1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1. History

The sexually depicts materials are abundant throughout the world since in the ancient time up until now.
This can be proven from the statues in ancient Rome that portray naked men and women. This phenomenon can
be seen with the evidence of statues and sexually explicit action with naked men and women painting during
ancient Rome and Hindu. Around 13,000 BCE in France, sexually explicit images of human and animals which
found painted in cave (Kohut, 2017). Times revolves as well as the pornography materials used by people. In
1820s the photography was first invented which later followed by moving pictures (Kohut, 2017). These tools
become a medium to produce pornographic materials, such as videotape, which promote people in this era to
watch pornographic movies at homes (Kohut, 2017). This can be evidence since in the 1960s the films
containing soft-core sexploitation hit the market and only within 7 years later, these kinds of films progress rapidly
and "had gone about as far as it could go" (Schaefer, 2010). During this time, beaver films that portray a fully
nude woman with a focus on the genitals had circulated underground and appeared in public at San Francisco
(Schaefer, 2010). Shortly afterwards, split beaver, action beaver and hardcore films had emerged in the market
(Schaefer, 2010).

It has been shown that advancing in technologies from photography to the production of films has
certainly amplified the pornography industry and it seems that pornography has tightly intertwined with the
technology (Coopersmith, 2006). This condition is worsening by the emerging of the Internet in the 1990s, where
it creates a platform to spread pornographic materials all over the world with unlimited asses and easier access
(Duffy, Dawson, & das Nair, 2016; Kohut, 2017). The Internet not only cause increased in the number of
consumers with various age ranges all over the world but it also gives drawback with the Internet and
pornography addiction. The history above showed how the development of technologies had marketed and
successfully increased the demand for pornography. From soft-core pornography, the industry can quickly market
hard-core pornography within several years with higher demand from consumers. This had allowed them to stay
firmly in the entertainment industry and create millions of profits. The higher demand on pornography materials
had increased the production as well as making the items available in varied form (hardcopy, softcopy, images,
movie, websites and others) with insane creativity.
 Figure 1. The development of pornography.

Coopersmith, (2006) said:

Pornography has usually been a hidden and often illegal market . . . the purveyors of pornography have
shifted from the black (illegal) to grey (legal and low profile) and white (legal and ‘normal’ profile)
markets, its profits and prominence have increased.

In the article written by Jacobs, (2004), most of the commercial agents are located in the United States where
these companies produce videos and websites on pornography. Next, Danni’s Hard Drive had his own company
in developing streaming soft pornography websites by only employing 45 workers; he successfully earned 6.5
million in 2001. It is estimated around $56 billion is spent in pornography medium throughout the world (Zitzman
& Butler, 2005). By looking to these numbers, it reflects that the demand in the pornography significantly
increased which trigger pornography bloom (Jacobs, 2004). It is undoubted that prolong consumption of
pornography can cause addiction and others related mental and health problems. Therefore, risk and protective
factors must be identified to prevent exposure to pornography addiction.
 1.2. Define pornography and examples of pornographic and non-pornographic

The term pornography is made from a combination of two Greek words, porno and graphos which
means writings about prostitutes (Kohut, 2017) or Greek word “πoρνoγραϕ´ια” (por-no-grah-o-phia), “writings
about harlots” (Yoder, Virden, & Amin, 2005). Pornography is defined as materials containing three aspects which
“be sexually explicit, showing women enjoy physical abuse and have the purpose and effect of producing sexual
arousal (Sunstein, 1986). The main concern in pornography either sexualizes or violence has defines women as
sexually subordinate to men with the fundamental theme of rape, explicitly or implicitly. Meanwhile, in research
done by Carroll et al., (2008), “pornography was defined as media used or intended to increase sexual arousal
[in] such material generally portrays images of nudity and depictions of sexual behaviours.” Kohut (2017) has
listed some of materials content pornography such as in sexual comics, novel, magazines, audio recording,
images, videotapes, DVDs and the Internet that portray the sexual relationship between partner either
heterosexual or homosexual activities

In the article written by Kohut, (2017), the author has divided the definition of pornography into the
functional and structural definition. Functional definition pornography is referring to the “perceived purpose or
function of sexually explicit materials” are made, used or chosen by the consumer to satisfy the sexual desire
(Kohut, 2017). Therefore, a material can be considered as pornographic or non-pornographic depend on the
perception and inferences made by the observers (Kohut, 2017). With respect to an individual reaction, every
people may have varing opinions in sexually explicit materials. Meanwhile, structural definition of pornography
can be defined as “the objective elements of sexual depictions” which including its content and the channel used
to represent the sexually explicit material (Kohut, 2017). For example, any materials contain part of human body
in naked or genital parts are considered pornography. Rasmussen, Rhodes, Ortiz, & White, (2016) define
pornography as “any media “construed as intended to entertain or arouse erotic desire”.

1.3. Pornography addiction

Kim, (2013) divides addiction into two categories which are drug addiction and action behaviours
addiction (Figure 1). In an article cited by Voros (2009), the terminology “addiction of pornography” is transposed
from the term alcohol addiction in the 1970s and can be defined as a sexual disorder which exhibits “excessive
and uncontrollable” in using sexually explicit materials. Based on Voros, (2009), intensively use of sexually depict
photo or video during masturbation can cause pornography addiction and later progress toward more extreme
sexual sensation that can fall into evil acts such as rape and paedophilia. Meanwhile, Duffy et al., (2016), had
derived the definition of self-perceived pornography addiction from sexual addiction with reference to:

“tolerance and withdrawal symptoms; appetitive behaviours and avoidance of intrusive thoughts, urges,
and desires as a motivator for viewing pornography; and emotional regulation, “excessive” time spent
viewing, dependency, negative outcomes of viewing, relapse cycles, and failed attempts to quit
pornography use” (Duffy et al., 2016).
 Figure 1 indicates type of addiction.

Viewing pornography materials can be categories into two; either the intentionally or accidentally
viewing pornography. Intentionally consumes pornography means “voluntarily, purposefully, and actively seek out
pornography” while, accidentally means “the exposure is unwanted and not actively pursued, such as arriving at
pornographic sites” (Hardy, Steelman, Coyne, & Ridge, 2013) or stumble upon any pornography magazines or
video. Regardless from which categories the users of pornography both have created the chances to develop the
addiction to pornography materials. Once a person view pornography, the stimulus and eager to know more
about sexual relationship might be repeated again and again.

As cited by Zitzman and Butler (2005) and Ford, Durtschi, & Franklin, (2012), compulsive pornography
consumption is an addiction when a person met criteria such as worsen marital relationship, impair performance
at work and home and repeated attempts with failure to stop from consuming pornography in spite of awareness
of significant negative effects. In normal condition, sexual response is a physiological process that triggers
psychoactive effect such as arousal together with the attachment in a relationship with the partner (Zitzman &
Butler, 2005). However, in case of addiction to pornography, a psychoactive effect is also triggered, but only by
the sexually depict materials without sexual response and relationships with the partner (Zitzman & Butler, 2005).
Pornography viewers will only be preoccupied and engage with fantasy and this will impair real-world problem-
solving and functioning (Zitzman & Butler, 2005). This is because pornography is specifically designated so that it
can be a powerful material to tap onto physiological and psychological dynamics of viewer sexuality which later
develops addictive dynamics (Zitzman & Butler, 2005). Nevertheless, the opponents to pornography addiction
believe that pornography is a “morally constructed concept designed to maintain sexual order” (Voros, 2009).
 Due to the increment on the pornography users, the number of clinical researches on pornography
increase dramatically due to higher demand in seeking treatment of pornography-related problems (Duffy et al.,
2016; Kohut, 2017) such as pressure from the spouse, deteriorate of sexual relationship satisfaction, or just
jealous (Duffy et al., 2016). Duffy et al., (2016) have listed clinical treatment given to porno addict who includes
individual therapy, couple therapy and the prescription of anti-depressants. However, pornography addiction is
still unclassified and rejected to be included under psychological disorder in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition and yet, researchers had proposed that excessive use in pornography is
categorized under hypersexual disorder (Duffy et al., 2016) and may trigger aggressive sexual behaviour
(Kingston, Malamuth, Fedoroff, & Marshall, 2009).

1.4. Attitude and behaviours

Studies were done by Carroll et al., (2008) to investigate the relationship between the use and
acceptance of pornography with the adulthoods’ sexual attitude, risk behaviour, substance use patterns and
family formation values on universities’ students in the United States. Results (Carroll et al., 2008) suggest that
men with 66.5% accept pornography as a way to express one’s sexuality and 48.4% of men watch pornography
once or more frequently in a week. The studies had divided adulthood into three age level which is early (18 and
19-year-olds), middle (20 to 22-year-olds), and late emerging adults (23 to 26 year olds). The results reveal that
increasing the age has increased the acceptance of pornography in both genders (Carroll et al., 2008). In other
research (Price, Patterson, Regnerus, & Walley, 2016). In the same research (Carroll et al., 2008), the usage of
pornography in men is related to the number of lifetime sexual partners and the acceptance in an extramarital
relationship as compared to non-pornography users which do not have sexual intercourse. Adult men and
women who consume pornography seen to consider in permissive sexuality, non-marital cohabitation and have
higher substances use such as binge drinking in comparison with non-pornographic users (Carroll et al., 2008).

Pornography users may exhibit characteristics such as “excessive behavioural engagement, craving for
behavioural engagement, diminished self-control over the behaviour and continued behaviour despite personal,
social, or occupational impairment” (Allen, Kannis-Dymand, & Katsikitis, 2017). A problem arises from
pornography are characterised by a predominant urge for voluntary or behavioural engagement, referred to as
craving or known as desire thinking (Allen et al., 2017). From the description of patients to therapists regarding
their relationship with pornography, a compilation of cases studies is made by (Voros, 2009). The result reveals a
set of systemic definitions on the addiction to sex and the Internet where the patients are presence in a
pathological state:

“. . . such as feelings of loss of control of one’s body in the face of the power of arousal of the images; a
sensation associated with broader dynamics: disconnection from relational sexuality; increase in
extreme fantasies, loss of contact with reality, anxiety, stress, depression, isolation, irritability,
deterioration of sensitivity and concentration, or letting oneself go — refusal to take charge of oneself
(Voros, 2009).”
 However, the heavy pornography uses is still unclassified by the researchers either it is because of
habitual or compulsive which can cause the users to loss of control in consuming pornography (Butler, Pereyra,
Draper, Leonhardt, & Skinner, 2018). Regardless of the consequences of pornography, the risk factors that can
lead to either exposure to pornography or reattempt in pornography consumption must be identified and prevent
by every individual.
2. RISK FACTORS

2.1. INTERNET

2.1.1. The Internet users

Nowadays, the Internet becomes a medium in performing online activities such as communication,
banking, information gathering, shopping and watching news and movies. According to a research done by
Pandita (2017), on 31st March 2017, there are 7.5 billion population throughout the world and about 3.73 billion of
the population are the Internet users. For example, in China, there are about 750 million of the Internet users with
an average time of using the Internet is about 26.5 hours per week and the most common online activities are
online shopping, social networking and the Internet gaming (Tian et al., 2018). In 2001, the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration of the United States collected data reveal that more than
50% of the population is using the Internet (Yoder et al., 2005). This number steep up to 4 million of new Internet
users in February 2003 with a new percentage around 75% (Yoder et al., 2005). A survey was done by Malaysian
Communications and Multimedia Commission, (2017) from 14 November 2016 and ended on 10 February 2017,
approximately around 24.5 million with the percentage of 76.9% in Malaysia are the Internet users as compared
to 24.1 million in 2015 (Figure 1). The statistics mentioned above, demand on the Internet by the world
population seems increased dramatically by days.

Figure 1 shows the percentage of Internet users in Malaysia from 14 November 2016 to 10 February 2017.
 2.1.2. Negative consequence of the internet

It is undoubtedly that the number of Internet users step up because it brings tremendous benefits which
can increase satisfaction in life. However, other than these benefits, there are also negative consequences on
the Internet uses such as increased depression, anxiety, loneliness and may lead to psychotropic disorder and
academic failure (Tian et al., 2018) as well as reduce social interaction (Seepersad, 2004). In a research done by
Çankaya & Odabaşi, (2009) some of the children especially male teenagers spend more than 4 hours with a
computer at home, in consequences, it affects their physical, social and psychological health. One of the
common negative effects of the Internet is online pornography addiction. According to Zitzman & Butler, (2005) a
pattern of compulsive usage on online pornography can be observed together with the development of
disruption, impairment, and endangerment of attachment in marital relationships as the negative side effect on
the pornography addiction.

In the online newspaper The Star (2016):

“. . . frequent use of the Internet could translate to low self-esteem, depression, social anxiety, lower
levels of contentment, sadness, boredom and attention-deficit hyperactive disorder . . . Malaysian youth are
increasingly using the Internet in excess . . . 37% of Malaysian parents feel their children’s online interfering with
their home and school obligations; 18% say their children are sacrificing basic social activities in favour of
computer time . . . males under the age of 24 are the most susceptible to Internet addiction.”

Figure 2 shows the effect of the Internet.

 2.1.3. Internet and pornography

The Internet has removed the biggest barrier in spreading pornography material which are shame and
ignorance (Coopersmith, 2006). Statistics in 2006, around 42.7% of Internet users (Figure 3) are online
pornography consumers (Ropelato, 2007) and

up to 25% of search engines are requesting online pornography materials . It is also supported by other
researches such as by Carroll et al., (2008) said that the most popular topic search on the Internet is related to
sex since around 68 million requests of search-engine related to pornography in a day. Meanwhile, 9% of
Internet users had spent more than 11 hours per week only for searching online sexual content. In
2002, Virtual Imagination, Inc. come out with the statistic that 80% of companies report that their employees are
consuming online pornography during work as well as abuse the Internet networking provided by the companies
(Yoder et al., 2005). The above statistics indicate request on online porno materials significantly large in number.
Therefore, a hypothesis can be made by raising the number of Internet users, more pornography consumers are
predicted to be.

Internet users

Pornography
consumer

Figure 3 shows the ratio between Internet users to the pornography consumers.

Figure 8. The numbers of search engine on online pornography materials.

 2.1.4. The pornographer

In every second, about 28, 258 people are viewing online pornography (Ropelato, 2007). Obviously, it
happens because the Internet is the fastest platform to share, distribute and consume sexually explicit materials.
By 2006, the number of pornography websites available online is around 420 million pages and 240 million are
come from USA (D’Orlando, 2011). Sadly, the statistics reveal that a new pornographic video is created in every
39 minutes, in the United States (Ropelato, 2007) and the pornographers are generating large profits from this
business (Kingston et al., 2009; Yoder et al., 2005). By comparing profit gains by the pornography industries with
others big companies such as Microsoft, Yahoo and Apples, the worldwide pornography receive huge profits
around $97.06 billion in 2006 from the consumers (Ropelato, 2007). Pornography is a big business since “US
porn revenue exceeds the combination revenues of ABC, CBS, and NBC (6.2 billion)” (Yoder et al., 2005).

Figure 5. The number of pornography video uploaded in PornHub. Adapted from Maybe they found something
more stimulating! Porn site reveals people are watching far LESS adult content than they did 10 years ago by
Katie Fustich, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-4545854/10-year-pornography-
survey-reveals-surprising-statistics.html.

2.1.5. The internet cause pornography addiction

 It has been discussed in many articles what makes the trends in using online pornography items are
increasing. In the article Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, (2018), a long time ago, pornography was also available in
the market but to have such materials require effort . However, nowadays, the Internet provides a continuous
online sexual content with kinds of pornography items available for free and readily in the Internet (Carroll et al.,
2008; Wéry, Schimmenti, Karila, & Billieux, 2018) accompanied by a wider use of personal computers, and the
incoming of pay-per-view home movies have revised the method in accessing pornography (Carroll et al., 2008).
Other than that, the Internet also provides a space for users “. . . to compensate for their social challenges and to
recreate themselves” and these trigger users to explore online pornography websites “though they would be
highly unlikely to enter their equivalents offline” (Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, 2018). From the article written by
Carroll et al.,( 2008), started from 1982, the increment of pornography in America is significant because of
“Triple-A engine”.

Figure 5. The percentage of using smartphone in accessing PornHub. Adapted from Maybe they found
something more stimulating! Porn site reveals people are watching far LESS adult content than they did 10 years
ago by Katie Fustich, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-4545854/10-year-
pornography-survey-reveals-surprising-statistics.html.

Allen, Kannis-Dymand, and Katsikitis (2017) claim that viewing pornography is not the basic problem
but, “Triple-A engine” that cause online pornography addiction associated with distress and functional
impairment. Cooper, (2002) had come out with a theory of “Triple-A engine” referring to three element
accessibility, affordability and anonymous. The first is higher accessibility to the Internet which means that
millions of websites contains pornographic materials are available 24 hours (Cooper, 1998). Obviously, the
accessibility to the Internet is easier compared to previous years because of advances in technologies and
gadget such as laptop and smartphone which can be carried anywhere as well as widespread wireless internet.
Secondly, affordability to obtain the pornographic materials on the Internet is expanding since the competition
between the pornography industries and the presence of free pornography materials available online cause the
price to be kept low (Cooper, 1998). Besides, the identity of the pornography user is also anonymous and
thereby it provides privacy and comfort to view pornography in a specific area suitable for the consumers
(Cooper, 1998).

Figure 4 portrays the Triple-A engine.

Figure 5. Average time spent on PornHub website per person. Adapted from Maybe they found something more
stimulating! Porn site reveals people are watching far LESS adult content than they did 10 years ago by Katie
Fustich, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-4545854/10-year-pornography-survey-
reveals-surprising-statistics.html.

Reduce the time due to the speed of internet increase

2.1.6. Games and others sources of online pornography

Even though the Internet has Triple-A factors which increase the number of online pornography users
but the most serious risk of the Internet is it can cause unintentional pornography viewing. Many articles highlight
on the issues such as open an unsolicited messages or receive spam e-mails (Hardy et al., 2013; Peter &
Valkenburg, 2016; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005), mistyping the addresses of Web site, accidentally accessing pop-up
images , advertisements (Peter & Valkenburg, 2016) sent by someone known or unknown and accidentally saw
pornographic site (Figure ade graph) (Livingstone & Bober, 2004). The internet is not only providing sexually
explicit materials like picture and video, but there are also online and free downloading games containing
pornographic content. For instances, BENKI KUOSUKO is one of game available for free to be downloaded by
gamer (Gutiérrez, 2014). There is a Law against Gender-Based Violence that prohibits discrimination on women;
however, it does not applicable on game (Gutiérrez, 2014). For this reason, some of games such as Custer's
Revenge, Slaves of the red mansion and Phantasmagoria are designed to explode women in an extreme
conditions (Gutiérrez, 2014). These Internets gaming illustrates abuse, violence and criminal against women
such as kill, rape and torture (Gutiérrez, 2014).

2.1.7. Request and demand

From the statistics, there must be a huge request or demand from the side of Internet consumers to
trigger this number (Figure 7). And for sure it is a profitable for the traders since most of the websites presence in
the Internet are owned or has a major share by profit generators (Yoder et al., 2005). Porn hub is the world’s
top adult Web site according to Alexa Internet Inc., and it has been visited by 60 million people in a
day thus it become the most visited website in the Internet in 2016 (Shor & Golriz, 2018). According to
the article written by Jacobs (2004), the Internet is one of the utmost channels for adult to viewing pornography
and not only for the big pornography companies, artists, small-scale pornography (Jacobs, 2004)as well as the
amateurs to produce and distribute pornographic materials (D’Orlando, 2011; Jacobs, 2004).
 Figure 7. The increment of online pornography is caused by huge demand from the side of consumers. The
Statistics taken from (Ropelato, 2007).

Statistics on the trend in pornography consumption through online

2.1.8. Violence on the Internet pornography

The Internet is more severe than others pornographic sources since the overwhelming in the violent,
harmful and exploitation especially in young population are increasing (Jacobs, 2004). This had been proven by:

The General Accounting Office and The House Government Reform Committee came out with
reports . . . that ‘Child Pornography Is Readily face Accessible Over Peer-to- Peer Networks’ (GAO-03-
537T) . . . Juvenile users of . . . [this networks] a significant risk of inadvertent exposure to pornography
when searching or downloading images’ (GAO-03-537T, p.11). To document the risk of inadvertent
exposure to pornography . . . searches on KaZaA and found indeed that child porn was being traded.
The GAO’s ‘Child Pornography Is Readily Accessible over Peer-to-Peer Networks’ report also mentions
that the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the fiscal year of 2002 allocated $38.2 million and 228 agents
to an ‘Innocent Images Unit’ and wants to visit the peer-to-peer companies to solicit their co-operation in
dealing with the issue of child pornography (GAO-03-537,p. 13). (Jacobs, 2004)

2.1.9. The most affected population on pornography

The most unwanted exposure of pornography is to young age population because of their inability to
make correct judgement and choice for life. It is undeniable that this generation is the most active Internet users
(Chisholm, Gall, Chisholm, & Gall, 2016; Mesch, 2009) since they grown up at the times where the Internet is
fully developed (Chisholm et al., 2016) as compared to the previous generations where the Internet is still
uncommon. Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, (2018) said that from nine out of ten Internet users are adolescents and
this population is leading the number of online social networking. These indicate that the Internet is vastly used
by young generation making this population is the most susceptible to online pornography. In addition, some the
pornography websites or Apps on the Internet provide free assess with loose age restriction. Thus, it is predicted
that porno consumers may not only come from adults but it also triggers varies age’s population.

Based on studies done in 2003 by the Internet Filter Review, the first time people in the United States
view pornography materials are at an average age of 11 years old which associated to accidentally stumble upon
pornography while doing homework or playing online games (Yoder et al., 2005). And young teenagers age
around 12 to 17 years old have the highest number recorded in viewing online pornography (Figure) as stated by
Yoder et al., (2005). From the research (Yoder et al., 2005), 42% percent of adolescent Internet users were
exposed to online pornography in the year 2004 and from those reported, 66% is unwanted exposure. Besides,
in China, 24.8% and 42.7% of Internet users are school students and pornography viewers. Survey (Mattebo,
Tydén, Häggström-Nordin, Nilsson, & Larsson, 2013) on students in school at Sweden reveal that 96% of the
samples population (boy with a mean age at 16.5 years old) are consuming pornography.

Figure. Age of online pornography consumers.

A study conducted in the United States on the exposure of online pornography among adolescent had
revealed that 93% of boys and 62% of girls had view pornography (Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, 2018). Besides,
the adolescent is a susceptible stage where sexual curiosity and wants to explore more about sex is higher
(Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005). According to (Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, 2018), most of young adolescent aged
between 11 to 15 years old never had experiences of having sexual intercourse. An increasing in age, around
63% of 16.9 years old boys and 17.4 years old girl had committed intercourse while research was done by
Ybarra & Mitchell, (2005) an average age as early as 15.8 years old. Therefore, this population is predicted to
have a higher possibility of engaging or encountering with materials related to sexual activities such as
pornography.
 Figure. The percentage of adolescent in viewing pornography.

Despite of the Internet as one of the medium in consuming pornography, other forms of pornography
used such as magazines, videotape and offline public venues are also need to be considered (Carroll et al.,
2008). This is because a person who views pornography materials in the Internet has higher tendency to accept
others type of pornography materials (Carroll et al., 2008). By focusing on the Internet only in analysis, the
frequency of using pornographic items may be underestimated (Carroll et al., 2008).

From the literature review, it can be concluded that, emergence of the internet has open a new method
in distributing and assessing pornographic materials. With the advance in technologies, the Internet become
more powerful tool for pornography industries and subsequently increased the numbers of the Internet
pornography users significantly. The reasons behind these are the Internet allows consumers to view
pornographic materials in the fastest and convenient way as well as protect the identity of the viewer.
 2.2. LONELINESS

2.2.1. Definition of loneliness

The second risk factor that triggers pornography addiction is loneliness. A condition like trauma and
depression are usually depicted by loneliness. The word loneliness portrays a deficiency in relationship state and
the term deficiency may refer to quality or quantity or both. Thus, loneliness can be defined as “an emotion that
signals unsatisfied needs for proximity, love, and security due to the unavailability of attachment responsive
relationships” (Butler et al., 2018). Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, (2018) define loneliness as “a feeling of being
disconnected or alienated from positive relationships with persons, places, or things. Butler et al., (2018) claim
“loneliness is a form of separation distress that results from failure to have one’s basic attachment needs to be
fulfilled”. As a consequence, the person becomes chronically vulnerable to loneliness with other mental problems
and social withdrawal (Butler et al., 2018).

2.2.2. Process in developing loneliness

Sexual response can be divided into two phases; sexual arousal phase and resolution phase where
intense, preoccupying physical pleasure followed by comforting, soothing experience respectively (Butler et al.,
2018). These will activate the dopamine receptors in the brain as well as the release of oxytoxin act in such a
way two-stage drug-like experience which can provide euphoric and narcotic effects to the brain (Butler et al.,
2018). These conditions allow the brain to be in fantasy or imagination world and escape from real life such as
stress and loneliness (Butler et al., 2018). Thus, any pornographic materials will introduce its users to the
palliative relief from any life distress by having fantasy accompanied by pornography viewing and sexual arousal.
Therefore, loneliness (and other distressing conditions) readily becomes triggers to pornography use and its
autoerotic relief. Subsequently, the users of pornography become consistently need the pornographic material
which leads to addiction and pornography dependency (Butler et al., 2018). “Emotional, attachment and other
demands of relational pair-bond sexuality help ground sexual expression and can help circumvent (though not
entirely prevent) it being formed and fitted to a maladaptive purpose and addictive use” (Butler et al., 2018)

The transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescent start to become more independent from parents
and closer to friends by managing and developing skills to balance in between different relationships (Efrati &
Amichai-Hamburger, 2018). During infant, a child is engaged to the caregivers via intimate interaction which
provides secure, support, care and comfort to the child (Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, 2018). Later, this child will
grow with a positive view about self and develops a strong attachment orientation to the caregiver as well as
having good ties with people around them (Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, 2018). Meanwhile, if the support and
care from the guardians are inadequate, the child starts to develop an insecure attachment orientation
characterised by high degree of hoping for love and attachment with a feeling of fear to be rejected neglected
how much affection given (Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, 2018). If this condition continues to happen, the child will
view people around them as untrustworthy and undependable which can cause them to create a barrier and
prevent an intimate relationship. Starting from here, it develops loneliness in life (Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger,
2018).

2.2.3. Case study on loneliness and its relationship with pornography addiction

The above statement can be portrayed by the case study of ‘Simon’ reveals that due to trauma during
childhood, loneliness, depression, stress and tension in life cause the subject to develop a negative view of self
as “defective and shameful” and perception of others as unreliable and abusive (Wéry et al., 2018). He viewed
pornography to relieve stress and as routine activities when he alone (Wéry et al., 2018). At one stage, he
became addicted to pornography and reattempted in viewing to compensate the need. In other cases, Crews,
(2014) who became pornography addict for three decades, written a book entitled, “Manhood: How to Be a Better
Man-or Just Live with One” about how he become obsess to pornography. He wrote “I soon established a pattern
where anytime I was dealing with anxiety, I acted out with pornography” and he also had previous bad family
history during childhood.

2.2.4. Pornography as a reliever to stress and loneliness

Based on the researches (Wéry et al., 2018; Yoder et al., 2005), a child who had histories of neglect and
abuse, cope with the negative affective states and interpersonal difficulties will turn to addictive behaviours that
can relieve emotional pain temporarily. This is proven in ‘Simon’ case since he is presented with several
psychiatric disorders such as “anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, persistent depressive disorder
and paraphilic fantasies (sadomasochism) as well as tobacco abuse, social isolation, and low self-esteem” (Wéry
et al., 2018). To relieve problems, he consistently works, however, when he free he views pornography to reduce
the loneliness and other negative feelings (Wéry et al., 2018). Later, the subject lost of control in viewing
pornography and increased on the time of online consumption which eventually he starts to avoid social
interaction with his friends and further trigger loneliness (Wéry et al., 2018).

In the Crews' case (2014), he also found that consuming pornography can eliminate stress since he
said “My core value was continually battered by the pornography I snuck during times of stress . . . As soon as I
found the sweet spot, an image of two naked bodies . . . I felt all of the tension within me release” (Crews,
2014). His sibling (Marcelle) also watches pornography together with him but Marcelle did not develop an
addiction to pornography and he stopped from consuming it earlier. Therefore, a hypothesis can be made from
the cases; viewing pornography alone is not enough to trigger addiction without any co-factors like loneliness,
social withdrawal and depression. Both situations are known as a maladaptive coping strategy (Wéry et al., 2018;
Yoder et al., 2005). This causes them to be pornography addicts (Wéry et al., 2018).

Yoder et al., (2005) cited from The Centerfold Syndrome by Brooks:

“. . . reasons people delve into pornography is because they are lonely. The more one uses
pornography, the more lonely one becomes, and the pattern becomes cyclical in nature. Pornography pays scant
attention to men’s needs for sensuality and intimacy while exalting their sexual needs. Thus, some men develop
a preoccupation with sexuality, which powerfully handicaps their capacity for emotionally intimate relationships
with men and for nonsexual relationships with women”.

2.2.5. Statistics

In the research (Butler et al., 2018), 1,247 participants throughout the world answering the survey
through online shows a positive correlation between loneliness with pornography used (Figure 1) but with
negative correlation with age, education, and religiosity. Meanwhile, male has higher pornography use compared
to women and those who married have lower pornography use (Butler et al., 2018). The hypothesis given in a
study conducted by Butler et al. (2018) is first, pornography use is directly proportional to loneliness and
secondly, pornography is predicted to bring loneliness in users. This is because viewing pornography and sexual
response are maladaptive coping strategies (Butler et al., 2018). A result in research by Mattebo et al., (2013)
also reveal that 93% of the schoolboys are pornography viewer and 11% and 23% from them are having
depressive symptoms and peer relationship problems, respectively. Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, (2018) shows
relationship between loneliness, anxiety and frequency in online pornography (Graph)

The effects of loneliness on frequency of pornography use as a function of attachment avoidance

1.8
1.75
1.7
1.65
Low avoidance
1.6
Frequency of pornography use

High avoidance
1.55
1.5
1.45
1.4
1.35
Low loneliness High loneliness

Graph. The effects of loneliness on frequency of pornography use as a function of attachment avoidance.

From the graph (Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, 2018), the frequency of pornography used (PU) is depend on the
degree of avoidance, where in low level of avoidance the PU is lower regardless the loneliness. According to
Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, (2018) low avoidance means a person has a satisfaction in relationship and can
seek attention and love with other people. Thus, the person does not use pornography to reduce stress or as
compensatory to loneliness.
3. PROTECTIVE FACTORS

From the previous section, the Internet is the largest contributor to pornography viewing. With the
additional co-factors like loneliness causes people can involve in pornography. The adolescent is the highest
population in viewing pornography. Thus, protection from exposure or reattempt on viewing pornography should
be taken into consideration. However, it should not be neglect on the adult population since there are many
cases involving marital partners and working people. The article written by Hardy, Steelman, Coyne, & Ridge,
(2013), have compiled the protective factors of pornography addiction from several articles which are “higher
parent education higher socioeconomic status, greater attachment to school, healthier, family relationships and
more frequent family religious practices”. However, in this literature review, the protective factors will be focusing
on and related to the risk factors discussed above.

3.1. Control over the Internet

Pornography nowadays is difficult to be removed and it grows faster than before because of the Internet
promise unlimited access and borderless. It becomes a greater challenge when unwelcomed context like
pornography may be viewed by underage population. Even though it is known by parents that any traders of
online pornographic items are mandatory to verify the age of buyers before selling and websites contain nude or
sexual activities must display disclaim; no one less than 18 years and viewer must be responsible for his or her
action but children still have higher chances to stumble upon the pornography materials in the Internet. Aziz &
Ibrahim, (2012) claim human have the rights to freely express opinions and gather the knowledge from any
sources available, yet, the rights has its limitation when it comes to freedom of a child to access any information.

3.1.1. Government

In 1996, the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC) had allowed any media to be separated without
any needs of censorship. Later, the Communications and Multimedia Act of 1998 (“CMA”) and the
Communications and Multimedia Commission Act of 1998 (“CMCA”) had governed Malaysia’s
telecommunications, broadcasting, and Internet sectors to regulated and controlled on the facilities, services, and
content for “reasons of access, privacy and security and protection of individual rights (Aziz & Ibrahim, 2012). To
block all the incoming online pornographic materials receive from the site of creator and distributor are
complicated and endless works (Moreira et al., 2016). Besides, the rule of government to monitor the Internet
traffic become difficult since the advance in the communication and technologies nowadays, therefore, parents
role in maintaining the security of children while online is more significant (Livingstone & Helsper, 2008). By
regulating from the side of consumers are much easier and highly guaranteed that against any inappropriate
websites (Moreira et al., 2016).

3.1.2. Internet filtration uses by parents

 Here, parents or guardians play vital roles either to allow or restrict usage of the Internet among their
children (Kim, 2013). A method that can be used by either by parents for their children or adult to block the
income or access to online pornography or other unwanted materials, Internet filter can be installed. However,
most of the parents fail to do this for the children (Yoder et al., 2005). It is undoubtedly that parents nowadays
face a greater challenge to grown their children well in this era. One of the reasons behind this is because of the
proliferation of media goods in the home, especially in children’s bedrooms, and the growing complexity of media
and communication technologies (Livingstone & Helsper, 2008) as well as a busy life of working parents that limit
time spend with family members. Thus, parents have fewer chances to really know what online activities are
done by children. Because online pornography user is common in teenagers, therefore parents must give serious
attention to combating this issue.

Have seen pornography in the Internet by age in UK

80

70
Contact with porn
60 Pop-ups advert
Accidentally saw
50 pornography site
Percentage %

Junk mail
40
View pornographic site on
purpose
30
Sent porno from someone
20 you know
Sent porno from someone
10 you met online

0
All 9-11. 12-15. 16-17 18-19
Age group

Graph 1. “The statistics on the ways children in UK see online pornography” by Livingstone, S., & Bober, M.
(2004). UK children go online: Surveying the experiences of young people and their parents.
 The percentage of Internet filtration software uses by parents to monitor their children online activities
27.38%

Use Internet filter

Do not used Internet

54.76%
filter

Do not know how to

17.86% use Internet filter

Parents are aware that Internet filtrating software is necessary for children. However, some of them
might not take any actions. According to the (Çankaya & Odabaşi, 2009), there are many types of software that
can be used by parents such as Time-Limiting, Filtration and Blocking, Out-going Content Blocking, Kids
Oriented Search Engine and Monitoring Tools which provide different functions and some software may integrate
several softwares in one. Time-Limiting software helps to limit the period and allocate specific time where the
kids can online. Besides, Filtration and Blocking software acts by blocking certain websites or images from the
kids on the, other hand, Out-going Content Blocking software will protect the children’s identity by preventing any
information such as name, address or telephone number from leaving the computer (Çankaya & Odabaşi, 2009).
Next, Kids Oriented Search Engine software is similar to the search engine, with the additional feature of
screening inappropriate materials (Çankaya & Odabaşi, 2009). Lastly, Monitoring Tools software record the
online history, inform guardians about the online activities and display warning sign when the children access to
any inappropriate websites without limiting the access (Çankaya & Odabaşi, 2009).
 Figure . The types of software use in Internet Filtration.

3.1.3. Parental mediation

The Internet filter sometimes has errors which either cause under blocking or over blocking (Çankaya &
Odabaşi, 2009). Here, parental mediation upon the use of the Internet by children are seemed to be necessary.
The term ‘‘mediation’’ is usually “seen to capture the parental management of the relation between children and
media; usefully, it extends the parental role beyond simple restrictions to encompass also conversational and
interpretive strategies as well as parental monitoring activities” (Livingstone & Helsper, 2008). However, children
claim that feel uncomfortable with the mediation and restriction from parents regarding online activities
(Livingstone & Bober, 2004). There are three types of mediation which generally apply to all media. Active
mediation means parents are talking about the content of the media while the child surfing the content on the
Internet (watching, reading, listening to) which allow “both positive/instructional and negative/critical forms of
mediation” (Livingstone & Helsper, 2008). Next, restrictive mediation occurs if parents set rules that include the
time allocate and also the content that can be surfed by children without needs to discuss the content. Lastly, co-
using involve the presence of parents while children are engaging with the media but parents do not comment on
the content.
 Next, parents can also cultivate good interaction between the family members through the Internet via
co-viewing and talking about the common interest on media (Livingstone & Helsper, 2008). Healthy interaction
between family members through online social media will not only strengthen family bond but it can also provide
a good circumstance about online media to the children. As mention in the previous section, depression and
loneliness can trigger adhesion of someone to the Internet which can later lead to addiction and progressive to
consuming unwanted materials such as pornography to fulfil the lack in social life. Because of this, the
involvement of parents in supporting the healthy use of the Internet among the children can prevent them from
encounter or use online pornography materials. In order to provide protection from assessing unwanted online
materials or any harm website, some parents made rules in the family where it is poster so that everyone can
see it as studied by European Opinion Research Group (Çankaya & Odabaşi, 2009).

Table 1: Rules set by parents for children about the use of Internet by Çankaya, S., & Odabaşi, H. F. (2009).
Parental controls on children’s computer and internet use. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1),
1105–1109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.199

Rules Percentages (%)

There are some sites that he/she is not allowed to visit 60 60
Rules regarding how much time he/she is allowed to spend on the Internet 52 52
He/she is not allowed to give out any personal information 49 49
He/she is not allowed to meet in person someone he/she only met on the 39
Internet
He/she is to tell me/us if he/she finds something on the net making him/her 38
uncomfortable 38
He/she is not allowed to go to chat rooms/to talk to strangers in chat 32
He/she is not allowed to use rude language in e mails or chat 26

The good communication between family members or parenting style via online is another method that
can be practised to prevent children from accessing any useless or harmful online materials. This is because
intensive online restriction from parents can also bring negative consequences. Because of the intervention from
parents, research from Livingstone & Bober, (2004) found out that two third of children age 12 to19 years old
from the survey had to take action to protect their online privacy. By 38% delete email before it read by others
and minimise the window once anyone comes near, 17% delete unwanted cookies and history file, 12% hidden
and mislabelled file to keep their privacy and 12% use other people password without permission. Other than
above methods, educators can also take part by focusing on teaching the students on the critical thinking skills
so that they can learn to make informed decisions and judgments about the information they encounter on the
Internet (Whitworth & Berson Michael J., 2002). This step is really important since children sometimes have
difficulty to differentiate what are the things that they can do or not since, some parents may also forget on these
things.

3.2. Spiritual awakening and social activities

 Regardless of any protection used in preventing the waves of pornography, strong wills to prevent and
restrict the use of pornography by self is much more importance. Self-regulation is defined as “the ability to
regulate one's own thoughts, emotions, and behaviours” (Hardy et al., 2013). Only self can have full control of his
or herself. One of the methods in combating and preventing pornography consumption or addiction is through
spiritual. However, because of less research on pornography addiction as well as its relation with spiritual,
therefore treating pornography addiction by means of spiritual remains unclear even though it can treat other
addiction such as substance used disorder. In research, many of the university students accept the use of
pornography (as mention previously) however about 93.2% of boys and 62.1% of girls had exposed to
pornography before 18 years old (Sabina, Wolak, & Finkelhor, 2008). From the result, 50% from 93.1% of the
boys who view pornography before age 18 (Graph 1-46%) and 32% from 62.1% of the girls had express shame
and guilt of their actions (Sabina et al., 2008). These sensations are highly correlated with the spirit of a person
that either helps the users to stop viewing pornography or not. Nevertheless, the cycle of pornography addiction
is difficult to be broken because pornography is created and design so that the users will keep consuming the
materials.

Graph. The exposure to pornography in male before 18 years old.

According to (Chisholm et al., 2016) shame is a contributing factor to pornography use and addiction.
The person becomes “ruminates, feels stuck, unmotivated to change and saying of “I am a bad person”
(Chisholm et al., 2016). Shame is caused by moral or spiritual values that have been contravened once the users
engage with pornography, which resulted in an unhealthy or incongruent spirituality that eventually leads to
continuous used of pornography and later causes addiction. Based on Crews' (2014) experiences on consuming
pornography, he said, “I felt bad because I knew I shouldn’t do so, but at the same time, it was exhilarating, a
rush, like taking a drug . . . . . . he [friend] didn’t know the extent of my obsession. No one did. My secret was
safe. But I knew I was doing it. I knew it was wrong. I felt bad. And yet I couldn’t stop”. This negative down spiral
pathway can be broken by “transform self-loathing into self-compassion by means of a spiritual intervention” or
spiritual awakening (Chisholm et al., 2016). This step is the most crucial and challenge from the addicts to break
the compulsive in pornography and gain self-control. Subsequently, the sense of shame become weaks and
being replaced by guilty which can motivate a positive change such as restraint self from consuming
pornography can be achieved. It is a starting point of upward cycles and recovery. In order to break the negative
downward spiral cycle, the pornography addicts need helps from the surrounding such as support from the
physician, family members and friends.

The sense of guilt is come from spiritual that bound with religious. By this means religion can strain a
person from pornography material or gain self-control after becoming addicted to pornography. Hardy et al.,
(2013) religion makes a person become more salient and internalized to achieve the sanctified goal in life and
increase in self-monitoring action can be seen when a person belief in the presence of God that observe and
judge behaviours (Hardy et al., 2013). Besides, youth who come from rigid religious family has wrapped sexuality
issue as a shameful and thus repress desires which in turn the youth unconsciously bond to the pillar; preventing
themselves from unwanted materials like pornography (Haney, 2006). Other ritual activities like fasting can help
someone to boost self-regulation since practising fasting create an opportunity of self-constraint (Hardy et al.,
2013). In research by (Efrati & Amichai-Hamburger, 2018), the secular adolescent has higher pornography use
and sexual related online activities as compared to religious adolescent.

Because there are no specific guidelines for the protection and treatment of pornography addiction,
therefore, method used in treating others addiction (eg. abuse and alcohol addiction) are used for pornography
by the physicians. By preventing Internet addiction, it can also indirectly reduce the addiction to pornography
among the Internet users. One of the ways is by participating in recreational and outdoor activities with family
(Kim, 2013). Meanwhile, specific activities like music and art are complementary treatment in treating
smartphone addiction. Doing activities that required involvement with the community also can limit the leisure
time of a person thus people would have less time to search for either online or offline pornography materials.
Most of the time people watch pornography when they are alone or at the state of loneliness, thereby, enrol
recreational activities will provide a good environment that can protect a person from the state of loneliness.
Because loneliness usually come together with depression, recreational with family and colleagues may enhance
communication, interaction as well as sharing about life seem can prevent porno addict from trapping at the
addiction cycle and can also protect other people from It is undoubtedly that, recreational activities are part of
exercise and based on the article (Kim, 2013), exercise helps in a wide range of physical and psychological
problems.
1. ISLAMIC PERCEPTION

Viewing pornography materials is prohibited in Islam by referring the Quran, Surah Al-Isra verse 32,
Allah command:

It is clearly stated that all Muslim are prohibited not only from fornication but approaching fornication (zina) is
strictly forbidden in Islam. The rationale behind this is because once the way of fornication is opened, it is
too difficult for a person to prevent it from happening. Therefore, it is safer for a Muslim not even to come
close to anything that can trigger sexual desired. It is a truth that pornography materials are designated for
sexual stimulus. Because of this reasons, any materials or things which acts as sexual stimulus should be
thrown away and placed a barrier in self for not to get closer to such things. In the Quran, Surah An-Nur
verses 30 has highlighted to all the Muslim on Allah’s commandment:

In Surah-Ankabut verse 45;

During the prophet time, Imam Ahmad recorded that Abu Hurayrah said: "A man came to the Prophet
and said, `So-and-so prays at night, but when morning comes, he steals.' The Prophet said: “Prayer also
includes the remembering of Allah, which is the higher objective” ( (‫إنه سينهاه ما تقول‬
 Abu Al-`Aliyah commented on the verse: "Prayer has three attributes, and any prayer that contains none of
these attributes is not truly prayer: Being done purely and sincerely for Allah alone (Ikhlas), fear of Allah, and
remembrance of Allah. Ikhlas makes a person do good deeds, fear prevents him from doing evil deeds, and
the remembrance of Allah is the Qur'an which contains commands and prohibitions.'' (Tafsir Ibn Al-Kathir)

The most important is to ask protection and guidance from Allah from the challenges and evil of this world.

2. CONCLUSION

For my point of view, addicted to pornography cannot happen just because of a person accidentally
view pornography, but the addition conditions such as mental (depression, anxiety and loneliness) and social
disorder act as a co-factor which render a person to reattempt pornography as a medium for them to escape
from the real life situation where pornography can provide satisfaction in their lives. In this situation, the addicts
have difficulty to gain self-control and trap in the shame pathway. What makes this growing today is the
pornography items presence everywhere since the Internet creates boundless access to pornography. Therefore,
protection against pornography is needed especially to the unwelcome pornography materials like pop-ups.
Dependence upon the Internet filters or parental control is not strong enough for a person to abstain from
pornography. The main element in protecting from pornography or become addicted to pornography is self itself;
spiritual strength to oppose the pornography materials. There is no shortcut to treat pornography addiction
because the only self can decide what we want to do since people around us such as parents, siblings and
friends have limited control over ourselves. Support from family and friend as well as involvement in activities like
recreation can only act as adjuvant or booster for the addicts to gain confidence and self-control or as prevention
from viewing pornography.