecs believed that Quetzalcoatl
Smith 1
was responsible for the creation of the fifth race of
humans, the present one. According to this mythic
narrative:
And then Quetzalcoatl went to Mictlan (the
netherworld). He approached
Mictlantecuhtli and Mictlancihuatl (Lord
and Lady of the netherworld); at once he
spoke to them: “I come in search of precious
bones in your possession. I have come for
them.” And Mictlantecuhtli asked of him,
“what shall you do with them,
Quetzalcoatl?” And once again Quetzalcoatl
said, “The gods are anxious that someone
should inhabit the earth.” (Taube, p.37)
According to Aztec beliefs, Quetzalcoatl
then created the race of humans that now exists,
which is one of the reasons he was such an important
deity in their culture. Along with the myth of
creation there is one other myth that was very
important to the Aztecs: The exile and prophesized
return of the god Quetzalcoatl (Florescano, p.60).
The most important one, in terms of the topic of this
paper, is Quetzalcoatl being based, at least partially,
on an historic figure. Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl
was the historic ruler of the city of Tula in central
Mexico, which flourished between the ninth and
eleventh centuries A.D. (Florescano, p.60). This
ruler is said to have fled to the east to settle a new
city. This could have had some effect upon the myth
of Quetzalcoatl, which says that the god was exiled to
the east and settled but vowed to return and once
again rule.
It is this myth that is said to have worked
against the Aztecs. Many history books will read that
the Spaniards appearance in Mexico caused the
Aztecs to crumble because of the fear that
Quetzalcoatl had returned. One of the main backing
points to this theory is the existence of omens that the
Aztecs received. These omens supposedly foretold
the downfall of the empire and have been used as
proof of the Aztecs’ strong belief in their own
demise. In the next part of this paper I will explore
these omens and prophecies and examine their
legitimacy.
Omens and Prophecies
The existence of omens and prophecies
dealing with the downfall of the Aztec empire has
long been a staple for many historians trying to prove
that the Aztec’s demise was fated. This is not to say
that there weren’t any peculiar coincidences that
occurred during the conquest, because, in fact, there
were. One of the most famous of this was that the
Spanish landed in Mexico during the Aztec year of
Ce Acatl, which was associated with the god
Quetzalcoatl. Although some of these other omens,
prophecies, and coincidences might have actually
occurred, there are several that seem to be
conveniently similar to many well-known prophecies
and omens in western culture. Here is a list of the
most famous and well known of the Aztec omens:
1. A flame, “tongue of fire”, appeared in the heavens
in the east for a full year causing panic among the
people.
2. The temple of the god Huitzilopochtli (patron god
of the Aztecs) mysteriously caught fire.
3. Lightning struck the temple of Xiuhtecutli, the god
of fire.
4. A comet with a great flaming tale traveled from
west to east.
5. The waters of Lake Texcoco (on which
Tenochtitlán was built) became agitated and
flooded many Aztec houses.
6. A women cried out in the night, “O my beloved
sons, now we are about to go.”
7. Fisherman snared a water bird with a mirror in its
comb, and when Montezuma Xocoyotzin (leader of
the Aztecs at the time) looked into the mirror, he
saw images dressed in battle garbs riding deer,
images that vanished as the Aztec ruler attempted
to understand their meaning.
8. Two-headed men were taken to Montezuma but
when he looked upon them they vanished (Colston,
p.240).
These omens might seem original but upon closer
examination many of them are very similar to
common western omens and prophecies. For
instance, the bright fire that appeared in the eastern
sky, omen number 1 on the list, and bears a striking
resemblance to the bright star that appeared in the
Three Wise Men’s Tale. The use of lightning
striking temples and monstrous prodigies are
commonplace in Classical traditions. Plutarch,
Josephus, and Lucan all use these same types of
omens in their own prophetic writings (Fernadere-
Armesto, p.292). It is possible that some of these
omens are legitimate, but the connections that Felipe
Fernadere-Armesto has made between these omens
and Classical western omens does raise many
questions regarding possible tampering with
interpretations of these omens by the Spanish.
One might ask why someone would go to
the trouble of making western omens seem
indigenous. A possible answer could be for the
purpose of propaganda. By making the conquest of
the Aztecs seem destined, in the eyes of the Spanish,
it almost justifies their actions. If these people were
already fated to fall, then the Spanish saw themselves
Smith 2
as just pawns in the overall scheme of things. The
Spanish were then able to use the excuse that they
were doing God’s work because not only were these
people pagans, but God had sent signs from heaven
warning of the Aztec’s impending doom. This meant
to the Spanish that, one way or another, the Aztecs
were fated to fall, and that God had simply chosen
them to make sure that this collapse happened.
One of the leading works of literature that
reinforced the theory of the “returning god” and the
omens and prophecies as the destructive force behind
the fall of the Aztecs was and still is the Florentine
Codex, written by Friar Bernardino de Sahagun. This
is a vivid portrayal of pre-contact native life through
the recollections of surviving native informants.
Montezuma, ruler of the Aztecs, appears here as
paralyzed with fear from the omens that had appeared
and then by the certainty that Cortez was
Quetzalcoatl (Clendinnen, p.69). Sahagun’s
informants would have been able to give him the
information about activities outside of Montezuma’s
court but inside activities would have been off limits.
The Florentine Codex is also the source for many of
the accounts of omens that have come down to us.
Many scholars are now accusing Sahagun’s work as
being Spanish propaganda for the conquest. Whether
this is true or not remains to be seen, but the evidence
does not look good for the reliability of some of
Sahagun’s work. This is because of the fact that he
would have known these western omens very well
and had access and the ability to manipulate
indigenous people to suit his needs.
Another large misconception held by many
people concerns the belief that the Aztecs had never
seen the Spanish before Cortex landed. This is
simply not true. In 1518, a year before Cortez
landed, an expedition lead by Juan de Gaijalva came
in contact with the indigenous people of the Yucatan
Peninsula and Mexico. The fact is that many Indians
had already met and traded with the Spanish a year
before Cortex arrived (Mee, P.57). This makes it
very unlikely that the Aztecs were completely
convinced that the Spanish were gods. This also puts
into question the accounts of Montezuma’s reaction
to the Spanish landing.
Montezuma’s Reaction
When Cortez reaches Tenochtitlán there is
much debate about the reasons for Montezuma’s
actions. By many accounts Montezuma greets Cortez
as a god and offers him the throne.
“You have come back to us; you have come
down from the sky. Rest now, and take
possession of your royal house. Welcome to
your lands my lord!”
(www.personal.psu.edu/users/a/m/amr127/p
ercept.html)
There are other theories about why Montezuma was
so generous and willing to let the Spanish march into
his city uncontested, something that he actually did.
One theory, of course, is that Montezuma actually
thought Cortez was Quetzalcoatl and was honoring
him, which now seems unlikely given the fact that
the Aztecs had already had contact with the Spanish
the year before. The other theory is that
Montezuma’s generosity was a ploy and that he was
actually planning to ambush them. It was a common
practice for Montezuma to invite rival kings and
chiefs to his palace where he would then proceed to
hold them prisoner until they joined his side or
surrendered (Mee, p.65). The reason that this plan
failed with Cortez was that Montezuma had not
counted on the Spanish creating so many alliances
during their march to Tenochtitlán. It is likely that
Montezuma did not want to upset the Spanish
because of their many allies in the countryside so he
acted extra generous in the hope that Cortez’s allies
would get bored and eventually leave, but his plan
backfired.
Decline in Aztec Power before Cortez’s Arrival
The greatest misconception about the
conquest of the Aztecs is that the Spanish conquered
the Aztec nation on their own, with only five hundred
and fifty soldiers against tens of thousands of Aztec
warriors. This is simply not the case. It is true that
the Spanish had better weapons technology, but there
is no possible way that the Spanish could have beaten
the Aztecs given the sheer number of Aztec warriors.
Besides, Spanish cannons and muskets were difficult
to transport and, furthermore Spanish gunpowder was
becoming notorious for failing on account of
becoming wet from travel. The truth of the matter is
that the Spanish had allies and it was these allies who
were the real reason behind the Spanish victories.
From the first day Cortez landed on the
shore of Veracruz he was made aware of the fact that
the Aztecs had many enemies. One of the most
crucial yet neglected facts of the Spanish conquest is
that the Aztec empire already had started to show
signs of weakness well before Cortez landed
(Carrasco, p.313). For decades Aztec imperialism
had started to catch up with them. Previously
conquered people were starting to get fed up with
being under Aztec rule. Dissention was slowly
spreading throughout the empire. Then two
devastating defeats during campaigns to subjugate
the Kingdoms of Tarascan and Tlaxcalam further
weakened the appearance of Aztec invincibility.
Along with these campaign defeats came a
Smith 3
devastating drought that caused a disastrous famine
and further spread of dissention throughout the
empire (Carrasco, p.313).
Then Cortez arrived. Within days of his
arrival five Indians from the nearby city of Zempoala
greeted Cortez and told him that they had just
recently been brought under control of the Aztecs by
force and would be willing to fight Montezuma (Mee,
p.60). This delighted Cortez to no end. After gaining
these allies Cortez decided to march towards
Tenochtitlán. Along the way he fought a group of
Otomi Indians from Tecoac, after defeating them he
marched on to the city of Tlaxcaltecas. The Indians
there decided to join Cortez’s side (Leon-Portilla,
p.37). His army, numbering by some accounts as
many as 200,000 (Leon-Portilla, p.124), marched
towards Tenochtitlán, along the way either gaining
allies or vanquishing all who opposed them. By the
time Cortez reached Tenochtitlán his army was
thousands strong. This was certainly enough to take
on the Aztec forces, especially when Cortez knew
that other parts of the empire would soon join his side
once they saw the strength of his army.
Cortez did not need superior weapons or a
myth to conquer the Aztec Empire. By taking
advantage of the dissention already existing within
the empire he was given all the advantage he needed.
Through the alliances he made, Cortez was able to
gain power in the area, and then, through his cruel
tactics and genocidal actions, he was able to inflict
his will upon the Indians of central Mexico. An
example of the force used by Cortez is given in this
indigenous account of the Massacre in the Main
Temple:
At the moment in the fiesta, when the dance
was loveliest and when song was linked to
song, the Spaniards were seized with an urge
to kill the celebrants. They ran forward,
armed as if for battle. They closed the
entrances and passageways, all the gates of
the patio…They ran among the dancers,
forcing their way to the place where the
drums were played. They attacked the man
who was drumming and cut off his arms.
Then they cut off his head and rolled it
across the floor…They attacked some from
behind, and all of these fell instantly to the
ground with their entrails hanging out.
Others they beheaded: they cut off their
heads and split them into pieces (León-
Portilla, p.75-76).
This example of Spanish cruelty is one of hundreds
that can be found throughout the many chronicles of
the conquest. Through these quick and heartless acts
Cortez was able to take control of the Aztecs and
strike fear into their hearts. It was this cruelty and
the willingness to ignore human rights that gave the
Spanish an advantage. Once word traveled of their
cruel actions many groups of indigenous people
thought twice about opposing the conquistadors, and,
rather than fight, they joined with them to save their
own lives and the lives of their families.
The belief that the Aztecs truly thought
Cortez was Quetzalcoatl makes for a wonderful story.
Through this account, one is led to believe that
perhaps it was possible for a small group of Spanish
to defeat the largest empire that had ever existed in
North America. The myth explanation also goes
nicely with the technologically explanation for the
conquest. One could not exist without the other.
Upon taking a closer examination of the situation, it
is soon revealed that if it were not for the enemies
that the Aztecs had made before the Spanish even
arrived none of this might ever have happened.
It is clear that the myth of Quetzalcoatl did
not play as large a role during the conquest as
previously thought. Whether Spanish tampering with
omens was the only reason that brought about this
misinterpretation of history remains to be seen. The
evidence does point to the Spanish playing at least
some part in this historical manipulation. But it was
not myths or technology that brought the largest
empire in North America down; it was the Aztec’s
own imperialism that contributed decisively to the
downfall of their empire. Unfortunately, the
indigenous groups of Central America were unaware
that by allying themselves with the Spanish against
the Aztecs, they were trading one imperial power for
another, one that turned out to be much, much worse
than anyone could have imagined.
Prepared for Prof. Steven F. White
In FYS
Smith 4
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