Construction Innovation

Crane overlap and operational flexibility: balancing utilization, duration, and

safety
Malak Al Hattab, Emile Zankoul, Mohammad Barakat, Farook Hamzeh,
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operational flexibility: balancing utilization, duration, and safety", Construction Innovation, Vol. 18
Issue: 1, pp.43-63, https://doi.org/10.1108/CI-11-2016-0062
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Crane overlap
Crane overlap and operational and
flexibility: balancing utilization, operational
flexibility
duration, and safety
Malak Al Hattab, Emile Zankoul, Mohammad Barakat and 43
Farook Hamzeh
Received 22 November 2016
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Revised 17 March 2017
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American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon 24 June 2017

Accepted 4 September 2017

Abstract
Purpose – With tower cranes being the site hubs, thoroughly planning and managing their operations can
result in better construction performance. As urban spaces become more constricted, overlapping working
radii of tower cranes becomes inevitable. While project planners are concerned with safety hazards, research
has not comprehensively addressed workload distribution and synchronization of overlapping cranes.
Therefore, this study aims at exploring the impact of overlapping cranes, used on high-rise buildings, on
operational flexibility which is the balance between schedule duration, crane utilization and safety.
Design/methodology/approach – A simulation model was developed and applied on a real project to
analyze and compare the impacts of different overlap sizes. Seven scenarios of different overlap sizes, i.e.
different number of tasks falling in the overlap space, were executed in the model; their results were plotted
and analyzed.
Findings – The outcomes result from several compounded factors such as the experience of planners and
crane operators, the sequencing of critical versus non-critical activities and the overall effort and care taken
when planning operations of overlapping cranes. Increasing overlap size can be beneficial or unfavorable
depending on how properly planners allocate overlapping cranes to workload demand, keeping in mind that
there are certain trade-offs while achieving operational flexibility.
Originality/value – While project planners are concerned with safety hazards associated with crane
overlaps, research has not been comprehensively nor proactively addressing the workload distribution and
synchronization of overlapping crane processes. This study contributes to science by addressing the need to
harness the flexibility in using overlapping tower cranes while minimizing the resulting interruptions and
safety risks. This study sheds light on the potential benefits of allowing cranes to overlap while considering
their collision free operations. Operational flexibility is seen as the balance between achieving shorter
schedule durations and higher crane utilizations while maintaining collision free motion paths.
Keywords Construction scheduling, Construction engineering management, BIM, Construction
technology, IT/BPR/simulation, Construction plan & equipment
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
High-rise buildings and mega-scale construction projects are highly reliant on the use of
tower cranes for the execution of many construction activities. This makes tower cranes

Simulation models and experiments presented in this paper were supported by the faculty of
engineering deans fund/civil engineering department at the American University of Beirut and by the Construction Innovation
Vol. 18 No. 1, 2018
Lebanese National Council for Scientific Research. All support is gratefully acknowledged. Any pp. 43-63
opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the authors © Emerald Publishing Limited
1471-4175
and do not necessarily reflect those of the contributors. DOI 10.1108/CI-11-2016-0062
 CI vital for leading the flow of site works, making them the hub of such projects. Consequently,
18,1 site productivity, safety, and overall performance are linked to the operations of cranes. Any
unsafe motion, delay, or failure to meet workload demand by the crane can jeopardize the
successful workflow on site (Tam and Fung, 2011). Moreover, operating tower cranes
requires high monetary investment, constant maintenance, safety checks and proper
assignment of cranes to tasks. Therefore, cranes are critical equipment that need to be
44 properly planned and matched with construction works on site so that operations can be
performed efficiently, safely and correctly.
Selecting the appropriate type, number and locations of cranes is dependent upon the
site’s layout and logistics, expected workload demand, space constraints and project’s
surrounding such as traffic and adjacent buildings. In addition, cranes do not operate solely,
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as they are used to assist labor crews and other equipment for executing site activities,
making the planning of their logistics and operations instrumental in achieving desired
project performance. Several research studies developed methods for managing tower
cranes such as choosing the best locations of tower cranes (Zhang et al., 1999; Alkriz and
Mangin, 2005; Tam et al., 2001; Tam and Tong, 2003), scheduling of crane activities (Zavichi,
2013; Al Hattab et al., 2014) and operating them safely (Albahnassi and Hammad, 2012;
Chang et al., 2012).
Complex construction projects dictate high crane workload demands that need to be
satsified without delays especially on fast-track projects. This requires that multiple tower
cranes operate simultaneously to meet site demands from multiple trades at different zones
or storeys. Moreover, as urban spaces become more constricted, better site layout design is
needed to satisfy the work requirements of high rise building, requiring multiple crane
working areas to overlap. However, the potential benefits that can be achieved from
overlaps, such as more proficiently meeting the workload demands, decreasing task
durations and achieving more flexibility for operations, will be unexploited. While project
planners are concerned with safety hazards associated with such overlaps, research has not
been comprehensively addressing the workload distribution and synchronization of
overlapping crane processes.
The motivation for this research results from the need to harness the flexibility in using
overlapping tower cranes while minimizing the resulting interruptions and safety risks.
This study sheds light on the potential benefits of allowing cranes to overlap while
considering their collision free operations. Operational flexibility is seen as the balance
between achieving shorter schedule durations and higher crane utilizations while
maintaining collision free motion paths. In this study, a simulation model is developed to
analyze different overlap space sizes and assess their respective impacts on reducing
durations and increasing crane utilizations while considering clash avoidance maneuvers.
The model is then applied to a case study and results are discussed in later sections.

Background on tower crane operations

Mathematical models based on the supply, demand and crane location utilizing Cartesian
coordinates were developed for calculating motion durations (Zhang et al., 1996). Multiple
linear regression models were used to calculate supply and demand hoisting times
necessary for planning and synchronizing hoisting operations (Leung and Tam, 1999).
Artificial neural networks and multiple regression analysis were used to model the hoisting
time of cranes (Leung et al., 2001). Tam et al. (2002) developed linear regression models and
nonlinear neural network models for predicting tower crane hoisting times. Other
researchers implemented non-deterministic polynomial optimization for crane service
sequence scheduling to search for the best sequence of supplying demand points based on
 total travel time (Zavichi, 2013). On the other hand, Tam and Tong (2003) combined genetic Crane overlap
algorithms and artificial neural networks to predict hoisting times and choose crane and and
material supply locations. Fung et al. (2008) also utilized genetic algorithms to optimize
vertical hoisting and storage layout on high-rise construction to reduce overall
operational
transportation costs. However, these studies do not take into account the presence of crane flexibility
overlaps and their impact on travel time durations resulting from their simultaneous
operations.
45
Multiple crane operations
The optimal location of a single crane and similarly the location of multiple tower cranes can
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be selected based on the work schedule demand using stochastic simulation models that
calculate the travel time (Zhang et al., 1996, 1999). Tam et al. (2001) use genetic algorithms
for optimizing crane locations and material storage areas while reducing transportation
time. Similarly, Alkriz and Mangin (2005) adopt genetic algorithms for determining the
optimal position for cranes and surrounding facilities. Mixed-integer linear programming
was used to search for a global optimum solution for selecting optimal crane and material
supply locations to minimize total operating cost (Huang et al., 2011). Special purpose
simulation and 3D visualization were integrated for modeling tower crane operations
(Al-Hussein et al., 2006). Kang and Miranda (2006) developed a mathematical model to
support the simulation and visualization of crane activities. Cheng and Teizer (2014)
implemented laser scanning and tracking technologies to model crane operator visibility for
identifying obstacles and enhancing visibility for safe operations. Moreover, Kamat and
Martinez (2001) presented a general purpose 3D visualization system that enables accurate
spatial and chronological visualization of operations. While these studies focused on
reducing cost and travel time while achieving safety considerations, the actual workload
demand present and balancing utilization between multiple cranes was not incorporated as
part of these optimizations and search algorithms.
A study by Lin and Haas (1996) focused on optimizing multiple heave lifts by focusing
on initial crane configurations and placement problems while considering cost and safety
factors. Moreover, studies by Kang et al. (2011) and Hwang (Hwang, 2012) study multi-tower
crane motion planning on construction sites in attempt to find collision-free and safe
construction processes. Computational algorithms were developed to coordinate the motion
of multiple construction cranes on narrow sites to avoid collisions (Kang and Miranda,
2008). Other frameworks, algorithms for planning trajectories and methodologies such as
the incremental coordination method and probabilistic road map method were developed for
motion planning of multiple cranes and synchronizing their operations to avoid collisions
(Albahnassi and Hammad, 2012; Chang et al., 2012, Olearczyk et al., 2014). However,
workload demand of available activities was not considered in these studies, and therefore,
the respective impacts on schedule durations were not explored in relation to multiple crane
processes.
Although these previously mentioned efforts aim at improving crane operations,
research about the overlapping space of multiple tower cranes is still limited. The following
are some weaknesses and gaps in the mentioned studies on multiple tower crane operations:

The planning techniques involve a single stage at the beginning of operations and
logistics planning. With the lack of detailed information and limited knowledge at
the start of the project, choices regarding crane positions, work demand and
resource requirements are usually selected without consideration of the inherent
uncertainties in construction tasks. Also, the absence of near real-time operations’
 CI planning results in suboptimal utilization/performance of cranes and a mismatch
18,1 between actual crane’s work demand and available crane coverage.

The traditional way of current practice is to reduce the overlap of cranes to avoid
the occurrence of clashes. This compromises the flexibility in matching demand and
crane coverage requirements and creates unfavorable rigid motion paths. There is
limited research on how to accommodate safety concerns while considering
46 schedule implications in the presence of cranes’ overlaps.

Unreliable planning and sequencing of crane schedules based on push systems and
preset schedules can lead to sub-optimal performance of cranes. Crane lift planners
usually operate cranes without a well-defined schedule, thus not guaranteeing an
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optimal execution sequence. Without considering prerequisites that need to be

satisfied prior to crane lifting, delays and safety issues might arise resulting in
longer durations and inefficient utilization.

The potential flexibility of having an overlapping space and the impacts on total
schedule duration, crane utilization rates and safety considerations have not been
explored in earlier studies. Therefore, although studies work around the presence of
multiple cranes to avoid collisions, they do not explore how to benefit from these
overlaps and their impacts on operations.

Different zones in the work area have varying work demand and only one crane
reach might not be sufficient for covering the tasks. Moreover, studies base supply
and demand matching based on total work demand present with respect to crane
coverage area (working radius). However, current studies do not consider the
number of tasks present in a specific area (work demand per area) which is
important for positioning cranes.

Therefore, this study addresses these gaps by exploring the operations of overlapping tower
cranes. Specifically, this study assesses the impacts and potential benefits of utilizing crane
overlaps on schedule duration, crane utilization rates and safe motion planning.

Research contributions and objectives

The main contribution of this research to science lies in exploring the impacts of utilizing the
overlapping space of multiple cranes for improving their operational flexibility, a matter
which has not been fully explored earlier. The unique contributions of this study are
specifically assessing the impact of the overlap size on:

reducing schedule durations;

balancing the crane utilization rates;

detecting motion paths collisions are explored; and

shedding light on harnessing overlapping cranes and not avoiding them.

The contribution to practitioners is to encourage them to make use of crane overlaps

given the recent advances in automated sensing and computations that help in clash
avoidance. The study also contributes by helping practitioners in making more informed
decisions regarding planning operations of multiple overlapping cranes by providing
more insights on practical implications of their choices on schedule durations, safety and
crane utilizations. The latter are key concerns for planners and operators to ensure a
successful performance and execution of construction operations.
 This study primarily considers the impacts of different overlap sizes of two tower cranes Crane overlap
on operational flexibility by developing a simulation/optimization engine to fulfil the and
following objectives:
operational

balance the distribution of available work demand with the capacities of the
flexibility
overlapping cranes;

establish an algorithm for detecting and accounting for proximity incidences and
collision avoidance maneuvers with the presence of overlapping operations; 47

determine the best locations of cranes that provide the best crane overlap size and
work performance (task duration and crane utilization); and
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assess the relationship between overlap size and its impact on schedule duration,
crane utilization and safety issues (proximate collisions between cranes).

Methodology
To achieve the stated objectives, a research methodology is developed and presented in
Figure 1. The methodology includes the following major steps that are then explained in the
subsequent sections:

breakdown of the overall schedule to determine daily crane-workload demand;

developing a discrete-event simulation (DES) model that takes as input the
workload demand and crane capacity based on the overlap space; and

running the DES model on a real-life project to determine the impacts of crane
overlap size on crane schedule durations, workload and capacity balance and safety
motion planning.

Daily workload demand

Developing a daily task load schedule allows for a better and more accurate determination of
expected workload demand present each day. This paves the way to better distribute the
daily workload demand among existing tower cranes so that the available crane capacity is
better matched with the workload. Moreover, day-to-day task schedules enable the analysis
of different crane overlap zones that not only cater for these daily tasks but also account for

Daily workload demand Simulation-optimization model

Decision variable Prepare daily list of crane tasks Run simulations

Cranes’ location
Specify coordinates of laydown areas Select maneuvers for clash
choice, i.e., overlap
& task locations avoidance
area size

Specify crane loading/unloading Calculate crane movement

No durations durations

Optimal? Output

Yes Figure 1.
Crane allocation Total schedule
sequence duration
Crane utilization rate Research
End methodology
 CI peak (worst case) load scenarios where it is critical to meet such peak demand and achieve
18,1 efficient levels of operations while avoiding crane collisions.
To develop the daily workload demand, the master schedule of a project is used to break
it down into a look-ahead plan of two to three weeks prior to tasks execution. The look-
ahead plan is further broken down into a weekly schedule; the latter is then divided into
more manageable daily schedules of tasks. All tasks to be carried out by the cranes are then
48 filtered out in the daily schedule. To achieve more conclusive results and account for worst
case scenarios, one peak demand daily schedule with a high number of tasks and many
concurrent ones is used as input for the simulation model. A sample schedule is presented in
Table I. First, task precedence relationships are defined between each task to be executed.
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Then, based on the locations of the cranes and the resulting overlap space, each task is
assigned to a crane working zone based on its location on the project and the locations of the
cranes. For example, if Task A falls exclusively in the working zone of Crane 1 where Crane
2 cannot reach, then it is assigned to Crane 1. In the case where Task A falls in the
overlapping zone of Crane 1 and 2, it is assigned a crane resource “0” the simulation model
will run the analysis on the daily schedule and automatically determines the most suitable
crane choice for this task. The model optimizes the overall allocation of crane tasks falling
inside and outside the joint work zone to reduce the crane schedule duration, balance crane
work demand, and avoid proximity incidences by collision avoidance maneuver paths. The
schedule is then updated with the near-optimal crane allocation sequence.
The next step is calculating their respective durations based on the different crane
movements. The location of each task on the project is determined through its X, Y and Z
coordinates with respect to a given fixed reference point (project survey point, center of
Crane 1). Then, the total movement of a crane can be sub-divided into five movements:
loading the object onto the crane hook at its supply point, vertically hoisting the object
upwards, simultaneously slewing the object in the horizontal plane, vertically hoisting the
object downwards and unloading the object off the crane hook at its destination (demand)
point. The loading and unloading movement durations are predetermined based on the
object of the task. The other durations for crane movement are calculated through
geometrically derived mathematical equations that cover the motion trajectory based on the
coordinates of supply and demand points for each crane task. Equations (1) through (9)
are adopted from the work of (Zhang et al., 1996, 1999) and used to calculate the travel
distance and resulting durations of crane movements. Each task has two parts pertaining to
the crane movement from the initial supply-loading position to the destination demand-
unloading position. For example, if Task A is to be performed, the material location in the
laydown area serves as the initial coordinates (x1, y1, z1) of the movement required to
perform Task A. Then, the location coordinates of Task A (where the material needs to be
unloaded) serve as the destination coordinates of Task A (x2, y2, z2).
Equations (1) through (4) are derived to calculate the distances and angles of each crane
task movement based on geometrical and trigonometrical equations. The definitions of the

Table I.
Sample input Task ID Crane zone Duration Constrains SS FS X1 Y1 Z1 X2 Y2 Z2
schedule for
1 0 4.6 No 31.7 13.9 0.7 23.8 9.5 1.1
simulation model 2 0 2.9 Yes 1 5.2 31.7 25.3 7.0 23.5 59.3
(duration in minutes, 3 1 6.1 Yes 2 10.3 13.7 3.9
coordinates in 4 2 5.3 Yes 3 23.7 8.7 25.2
meters) 5 1 3.2 Yes 2 5.6 12.3 1.30
 parameters used in equations (1) through (9) are listed in Table II and schematically depicted Crane overlap
in Figure 2. The heights of the cranes are adjusted and erected with the progress of floor and
construction. However, the calculations account for the change in height of the crane by
calculating distances and durations with respect to sling elevation irrespective of crane’s jib
operational
elevation (specifically by including the zclr parameter and initial and final movement-point flexibility
elevations).
Equation (1) calculates the vertical distance (Dv) that needs to be traveled during the
hoisting movement between two locations. It is equal to the absolute difference in elevation
49
coordinates between the initial movement elevation (z1) and final movement elevation (z2).
Equation (2) calculates the radial distance (Dr) that needs to be traversed by the crane hook
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during the slewing movement. It is equivalent to the linear distance in the horizontal XY

Parameter Definition

Dr Radial trolleying distance

Dv Vertical hoisting distance
k Coefficient for site conditions (e.g. wind)
T Total time of movement from Point 1 to Point 2
Ta Time of slewing (mins)
Th Time of horizontal movement (mins)
Tl Time of loading or unloading (mins)
Tr Time of trolleying (mins)
Tv Time of hoisting (mins)
Va Angular velocity (m/min)
Vr Radial velocity (rpm)
Vv Vertical velocity (m/min)
X Horizontal coordinate
Y Vertical coordinate
Z Elevation coordinate
Zclr Clearance of hook (2 m)
Table II.
a Simultaneity degree of horizontal plane movements
b Simultaneity degree of vertical plane movements Definitions of
u1 Polar angle of Point 1 parameters used in
u2 Polar angle of Point 2 Equations (1)
Du Angle moved during slewing through (9)

Figure 2.
Parameters of
equations for crane
movement durations
 CI plane between the initial crane location (x1, y1) and destination crane location (x2, y2).
18,1 Equation (3) measures u i which is the angle formed by the crane’s jib in the XY plane with
the X axis. It can be calculated using the XY coordinates of the hook’s position along the jib.
The angle’s equation varies according to the hook’s position, measured through the
trigonometric quadrant in which the hook is located. Equation (4) calculates the angular
amount (Du ) by which the jib needs to rotate from one location to another, and it is
50 measured by the difference between the angle formed at the initial point in the XY plane (u 1)
and the angle formed in the XY plane at the destination point (u 2):
Dv ¼ jz1  z2 j (1)
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pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

Dr ¼

x1 2 þ y1 2  x2 2 þ y2 2

(2)

8    
>
> yi   p
> u
> i ¼ arctan þ sgn ð iÞ
y 1  sgnð x Þ ; x 6¼ 0
>
> xi
i
2
>
>
>
>
>
< p
if xi ¼ 0 and yi > 0
ui ¼ 2 (3)
>
>
>
> p
>
>  if xi ¼ 0 and yi < 0
>
>
>
> 2
>
:

Du ¼ ju 1  u 2 j (4)

The duration of each movement is obtained by applying equations (5) through (9). The
distance or angle is divided by the corresponding speed which may vary depending on the
type of tower crane used. Equation (5) calculates (Tr), the time needed for trolleying
movement to be completed. It is measured by dividing the radial distance (Dr) between
initial and destination crane locations by the trolleying radial velocity (Vr). Equation (6)
measures (Tv) the hoisting time to lift the load vertically by dividing the vertical distance
(Dv) in addition to the clearance distance by the hoisting velocity (Vv). Similarly, equation (7)
calculates the time needed for slewing the jib (Ta) between the initial and destination
locations by dividing the angular rotation amount (Du ) by the crane’s slewing velocity (Va).
The three velocities (Tr, Tv, and Ta) are obtained from the crane’s specification charts of
velocity versus carried load:
Dr
Tr ¼ (5)
Vr

Dv þ 2  Dclr
Tv ¼ (6)
Vv

Du
Ta ¼ (7)
Va
 Parameter a is used in equation (8) to consider the time overlap between the radial and Crane overlap
angular movements. a reflects the degree of simultaneity in moving the hook in both radial and
and angular directions as developed by (Zhang et al., 1996, 1999). Equation (8) accounts for
this simultaneity between the two horizontal movements in the XY plane which are slewing
operational
and trolleying. The horizontal travel time (Th) is considered to be equal to the longest flexibility
duration of the two in addition to the shortest duration, the latter multiplied by the a factor
to be specified on case-by-case basis.
Parameter b is used to account for the operator’s skill in simultaneous movement of the
51
hook in horizontal and vertical planes. Travel time can be longer due to working site
conditions such as weather conditions, obstacles and different safety issues. Parameter k is
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used to account for such working site conditions and is included in equation (9) which is
developed by Huang, Wong and Tam (2011). Total travel time, which is the combination of
horizontal and vertical movement times, can be calculated using equation (9) (Huang et al.,
2011). Equation (9) accounts for the simultaneity between the horizontal movement duration
(Th) and the vertical movement duration (Tv). The longer of the two durations is taken and
the shortest duration is added to it after being multiplied by the b factor that will also be
specified on case-by-case basis. Following this step, the sum is multiplied by a factor k
greater or equal to 1 to account for wastes and contingency. (TL) accounts for the durations
for labor loading/unloading obtained by site measurements then added to the total crane
duration (T):

Th ¼ max ðTr ; Ta Þ þ a  minðTr ; Ta Þ (8)

T ¼ k  ½maxðTh ; Tv Þ þ b  minðTh ; Tv Þ þ TL (9)

These durations are calculated and the simulation model is executed for each scenario.
Because this study assesses and compares the impacts of different crane overlap sizes, the
varying parameter is therefore the location of each crane determining the overlap size.
Hence, the decision variable that each scenario is based on is the locations of the cranes, i.e.
the crane overlap size. For each different combination of crane locations and consequently a
different overlap size, the durations are recalculated and the simulation model is re-executed
to determine the updated task schedule durations, crane to task assignments and the
collision avoidance delays.

Discrete-event simulation model

Model setup
A DES model, depicted in Figure 3, is developed to examine different overlap sizes and their
impact on operational flexibility. DES is used due to its powerful ability in modeling the
behavior of real-life operations as a series of events occurring in relation to time. Compared
to other simulation methods such as agent-based modeling and system dynamics, DES is
deemed suitable, as it provides the needed high operational level of details at a low level of
abstraction. System dynamics cannot provide the required high level of detailing as it
abstracts the system under study and provide minimal details. On the other hand, the tower
cranes do not require to be represented as agents through agent-based modeling. Therefore,
DES is a suitable method to use describe and represent the nature of the system studied at a
high level of detail. The source element “Tasks” inputs a crane task into the model when it
becomes unconstrained, that is, when all its predecessors are executed. Task relationships
(e.g. finish-to-start, start-to-start) are defined for each task, and once these relationships are
 CI satisfied, a task becomes unconstrained and can enter the model to be executed. Once
18,1 entered, each task is assigned a duration pertaining to its loading and unloading
movements, an ID number and a resource (Crane 1 or Crane 2).
After the task is injected into the model, the select element “C1 or C2” will assign the task
to be executed either by Cranes 1 or 2. The upper part of the model is executed if the task is
assigned to Crane 1, and similarly, the lower identical functions of the model are executed if
52 the task is assigned to Crane 2. After assigning the task to a crane, the Queue and Hold
elements are used to pause the flow of tasks along the model in case the crane hook
destination of a task is positioned in the overlapping zone. In this case, the crane needs to be
repositioned outside the overlapping zone upon completing the previous task to allow for the
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other crane to operate more freely. Once the crane is repositioned, unconstrained tasks are
released to flow along the model.
The crane movement trajectory is represented by five sub-movements depicted as delay
elements in the model. The first movement is the initial vertical hoisting when lifting the
object load from the supply point and represented as “V1C1” (for Crane 1) or “V1C2” (for
Crane 2). The second movement is the simultaneous angular and radial motion in the
horizontal plane to deliver the object to its destination point and represented as “HC1”. The
third movement is the second vertical hoisting motion when lowering the object at its
destination and represented as “V2C1” in the model. These crane movements are dynamic
calculated based on the mathematical coordinate formulas presented in the earlier section on
“Daily workload demand” as well as the sequence of tasks’ execution. The fourth delay
element “L/ULC1” represents the process of loading or unloading of the lifted object; these
motions have a predetermined duration based on the task. Although the crane motions can
be presented as one element in the model, sub-dividing them into separate movements
allows clashes to be detected and resulting delays to be assessed and accounted for.
Different clashes happening at different movements between overlapping cranes will have
different impacts on schedule and safety. Therefore, a fifth delay element, “Clash Delay 1”, is
added to account for different delays resulting from different types of clashes.
As mentioned earlier, a select element “Reposition 1” is used to reposition a crane if it is
present in the overlapping crane zone after releasing the object at its destination by
evaluating the crane’s final hook location. This is important to avoid collisions in case a
crane remains idle after releasing the object in the overlapping area. So it is necessary to
reposition the crane from its idle destination position to prevent clashes with other operating
cranes. Otherwise, if the crane’s final hook destination is outside the overlapping zone,
repositioning is not needed, and the task is considered as completed and hence sent to the

Figure 3.
DES model
 Sink element “Done”. The crane then normally starts executing the next task at its initial Crane overlap
position. The simulation model checks for the respective positions of the cranes based on and
their coordinates and determines if the hook of one crane is simultaneously present in the operational
coverage area of the other crane. If both crane hooks are within the overlapping zone,
potential or proximate clashes are likely to occur. To avoid them, additional maneuvers or
flexibility
idle waiting are required, resulting in additional delays that are added as the “Clash Delay 1”
delay element. 53

Collision avoidance delays

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There are several types of clashes that can occur according to the status and position of each
crane, its components and the object it is lifting. Below are the types of potential clashes that
can be avoided by proper maneuvering, where extra time accounted as the clash delay is
needed to prevent them. Each physical clash type in the overlapping zone, listed below, will
result in different maneuvering delay times to avoid any proximate incidence or collision.
Moreover, the different movements and their time of occurrence between the cranes also
result in different clash possibilities. The clash types categorized in Table III and the
estimated time delays used in the real-life project are based on site observations and
discussions with site personnel. The matrix presented in Table III shows the different clash
combinations and estimated delays as follows:

object with object (OO) – lifted object of one crane clashing with the object of the
other;

object with sling (OS) – lifted object of one crane clashing with the sling of the other;

jib with sling (JS) – jib of one crane clashing with the sling of the other;

jib with object (JO) – jib of one crane clashing with the lifted object of the other;

horizontal with horizontal movement (HH) – both cranes moving in horizontal
planes;

horizontal with vertical movement (HV) – one crane moving in horizontal plane,
whereas the other is vertically hoisting;

vertical with vertical movement (VV) – both cranes vertically hoisting;

horizontal with loading/unloading movement (HUL) – one crane moving in
horizontal plane, whereas the other is in a fixed loading or unloading position;

vertical with loading/unloading movement (VUL) – one crane vertically hoisting,
whereas the other is in a fixed loading or unloading position; and

loading/unloading with loading/unloading movement (ULUL) – both cranes are in a
loading/unloading position.

Clash type OO OS JS JO

HH CD1 CD7 CD13 CD19

Table III.
HV CD2 CD8 CD14 CD20
VV CD3 CD9 CD15 CD21 Sample matrix of
HUL CD4 CD10 CD16 CD22 different clash types
VUL CD5 CD11 CD17 CD23 and clash delay (CD)
ULUL CD6 CD12 CD18 CD24 durations
 CI In the model, a mathematical algorithm and visual animation evaluates at each time step the
18,1 respective positions and movements of each crane, object and slings simultaneously in the
overlapping zone. Accordingly, these positions and movements are evaluated to check for
potential proximity of clashes. If there is a potential proximate clash, the model then
repositions the cranes to avoid the clashes and assigns a delay duration to the “clash delay”
model element.
54
Four-dimensional simulation
A 3D animated simulation is developed and linked to the DES model resulting in a 4D
simulation to better detect clashes and validate the model’s logic and setup. Each part of the
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crane such as the tower, jib and sling, as well as the lifted object, is assigned a visual
geometric element such as rectangles, lines, cylinders and boxes. These elements better help
evaluate and calculate the respective positions of cranes and their components as well the
sub-movement durations of tasks being performed by the cranes. This is critical to detect
potential clashes based on their proximity within the overlap zone, visually check whether
the executed model is properly simulating the crane’s sub movements and performing the
mathematical functions and algorithms correctly. At each time step, multiple variables such
as those pertaining to the crane positions, durations of the sub-movements, the flow of tasks
into the model and assigned delays from clash avoidance are evaluated, and results are also
stored in databases to be crosschecked with the observed animations. The 4D simulation
achieved by visualization, allows for better understanding and a more robust validation
process (Sargent, 2011).

Model verification and validation

To verify if the developed model correctly delivers the intended concept, several procedures
were performed based on Bennett et al. (2013):

evaluate the alignment of the model’s scope and aims with the research intentions;
and

check correctness of model input data and output consistency by changing inputs
and monitoring the logic of outputs.

After verifying that the model correctly implements the intended concept, a validation of the
model’s accuracy and credibility in representing the real system is performed. Some
techniques outlined by Sargent (2011) are used to validate the model, mainly:

animation, where model performance is tracked through the model’s visual interface
and animation where the different events and model behaviors are monitored
throughout; and

internal validity, where several iterations and replications are performed to
determine the amount of variability in the model.

Although the verification and validation processes used do not cover all aspects of the model
due to their complexity, they still provide a reasonable assessment of the model’s
correctness and credibility in representing the system studied. The model cannot be
validated by comparing performance on the real project site where different experimented
scenarios such as varying the crane locations cannot be performed in reality on site. To cater
for this matter which is common in research of uncontrolled environments, the authors have
opted to use other validation and verification techniques to test the model’s logic and
credibility such as:

validating model inputs and parameters dictated by the environment namely: actual Crane overlap
work schedules were used to develop crane workloads, actual cranes types and sizes and
were used to calculate travel distances, travel speed, and clash maneuvering delays;
operational

using multiple scenarios and iterations; flexibility

the use of modeling animations; and

the monitoring of output consistency and logic while modifying inputs.
55

Research limitations
This research includes potential limitations in the adopted methods and result’s analysis.
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The model developed is applied on a case study project representing high-rise buildings in
particular, consequently, the data used might not reflect the characteristics of all project
types and conditions. Similarly, case study analysis is project specific where results might
not be generalizable to the entire industry, even though they can provide important insights
and inferences. However, the use of simulation to stochastically model different scenarios
and different setups is similar to using multiple case studies of high-rise building types
where the same topic is being explored under different conditions. Moreover, this study
does not address potential benefits of crane overlap use on other building types beyond high-
rise buildings. Finally, simulation is a reductionist approach to real life problems requiring
simplification of the studied system and the focus on specific topics being explored.

Discrete-event simulation model execution and overlap scenarios

The DES model is executed for several scenarios, each of which has different crane locations
and different overlap size. Upon execution, unconstrained tasks start to flow through the
model. The model routes each task to its assigned crane zone, and for the tasks falling in the
overlapping crane space, the model routes the task to each crane and calculates
the respective duration movements as discussed earlier. The model runs the analysis for all
the tasks and optimizes the overall allocations of crane tasks falling inside and outside the
joint work zone of the cranes to reduce the crane schedule duration, balance crane work
demand and avoid any clash. The schedule is then updated with the near-optimal crane
allocation sequence. The collision avoidance maneuvers and the resulting delays are also
executed in the model. This process is conducted for each overlap size scenario where the
crane locations are varied for each scenario, and results pertaining to the total crane
schedule duration, crane utilization rates, as well as the proximity incidences (number of
times potential clashes were avoided by maneuvers) are retrieved. Accordingly, the impacts
of having overlaps between cranes and the effects of different overlap sizes on operational
flexibility can be explored. Figure 4 presents a summary of possible overlap sizes on a
project: no overlap, minor overlap and major overlap.

Building boundaries Building boundaries Building boundaries

Crane 2 Crane 2
Crane 1 Center Crane 1 Center Crane 1 Crane 2
Center x Center x Center Center
x x x x
Figure 4.
(a) No overlap
(b) minor overlap
(c) major overlap
(a) (b) (c)
 CI Model application
18,1 To explore the impacts of different crane, overlap sizes on operation flexibility, the DES
model is applied on a real-life project. The project is a real high-rise residential complex. One
of the high-rise buildings consists of 18 floors with two operating cranes and is selected to
test the model on. Two Potain cranes operate on this tower with respective radii of 36 and
38 m. Although the current cranes overlap at a total estimated area of 993 m2 over the actual
56 project site, the model will test different overlap sizes by varying the locations of both cranes
to explore their impacts on operational flexibility. A plan view of the building and some of
the different crane overlap scenarios are depicted in Figure 5 for clarification. Table IV
outlines all scenario with the corresponding activities within the overlap area.
To account for worst case scenarios and determine crane positions that can best satisfy
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site workload demand, a daily schedule with peak workload conditions is prepared
according to the research methodology discussed: first, the master schedule is broken down
on a weekly basis into three-week look-ahead plans that are then further broken down into
weekly plans then daily executable crane tasks; second, precedence relationships and
constraints are defined; third, each task is assigned a crane resource based on the zone it
falls in; and fourth, durations for each task are calculated as per the associated coordinates

Figure 5.
Plan view of high-rise
building and
operating cranes

Crane 1 Crane 2
No. of activities Percentage of
Scenario X (m) Y (m) X (m) Y (m) in overlap activities in overlap (%)

1 10.96 8.52 8.34 61.40 0 0.0

2 9.33 7.93 12.59 53.66 10 12
3 2.08 5.44 12.59 53.66 18 22
4 0.74 3.07 12.59 53.66 28 35
Table IV. 5 0.74 3.07 10.68 52.35 42 52
Different crane 6 1.84 0.49 10.94 49.53 49 60
overlap scenarios 7 4.34 6.84 12.70 46.98 59 73
 and using equations (1) through (9). The resulting daily task schedule, with a sample Crane overlap
presented earlier in Table I, has a peak daily workload demand consisting of 81 tasks and
presented as 162 subtasks, where each task is broken down into its initial loading motion
and its destination unloading motion. The reason each task is subdivided into two is to
operational
allow the simulation model to perform accurate calculations and perform proper crane flexibility
movements. For example, Task A in the model is presented by two tasks, Task A1 (loading
task at the supply point (origin of Task A) and Task A2 (unloading task at the demand point
(destination of Task A). This division enables accurate calculations and transitions between 57
the various crane motions and tasks.
Seven scenarios of different crane overlaps, with varying number of tasks falling in the
overlap zones, have been selected for comparing the impact of different overlap sizes and
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presented in Table IV. The scenarios are selected such that the variations in crane overlap
sizes and number of tasks present result in notable changes in the outcomes. Operational
flexibility is measured in terms of crane schedule duration, crane utilization rates and
number of proximity incidences. Scenario 1 represents the case of having no overlap, the
number of crane tasks and overlap size increase with each scenario number, where scenario
7 represents the largest overlap size with 73 per cent of crane tasks falling in it. The
coordinates of paired locations of each crane are presented for each scenario, and as the
locations of the cranes are varied, the overlap size increases and the respective number of
tasks in the zone consequently increases.
For each scenario, the simulation model is executed with 1,000 to 20,000 iterations for
each run until convergence is achieved. The model performs the near-optimal and near-
worst crane-to-task allocations and calculates the resulting schedule durations, crane
utilization rates and number of proximity incidences. The results and analysis of each
scenario and observed trends are discussed in the following sections. The developed model
applied on the selected real-life project is also applicable to other construction projects.

Results and discussion

Crane schedule duration
After running the simulation model on the real-life project for each scenario, the resulting
trends of the near-optimal, near-worst and the median durations are documented in Figure 6.
Several trends can be observed from these results. First, variability between the near-
optimal and near-worst durations for each scenario is increasing with the increase in the
crane overlap size (number of tasks falling in the overlap zone). For no overlap (0 per cent),
the variability range is 0, whereas for the case where 73 per cent of tasks are in the overlap
zone, the variability ranges between near-optimal and near-worst increased by 278 min.
This observed increase in the variability range can be a result of crane operators and the
construction staff having more room for decision making with more tasks and clash
avoidance maneuvers in the overlap zone. In fact, with a larger number of tasks in the
overlap zone, there is more flexibility in assigning tasks to either crane and schedule
duration results depend on how well task assignment decisions are made. Well planned
decisions can lead to shorter duration schedules such as the near-optimal values, whereas
ad hoc decisions without proper planning can lead to worse allocations and longer durations
such as the near-worst schedule durations. Therefore, a larger overlap size increases the
possible number of decisions and the resulting outcomes of planning and decision making;
this can explain the observed increase in the range of variability.
The median trend, which is the average of the near-optimal and near-worst duration
trends, is generated to give a general observation regarding the impact of the overlap size on
the schedule duration. The plotted trend line in Figure 6 does not show an obvious or clear
 CI 850

18,1 800

Duration (minutes)
750

700

58 650

600
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550

500
Figure 6. 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Duration results of Overlap percentage (%) between Crane 1 and Crane 2
crane overlap
scenarios Near-optimal duration Near-worst duration Median

pattern of schedule duration change where the schedule duration is fluctuating to higher and
lower values between different overlap sizes without a defined pattern. To have a more in
depth understanding, these duration results need to be analyzed in light of other factors. For
instance, the number of proximity incidences can increase the time delays because each
incidence dictates clash avoidance maneuvers and can consequently result in longer
schedule durations. Higher and more balanced utilization of cranes, on the other hand, can
reflect a better distribution of tasks among the cranes that can reflect better crane use
toward the reduction of the total schedule duration. Moreover, duration should be
considered along with the type of activities falling in the overlapping zones. The impact of a
critical activity can be different than that of a non-critical activity, where completing a
few critical activities can yield much better results than completing a higher number of non-
critical activities. For instance, having a higher number of non-critical tasks in the overlap
zone does not necessarily mean a better schedule sequence or shorter duration, since these
tasks can potentially increase the number of proximity incidences causing delays when
maneuvering to avoid proximity clashes. On the other hand, executing critical tasks can
ensure a better workflow and allow other tasks to be executed afterwards and enable a
better schedule sequencing.
Based on the obtained results, having a larger overlap between cranes can result in
shorter schedule durations when there is proper planning, good allocation of cranes to tasks,
as well as proper crane maneuvering by operators to lower clash delays.

Crane utilization rates

Results of crane utilization rates and the obtained trends are depicted in Figure 7. The
vertical bars show the near-optimal and near-worst utilization percentages for each crane in
each given scenario. The straight horizontal line shows the utilization ratio reference of
Value 1 to which the near-optimal (dashed line) and near-worst (solid line) utilization ratio
trends are compared.
The ratio line trends are used to depict the balance between the workload of Crane 1
versus that of Crane 2. The closer the ratio line is to 1, the more balanced the workload
distribution among the cranes is. As shown in Figure 7, the dashed line of the near-optimal
utilization ratio trend with an average value of 0.91 is closer to the horizontal line of Value 1
 180% Crane overlap
160% 1.0
and
140%
operational
120% 0.8
flexibility
Utilization

100%

Ratio
80% 0.6

60%
59
40% 0.4

20%
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0% 0.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Scenarios

Crane 1 Utilization (near optimal) Crane 2 Utilization (near optimal)

Crane 1 Utilization (near worst) Crane 2 Utilization (near worst)

Figure 7.
C2/C1 Utilization Ratio (near optimal) C2/C1 Utilization Ratio (near worst)
Utilization rates of
Ratio Reference Line ( = 1 ) the two cranes

than the solid line of the near-worst utilization ratio trend of an average value of 0.69. These
findings indicate that the near-optimal scenarios are generally characterized by a
better workload balance between the two cranes as opposed to the near-worst scenarios.
When the workload is distributed in a more balanced way among the available cranes, the
cranes will work at a more similar rate without slowing each other down and causing one of
the cranes to be idle, whereas the other one is overloaded. On the contrary, the workload in
the near-worst scenarios falls majorly on one crane because the other crane is idle for a
longer time period resulting in unbalanced crane utilization rates.
Referring to Figure 7, the near-optimal utilization ratio seems to get closer to 1 as the
overlap size is increasing, whereas the near-worst utilization ratio is decreasing further
beyond 1 to reach a value as low as 0.31 as the overlap size increases. Following the same
analysis, the higher overlap size reflects a change for either improvement or regressions.
Allocating tasks to the cranes becomes more flexible and can yield a diverse range of
schedule sequences. This explains the high unbalance between the two cranes in the near-
worst scenarios, on one hand, and a much-balanced workload distribution in the near-
optimal scenarios where tasks are better allocated to the cranes.
Considering the sum of utilizations of both cranes under each scenario, results show that
the sum of crane utilizations is continuously increasing with the increase in overlap size
where a 22 per cent increase in the sum is observed between Scenario 1 (no overlap) and
Scenario 7 (73 per cent overlap). In addition, when comparing the schedule duration results
in Figure 6 and the utilization rate results in Figure 7, the improved near-optimal schedule
durations can be linked to the respective improvements observed in the utilization of cranes.
However, the inverse might not necessarily be true, where, in the case of near-worst
scenarios, the sum of utilization rates is continuously fluctuating. In some scenarios of the
near-worst situations, a higher utilization at a given scenario is coupled with a longer
duration instead of a shorter one. This can be due to the fact that a high utilization rate can
reflect that the two cranes, although highly utilized, are working very slowly and
experiencing delays. Such delays and high utilizations can be due to a higher number of
 CI proximity incidences that can consequently result in longer durations (based on the clash
18,1 delay penalty duration value presented earlier in Table III) as observed in Figures 6 and 7.
Therefore, an increase in the overlap size can yield higher and more balanced utilizations
rates of cranes and shorter schedule durations if cranes are maneuvered carefully to prevent
long clash delays. Whereas having minimal tasks in the overlap zone can prevent cranes
from being evenly utilized and reduces the operational flexibility that can be achieved with
60 larger overlap sizes.

Proximity incidences
The number of proximity incidences is the number of occurrences of potential or proximate
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clashes that require avoidance maneuvers to prevent them. The simulation model keeps
track of the number of proximity incidences for each scenario under near-optimal and near-
worst conditions. Figure 8 depicts the resulting trends of the number of proximity
incidences where the trend lines show an evident increase in the number of incidences with
the increase in overlap size for both, the near-optimal and near-worst conditions.
This expected outcome is due to the fact that with the increase in overlap size and more
tasks falling in the overlap zone, there is a higher risk of proximity clashes occurring
between the components of the cranes and the lifted objects. Another observation that can
be realized is that the trend line of the near-worst (dashed line) scenario is much steeper than
that of the near-optimal (solid line). This can be attributed to the optimization process where
in the near-optimal scenarios, the aim is to shorten the schedule duration by performing
allocation to reduce the number of proximity incidences. Therefore, in the near-optimal
conditions, the increase in the number of incidences is not as steep as that in the near-worst
cases, where the incidences in the latter situation plays a major role in increasing the
schedule durations.
Despite the trend lines, Scenarios 6 and 7 under the near-optimal conditions seem to have
a relative decrease in the number of proximity incidences as compared to the scenarios with
smaller overlaps. Although an intuitive deduction would mean a higher number of
incidences with larger overlaps, it is not necessarily the case where larger overlaps can have
less chances of proximity incidences with both cranes operating in the overlap area due to
the flexibility in space maneuvers. On the contrary, a medium-sized overlap can constrain
the flexibility and freedom to alter the sequence of task execution and cranes would be
forced to operate in proximity with a restricted area of operations.

20
Number of Clashes

15

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Scenarios
Figure 8.
Number of proximity Nb. of Proximity Incidences (near optimal) Nb. of Proximity Incidences (near worst)
incidences Linear (Nb. of Proximity Incidences (near optimal)) Linear (Nb. of Proximity Incidences (near worst))
 When comparing the results of the number of proximity incidences with the results of crane Crane overlap
utilization rates and the schedule durations for each scenario, a few observations can be made. and
Taking the near-worst results in Scenario 4, for instance, the number of proximity incidences is
lower than most of the scenarios. This can be due to the possibility that the impacts of other
operational
factors can outweigh the negative impacts of clash avoidance maneuver delays. For example, flexibility
sometimes delaying the execution of critical activities and reducing the utilization of the cranes
can be linked to both a reduced number of proximity incidences but a longer schedule duration.
A contrasting observation falls under the near-optimal results of Scenario 5 where a relatively
61
high number of proximity incidences is coupled with a shorter duration. In this case, a
compromise was possibly reached for reducing the schedule duration by executing critical
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activities on the expense of causing higher proximity incidences.

Therefore, by considering these two contrasting examples, the flexibility of increasing
the overlap size comes at a trade-off where the number of proximity incidences increase as
well. However, the number of proximity incidences can be lowered by achieving
maneuvering flexibility enabled by larger overlap sizes. Moreover, the presence of a higher
number of proximity incidences does not necessarily cause longer durations where lower
schedule durations can be achieved if critical tasks are executed.

Conclusions
The presented research explored the effects of different crane overlap sizes on operational
flexibility. Operational flexibility is perceived as a balance between schedule durations,
crane utilization rates and the number of proximity incidences reflecting safety
considerations. A simulation model was developed and applied on a real project to analyze
and compare the impacts of different overlap sizes.
The obtained results of schedule durations, utilization rates of cranes and the number of
proximity incidences should be analyzed concurrently to get a comprehensive perspective of
their impacts on the operational flexibility of overlapping tower cranes. The attained
outcomes are a consequence of several compounded factors such as the experience of the
planners and crane operators, the sequencing of critical versus non-critical activities and the
overall effort and care taken when planning the operations of overlapping cranes.
Findings show that the increase of crane overlap size can achieve shorter schedule
durations as well as higher and more balanced crane utilization rates even with an increase
in the number of proximity incidences. The proper planning of task-to-crane allocations and
maneuvering of crane motions are important factors to consider to yield the desired benefits
from harnessing crane overlaps. The decisions made by planners should be taken into
account by having a comprehensive perspective and proper understanding of the interplay
between the different factors impacting operational flexibility. Further research into the
impacts of executing critical versus non-critical tasks is needed.
The study contributes to research by providing new insights about the potential benefits
and conditions for harnessing crane overlaps. It also encourages practitioners to make use of
crane overlaps and informs them about how overlaps can be used to benefit from schedule
duration reductions, balancing of utilization rates and avoiding collisions with possible
trade-offs so that more informed decisions can be made.

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Corresponding author
Farook Hamzeh can be contacted at: fh35@aub.edu.lb

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