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Study of Discrete Element Method (DEM): Methodologies and Applications in

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 Study of Discrete Element Method (DEM):
Methodologies and Applications in Mineral Engineering
&
Grinding Mill Simulation with MillSoft©1997

by
Rahul Kumar Soni
Admission No: 10209
Bachelor of Technology in Mineral Engineering
and Master of Technology in Mineral Resource Management
(Dual Degree Program)

Thesis submitted in the partial fulfillment for

the award of the degree of

Master of Technology
in
Mineral Resource Management

Under the supervision of

Prof (Dr.) Rayasam Venugopal

Department of Fuel and Mineral Engineering
[ Dean (Research & Development) ]
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad
India-826004

May, 2012

1
2
 Acknowledgement

It would not have been possible to write this master’s thesis without the help and
support of the kind people around me, to only some of whom it is possible to give particular
mention here.
This thesis would not have been possible without the help, support and patience of
my principal supervisor, Prof. Rayasam Venugopal, not to mention his advice and
unsurpassed knowledge of research methodologies. The interactive discussions with Prof.
Venugopal on the relation of national economy and performance of mineral processing
operation have been always working for me as driving force. The advice and support of my
co-supervisor, Prof. Barada Kanta Mishra, has been invaluable on both an academic and a
personal level, for which I am extremely grateful.
I would like to acknowledge the financial, academic and technical support of the
Department of Fuel and Mineral Engineering at Indian School of Mines and its staff,
particularly in the award of a stipend that provided the necessary financial support for this
research. The library facilities and computer facilities of the institute, as well as the of the
department, have been indispensable.
I would like to thank Dr. Nikkam Suresh for his kindness and support, together with
the faculties of the department. Various involvements on projects with Prof. V.K. Gupta have
provided the skills in handling and scheduling of a research project. The generosity and
encouragement of the mentioned revivalists provided the moral support to work on such
farseeing technology.
Last, but by no means least, I thank my friends in institute and elsewhere for their
support and encouragement throughout. For any errors or inadequacies that may remain in
this work, of course, the responsibility is entirely my own.

Rahul Kumar Soni

Admission No. 10209
Indian School of Mines
Dhanbad-826004, India
(http://sites.google.com/site/ismrahulsoni)

3
 Abstract

In recent past, there has been rapid development in understanding the Discrete
Element Method (DEM) and its implementation in simulation of flow of granular media.
Eastern and Western both part of world have witnessed the developments in DEM, some of
the potential contributors such as Cundall, Strack, Williams, Ting, Mishra and Zhang have
improved or introduced the techniques in their own field of expertise. Areas of major
development include studies on testing of well-established computational algorithm in
different phases of simulation, emphasis on particle shape representation with their merits
and demerits, selection of contact force models and the models for renewing physical
parameters of granular particles in space during simulation. It is the need of time to bring all
significant development on a single platform and to discuss the pros and cons together in
terms of their compatibility with each other. Techniques have their own applicability as tested
by the researchers but it is possible to make combinations for improved results. Presented
work is an effort to analyze each methodology and bring all them at one place for cross-
referencing expert analysis. Granular flow in mineral processing operations are generally of
high cost, time consuming, require manpower and require substantial preparation; resulting
in insufficient number of tests, insufficient research subsequently operations with relatively
low productivity. On the other hand, the highest level of heterogeneity, irregular shapes of
particles, large number of particles prevent researchers to implement simulation techniques
like Finite Element Method (FEM) to predict the parameters of mineral processing operation.
DEM is a far-reaching technology to predict the operational parameters at a very low cost
and improve the productivity of mineral processing operations, operations that sometimes
play significant role in deciding nation’s economy.

Keywords: Discrete Element Method (DEM), Granular flow, Contact search, Octree, Discrete
Function Representation (DFR)

4
Table of Contents
Certificate.......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................................... 2
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 8
2 Review: DEM methodologies, stages, parameters, implementation in Mineral Engineering .................10
2.1 Particle Shape in 2D and 3D .............................................................................................................10

2.2 Particle Definition in 2D and 3D .......................................................................................................14

2.3 Contact Search ..................................................................................................................................19

2.4 Contact Resolution ............................................................................................................................24

2.5 Contact Models .................................................................................................................................28

2.6 Parameters selection and force calculation .....................................................................................38

2.8 Updating Position & Velocity ...........................................................................................................42

2.9 Step size and recursions ...................................................................................................................45

3 Applications in Mineral Processing Operations ........................................................................................48
3.1 Particulate Flow .................................................................................................................................49
3.2 Milling Operation ...............................................................................................................................51
3.3 Jigging.................................................................................................................................................52
3.4 Miscellaneous applications ................................................................................................................53
4 Study of MillSoft©1997 .............................................................................................................................55
4.1 Introducing grinding mill simulation ..................................................................................................55
4.2 Executions in MillSoft©1997 ..............................................................................................................56
4.3 Simulation of grinding mill with MillSoft©1997 .................................................................................62
4.3.1 Simulation environment .............................................................................................................62
4.3.2 Phases of simulation ...................................................................................................................63
4.3.3 Intermediate and output parameters ........................................................................................63
4.3.4 Charge motion analysis ...............................................................................................................64
4.3.5 Energy spectra and broken mass analysis ..................................................................................67
5 Results and discussions .............................................................................................................................70
Nomenclature ..............................................................................................................................................73
References ...................................................................................................................................................74

5
List of figures:

Fig. 1: Nomenclature for contact location between two ellipses (Ting, 1992 [25]) ........................................ 11
Fig. 2: Scheme for contact detection (Ting, 1992 [25]) .................................................................................. 11
Fig. 3: Multi-sphere approximations of Al2O3 particle used by Gorham et al., 2000 [55] ............................ 13
Fig. 4: The DFR sampling grid and discrete sphere example (Williams et al., 1995 [22]) ............................... 15
Fig. 5: Mechanism of Octree data structure .................................................................................................. 16
Fig. 6: A region Quadtree with point data (Wensel et al.,1993 [69]) .............................................................. 17
Fig. 7: A Quadtree based representation of disc in 2D (Wensel et al.,1993 [69]) .......................................... 18
Fig. 8: DEM model of an ore pass near draw point (Zsaki, 2009 [52]) .......................................................... 19
Fig. 9: Definition of distances and sign convention of a point to a plane (Nezami, 2004 [74]) ..................... 21
Fig. 10: An example of contact graph (Erleben, 2004 [78]) ........................................................................... 22
Fig. 11: A typical example of contact group as per fig. 10 ............................................................................ 22
Fig. 12: Box list corresponding to an example .............................................................................................. 23
Fig. 13: Contact list as per example in figure 12 ............................................................................................ 23
Fig. 14: The DFR contact resolution steps (Williams et al., 1995 [65]) ............................................................ 25
Fig. 15: Simple contact bounds test (William et al., 1995 [65]) ...................................................................... 27
Fig. 16: Zone Index set from clip zone (Williams, 1995 [22]) ......................................................................... 28
Fig. 17: Pressure distribution over the contact area as per equation (6) ....................................................... 30
Fig. 18: Double spring and damping contact model (Zhang et al., 1998 [43] ............................................... 32
Fig. 19: Forces acting on two particles rolling on each other (Zhang et al., 1999 [48]) ................................. 35
Fig. 20: Simulation trajectory with variable and fixed step size (Zhang et al., 2001 [98]) ............................... 47
Fig. 21: The error in trajectory in figure 20 with two simulations .................................................................. 47
Fig. 22: Snapshots from typical simulation with LC blade at a depth of 25 mm [107] .................................. 50
Fig. 23: Snapshots from the DEM sinkage [108] ............................................................................................ 50
Fig. 24: Trajectories at different coefficients of friction at 70% critical [109] .................................................. 51
Fig. 25: Segregation of balls by 3D DEM simulation at 60% critical speed [111] ............................................ 52
Fig. 26: different stages of bed crushing [115] ............................................................................................... 53
Fig. 27: A cross section of 3D conical hopper computational domain [116] .................................................. 54
Fig. 28: Simulated contour plot of the position density behavior at 50% of critical speed [118] ................... 54
Fig. 29: Charge motion analysis for 13.5 ft ball mill with rectangular and circular lifters ............................... 64
Fig. 30: Charge motion analysis for 28 ft SAG mill with Hi-Lo lifters ............................................................. 65
Fig. 31: Charge motion analysis for 28 ft SAG mill with Hi lifters and Hi lifter with increased ....................... 65
Fig. 32: Typical advancement pattern in ball mill during the simulation test ................................................ 66
Fig. 33: A typical snapshot from OpenMill .................................................................................................... 67
Fig. 34: Broken mass prediction as a function of impact energy by the model of equation (14) .................. 69
Fig. 35: Prediction of number of impact by simulation ................................................................................. 69
Fig. 36: Variations in Energy requirement per revolution with impact energy .............................................. 69
Fig. 37: Variations in Er with impact energies and number of impacts .......................................................... 70

6
List of tables:

Table 1: Parameters used in simulation by Mishra et al., 1994 [45] ..........................................................33

Table 2: Simulation parameters used in Ting et al., 1993 [49] ..................................................................39
Table 3: The parameters used in simulation by Kun et al., 1996 [100] ......................................................40
Table 4: Tabulated form of simulation results ...........................................................................................68

7
1 Introduction
The discrete (or distinct) element method has been used over decades for numerically
modeling the mechanical behavior of granular materials. Instead of continuum, the DEM
treats granular material as an assemblage of distinct particles, each governed by fundamental
laws of physics and mechanics. As no restriction exists regarding mode of deformation or
amount of displacement of each particle, the DEM takes advantage over FEM and is uniquely
suited for modeling large deformation processes and bifurcation-type behavior in granular
materials. Technique was first adapted to geo-mechanics by Cundall, 1974 [1]; Cundall and
Strack, 1978 and 1979 [2], who studied the dynamic behavior of rock masses. As this
technique has evolved, it has been used in a wide variety of research applications in
engineering mechanics and geotechnical engineering. These applications include statistical
micromechanics by Cundall, 1988 [3]; Bathurst et al., 1988 [4]; Zhang et al., 1986 [5], study of
granular soils by Ting et al., 1988 [6]; Dobry et al., 1989 [7]; Issa et al., 1989 [8]; Kuhn et al.,
1989 [9], creep of soils by Walton et al., 1989 [10], flow of granular materials by Campbell et
al., 1983 [11]; Ghaboussi et al., 1990 [12]; Hakuno et al., 1989 [13]; Lorig et al., 1984 [14]),
analysis of rock-support interaction by Butkovich et al., 1988 [15], blast loading of grounds by
Taylor et al., 1989 [16]; Barbosa et al., 1987 [17] and large deformation geotechnical modeling
by Ting et al., 1989 [18].

The greatest problems tackled to date with the DEM involve up to a few ten
thousands of two- or three-dimensional particles simulated with a few tens of thousands of
time steps. The particles during simulation are usually of simple geometric shape two-
dimensional discs, polygons, three-dimensional spheres or polygonal blocks. Where circular
particles have the great advantage of computational simplicity, they also possess an inherent
tendency to roll. In particular, computed normal contact forces never contribute to the
moment acting on a particle, as each normal contact force always pass through the particle
centroid. As a result, it is difficult to simulate 'real' material behavior accurately even when the
particle shape is having little differentiation from being circular or spherical (Dobry et al., 1989
[7]).

In simulation of multiple discrete bodies, the design of contact detection algorithm is

crucial as it directs the sensitivity towards computational expense. Contact detection is usually
divided into two separate phases, neighbor searching and geometric resolution. The goal of
neighbor search is to identify and list objects within a certain zone around a target object.
The resulting list is often called the neighbor list or contact list. The geometric resolution
phase then compares the target object geometry against the geometry of the objects in the

8
neighbor list in detail where the computational cost depends on the complexity of the
geometric representation.

By separately considering the neighbor searching and geometric resolution

algorithms, it is possible to handle the complexity of neighbor searching without referring the
local geometry in details. This separation achieved with bounding volumes, which ensures
that the neighbor search algorithm will remain valid for any geometric representation and
resolution scheme chosen. This robustness is essential in the development of the generalized
DEM simulation system where any number of geometric representations may be in use
concurrently.

The step size of simulation determines the accuracy and stability of simulation. The
position and velocity updating calculations uses a pre-calculated table through schemes such
as leapfrog method, which cannot use integration formulas for step size control. A step size
control scheme in use with the table driven velocity and position calculation uses the
difference between the calculation result from one big step and from two small steps. The
size of time step is critical to the calculations since it determines the stability and accuracy of
the calculation in the discrete element method. A time step size that is too small results in an
unnecessarily long simulation time. However, a time step size that is too large produces
incorrect simulation results and often leads to the instability of simulation. The step size
needed to give the required accuracy typically varies in different parts of discrete element
simulation and at different times in the simulation. The extra computation needed to check
the accuracy of a given step size can often be justified by the reduction in the computation
obtained by being able to use larger steps in parts of the calculation. In addition, the
controlled accuracy avoids the need to choose a conservative step size and to make multiple
runs to check accuracy. Both of these require additional calculation.

9
2 Review: DEM methodologies, stages, parameters, implementation in
Mineral Engineering

2.1 Particle Shape in 2D and 3D

In particular, use of discs and spheres leads to typically low aggregate internal friction
angles compared with real materials. Robust algorithms for computing ellipse-ellipse and
ellipse-wall have been reviewed in this work. Cundall et al. 1978 and 1979 [2], the pioneer of
DEM have first introduced the use of spherical shape to represent particles in space.
Heterogeneous, irregular particles were represented by balls in 3-dimention. Researchers
have first coded for simulation in 2-dimension and named the program as BALL, additions
have been continuously made to the program BALL, which led to simulation in 3-dimention
as well. The later version of BALL was named as TRUBAL. Williams, 1994 [19] has simulated the
particle flow in ink-jet printers through computer aided design (CAD)
models and spacial sorting algorithm. Williams, 1995 [20] analyzed effect of shape and
packing on dynamic wave propagation. Mishra et al., 2010 [21] studied simulation of spherical
particles in spiral concentrators. Williams et al., 1995 [22] has described the discrete function
representation (DFR) scheme in details for object representation of a ball. Problems with
spherical representation include unrealistic way of presentation and unnatural sliding or
spinning tendency of balls. Therefore, several researchers adopted a different approach of
representing particles with ellipse. Ng, 1994 [23] has represented particles in 2-D with ellipse
shape after developing the program named ELLIPSE2. Developed program actually analyzes
the stress-strain behavior of mixture of circular and elliptical shaped particles. Spheres and
discs have major deficiencies against use of ellipse as particle representative, this has been
shown by Ting et al., 1993 [24]. Some researchers in past have also suggested to use general
analytical equation of body shapes for particle representation but complexity in updating
particles position, velocity and definition led to very complex calculations and high
computational load. A general analytical equation used by several researchers to represent
ellipse is given as
f ( x, y )  a1 x 2  a2 xy  a3 y 2  a4 x  a5 y  a6

Ting, 1992 [25] has shown the robust algorithm for development of programs for
simulation with elliptical particles. Figure 1 shows the elliptical representation of two particles,
figure also indicates the information on contact detection, apart from which some authors
have also followed a slightly different manner of finding contact point as the mid-point of the

10
line joining the extreme points of two ellipses in contact. Contact point determination is
important for calculations of all applicable forces.

Fig. 1: Nomenclature for contact location between two ellipses (Ting, 1992 [25])

Article compares between particle definition with its center and other parameters to
the particle definition by its analytical equation. Ting, 1992 [25] discussed the transformation
of analytical equation of ellipses from their local coordinates to the world coordinates which
subsequently brings all the ellipses in single platform for simulation.
A( X  dx) 2  B(Y  dy) 2  2C ( X  dx)(Y  dy)  1  0

Nomenclature for parameters in equation can be referred from the paper. Article
represents particle with quadratic equations that for the intersection point of two ellipses lead
to a quartic equation having four solution of it, and is declared an ill-conditioned equation.
Since the particles being simulated are usually fair stiff, the amount of overlap is normally
quite small. Author discussed a new method for determination of contact point by the locus
definition of ellipses. Ellipses are presented by their differential equations and their common
slope determines contact point. Figure 2 shows the two ellipses with their locus
representation. In figure, f(x) and g(x) are the locus of two ellipses while h(x) is the locus of
common slope point of two ellipses near intersection area. The mid-point of intersection of
h(x) with f(x), and h(x) with g(x) is the contact point between two ellipses.

Fig. 2: Scheme for contact detection (Ting, 1992 [25])

11
 In addition to above Trent et al., 1989 [26]; Ishibashi et al., 1989 [27]; Bathurst et al.,
1989 [28]; Taylor et al., 1989 [29]; Hakuno et al. [30]; Kuhn et al. [31]; Hakuno et al. [32];
Thornton, 1989 [33]; Salami et al., 2002 [34]; Cheng et al., 2002 [35]; Sakaguchi et al., 1993
[36]; Songfack et al., 1993 [37]; Liao et al., 1993 [38]; Lin et al., 1993 [39]; Trent et al. [40];
Chang et al., 1993 [41]; Mishra, 2003 [42]; Zhang et al., 1998 [43]; Fortin et al., 2002 [44];
Mishra et al., 1994 [45]; Mishra et al., 1994 [46] and Mishra, 2003 [47] have worked on the
assemblies of spheres as the representation of particles in simulation. Zhang et al., 1999 [48]
explains the type of forces and their derivations acting on spherical particles; details of
tangential forces acting on spheres were presented in graphical manner.

Ting et al., 1993 [49] have discussed the discrete element algorithm on ellipse based
model, interaction of ellipses with each other, contact point detection algorithm based on
common slopes between locus of ellipses, contact list and grid box list scheme. Ting, 1991
[50] has shown the ellipse based complete mathematical model to calculate common point
coordinates, to update velocity, angular velocity, acceleration and forces.

In addition to above, Mustoe et al., 2000 [51] attempted to present particles in general
shapes. Shapes are presented by general equation of body. Also, article presented the
contact stiffness force matrices for spherical bodies.

Mostly, authors have preferred simulations with spherical shaped bodies due to
easiness of calculation against other shapes. The common problem of unnecessary rolling
obtained by spherical bodies during simulation has directed authors to model for elliptical
shaped particles. The main drawback of using circular particles in modeling of granular soil is
their monotonous geometric shape and tendency to roll. Thus, it is difficult to simulate certain
important behaviors of a soil assembly in which particles are at least slightly elongated or
tabular. Ellipsoid have a degree of freedom to simulate different particle shapes in reality
while avoiding geometric singularities (vertex) like those with a polygon shape which are
difficult to represent mathematically. Elliptical particles lead calculations difficult, complex
simulation but they better represents a realistic particle when compared with disc shaped
representation. Attempts have shown that it is nearly impossible to represent particles in their
natural irregular form until we are sticking to conventional algorithm. A new and robust
approach or algorithm may design in future to computerize the particles in their realistic
forms. There are other several quotes for use of shapes such as ellipse, disc, sphere, ellipsoid
etc. Zsaki, 2009 [52] used the disc for filling up the region inside the polygonal domain, which

12
is discussed in the subsequent part of this paper. Fillot et al., 2007 [53] has modeled sphere
for the modeling of third body flows under the action of adhesive forces.

Apart from all available shape determination methods and their relevant modeling
efficiencies, it has been constant endeavor of researchers to obtain a method, which can
realize the natural particle shapes. It is nearly impossible to achieve realistic shapes due to
limitations on modeling. However, some has followed the procedure to represent natural
shapes as a complex form of tightly attached assembly of elemental shapes. For example, a
complex shape in 3D can be represented by the tight assembly of small spheres arranged to
achieve the shape in all possible manner. Kruggel-Emden et al., 2008 [54] can be referred as
a model paper for studying such a method, which along with the method derived the
equations for particles definition in mathematical terms, and equations for the contact model.
In reality, there are two approaches, first is two represent the shapes such as cylinder/rod as a
part of elemental shapes such as sphere, and the second approach is of superimposing
elemental shapes, as described above. For more complex shapes spheres of varying radii can
be superimposed. Such techniques to obtain a complex but natural shape from the elemental
spheres or discs is commonly used in two commercial DEM packages i.e. EDEM by DEM
Solutions and PFC by Itasca. Drawback of the method includes limitations on research to
validate the model predictions and non-competitive algorithm runtime. Besides the limited
and contradictory state of knowledge on its validity, the multi-sphere method is the most
general and most efficient method for representing shape within the discrete element
method. Fig. 3. Below shows a set of examples for shape approximation by multi-sphere DEM
method.

Fig. 3: Multi-sphere approximations of Al2O3 particle (Kruggel-Emden et al., 2008 [54],

Gorham et al., 2000 [55])

13
2.2 Particle Definition in 2D and 3D
There are two major classes of particle representation called Object Representation
that we can be considered as boundary representation and implicit representation. The
boundary representation breaks the surface of each body into facets and patches and
interpolates within the patch. Intersection checks between two bodies then requires the
projection of each patch of one body onto each patch of the other body. The order of
computational complexity of the algorithm for contact resolution between two bodies is then
O ( N 2 ) , where N is the number of patches per body. Mustoe et al. 1985 [56]; Williams et al.

1987 [57]; Williams et al. 1988 [58] shown the representations used in FEM and CAD, and has
been applied to both 2D and 3D discrete element.

In computational complexity theory, the element distinctness or element uniqueness is

the problem of determining whether all the elements of a list are distinct or not.
Computational complexity algorithm is deterministic factor for speed of computation.
Quicksort is a useful sorting algorithm developed by Tony Hoare that on average makes
O( N log N ) comparisons to sort N items and in the worst case, it makes O ( N 2 ) comparisons.

Quicksort (also known as "partition-exchange sort") is often faster in practice than other
O( N log N ) algorithms. Additionally, quicksort's sequential and localized memory references

work well with a cache.

The implicit representation, which represents the whole geometry in single function
f ( x, y)  0 (eg. x 2  y 2  R 2  0 ) is popular in DEM for analysis of discs and spheres because

of the speed with which intersections can be checked and the compactness of
representation, is given in articles Cundall, 1979 [59]; Taylor et al., 1992 [60], Trent et al., 1992
[61]. Ting et al., 1993 [49] has extended it to two-dimension ellipse.

This implicit representation have been generalized to a wider range of two and three-
dimensional shapes by these authors and the others using super-quadrics [62, 63, 64]. In the
case of super-quadrics, the intersection check relies on the sampling of the surface at discrete
points. The order for checking each point on the super-quadric of one body with the implicit
function of other body becomes O(N ) where N is the number of points per body. Although
the order of complexity gives information about how the algorithm scales, it does not take
into account the number of calculations required for each check. In the case of patches, the
calculation of surface normal etc. is relatively expensive. Similarly, the root finding for implicit
equations is also expensive.

14
 In order to support both boundary and implicit representations, Williams et al., 1995
[65] developed a low-level boundary representation called discrete function representation
(DFR) which is both general, in its ability to handle a wide variety of shapes, and
demonstrably faster than many existing techniques. They used the super-quadric
representation for ease of input and then use the DFR for contact checking.

A detailed discussion on DFR scheme is referred from Williams et al., 1995 [22]. Work
described the DFR scheme and how it is used to store the surface geometry of a 3D object in
form of the look-up tables. The first phase of the scheme given is to tessellate the surface
geometry of a 3D object on a regular grid of fashion. The tessellation process in DFR starts by
discretizing the space occupied by the object into an ordered set of cubes or voxels. Cubes
that intersect the object's surface are then used to approximate this surface by calculating the
location of the intersection points of the surface with the cube edges. These points then form
of the facets of the tessellate surface. The input surface geometry can be derived from
implicit functions, raw scalar field data or inferred from existing unstructured polygonal
surface. A family of implicit functions called super-quadrics presented in Barr, 1981 [66] were
used. Graphical representation of the procedure given in Williams et al., 1995 [22] is very
similar to given in Williams et al., 1999 [67] and is reproduced here in figure 4.

Fig. 4: The DFR sampling grid and discrete sphere example (Williams et al., 1995 [22])

Figure 4 shows the computational representation of a sphere described by John R.

Williams. DFR follows a data structure set corresponds to a cage of cells that completely
encloses the 3D surface. Details of the three data sets called slice, prism and cell can be
referred from concerned paper. Although the set of cells describe the body but it is not
accurate way of representation as it is only a set of cubes in 3D. Cubes defining the surface of
particles are having their own shape and corners, which can only approximate the surface of

15
particle. Object representation in 3D in this way leads to more accuracy as the size of cubes
reduces but the same also results in rapid increase in computational cost and time
requirement for simulation.

However, there are several models of data structures known as Spatial Sorting
Algorithm (SSA) and is an important step for contact search. Such a method is used to sub-
divide shapes in cells to represent them and then performs the contact detection as well.
William et al., 1995 [65] discussed various Spatial Sorting Algorithm such as grid subdivision,
adaptive grid methods, Octree method, body based cells, spacial heap-sort etc. Among
them, the Octree method is highly adaptable among researchers. Figure 4 that sub-divides
the body into cells and grids is an example of Octree algorithm. The Octree method is
conceptually perhaps the most elegant technique to tackle the problems of spatial reasoning
and resolution. Method adopts rectilinear cells to formulate the body shapes. How Octree
algorithm work is shown graphically in figure 5.

Fig. 5: Mechanism of Octree data structure

The 3D space is repetitively sub-divided into 8 cubes/cuboids of equivalent

geometrical parameters, however only those cubes at every stage is recorded which consist
of full/partial part of body. Signs such as +, - or 0 are assigned to cube to denote partial or
full part of body contained by cubes. For example, if a cube completely consist a body then it
may assign a -ve number, if a cube contains no part of the body then it will assign the
number zero and if contains partial part of the body or if cube is completely inside the body
then it assign a +ve number assigned to it. In the way it can be elaborated that a -ve number
assigned, is a sign of possibility of further sub-division. Sub-division also processed for
assigned +ve number in case of cube containing the part of body. Number of sub-division
depends upon the limiting minimum cube size that is pre-assigned to simulation. Zero
assigned to a cube illustrates no requirement of further sub-division of that cube, while the

16
set of cubes having positive number with limiting size leads to definition of body in 3D.
Bodies for which simulation needs to be performed are assigned with unique numbers to
them and then, accordingly during particle definition +ve and -ve numbers to cubes might
have their magnitudes equivalent to body number. Consider an elemental cube having a
positive number assigned, now during body definition of another particle forcing the same
elemental cube to assign a positive number once again would indicate that it is common
cube between particles. Moreover, this can be interpreted in two different cases (i) during
one-by-one initial particles definition (before starting simulation) it would lead to an
impractical condition i.e. overlap of bodies, and will force to change the position of
concerned particle to achieve a non-overlapping (with any other particle) position (ii) during
simulation it would indicate the particle overlap on another therefore the case of collision,
and would be considered for force calculations. Williams et al., 1995 [65] mentioned
computation complexity for definition of particle and contact search in 3D as O(M log M ) . In
addition to above Preece et al., 1993 [68] developed effect of packing angle among packing
of spherical bodies on blasting induced rock motion at Sandia National Laboratory.

Prior to Octree algorithm Wensel et al., 1993 [69] have dealt with a Quadtree
algorithm for simulation of polygon shape particles in 2D. It is notable that an Octree
algorithm repetitively sub-divides the space in 3D in order to define particles, where sub-
division is subjected to any of the condition i.e. particle in a cube, cube intersecting the
particle or cube inside the particle. In a similar manner, a Quadtree algorithm sub-divides 2D
space to define polygons, discs or ellipse. A typical example of it is given in figure 6.

Fig. 6: A region Quadtree with point data (Wensel et al.,1993 [69])

17
 Fig. 7: A Quadtree based representation of disc in 2D (Wensel et al.,1993 [69])

Zsaki, 2009 [52] discusses the generation of discs to fill the polygonal domains in vast
detail. Author has suggested a new method to fill out the polygonal domains in two-
dimensional space. The prior methods were time consuming uncontrolled in terms of
outcomes such as pattern of disc generation, tight arrangement of the system with varying
discs radii. Work addresses the issues involved in particle generation in 2D and uses the
computational geometry principles to efficiently generate the discs in tight packing. Particle
shape generation methods are generally classified in two categories, first is based on
geometric principles while the other is based on simpler empirical approach supplemented
by the use of DEM itself, usually under the influence of gravity to consolidate the particles in
tight arrangement. Excellent overview on these methods can be found in Feng et al., 2003
[70] and Bagi, 2005 [71]. Designed algorithm is described in 5 distinct phases (i) identifying
the base or bottom of the polygonal domain (ii) generation of the seed disc at the lowest
point (iii) generation of first layer on the base geometry (iv) building up layer-by-layer until
the generation reaches the top polygonal domain (v) filling up gaps throughout the
polygonal domain especially at the top. Author has explained the use of algorithm with
natural example of simulation of granular flow through chutes. Simulation enables the
investigation of the formation of arches that, acting in compression, retard the flow of ore.
Fig. 8 shows the pictorial view of simulation result for an ore pass operation in chute near the
draw point. Comparatively dark lines in the figures show the set of discs making an individual
layer. Method was claimed to have O(N ) running time with the capability to fill a polygonal
domain at a rate of less than 0.5 sec per one million discs on commodity hardware.

18
 Fig. 8: DEM model of an ore pass near draw point (Zsaki, 2009 [52])

2.3 Contact Search

The most important part of discrete element simulation is contact search and then
preparing the list of contacts because of its consumption of major part of computational
load, and therefore the design of contact detection algorithms is having important
consideration. The computational cost of geometric resolution depends on the complexity of
geometric representation. For example, if there are M facets then a naive scheme may take
2
order O ( M ) operations. More sophisticated schemes, such as DFR scheme requires
O ( M 1 / 2 ) computations. Similarly, the cost of neighbor searching depends on the number of

objects and has the potential for poor scaling; in a naive implementation, where every object
2
is checked against every other object the cost is O ( N ) . Because the number of objects
treated in discrete element simulation is often large, neighbor searching can become a
bottleneck problem. The implications of allowing arbitrary geometries to coexist in the
system, however, must not be ignored. If the neighbor search algorithm is designed with a
specific geometry in mind, its performance may degrade when it is used outside that
restricted settings.

Perkins et al., 2001 [72] reported contact detection, contact resolution and double-
ended spatial sorting (DESS) in details. DESS according to author was designed for high
performance and robustness in arbitrary simulations. To better highlight the features of this
algorithm, authors compared it with the spatial hashing based No Binary Search [NBS]
algorithm by Munjiza et al., 1998 [73]. Authors also defined the use of bounding volumes as

19
representative of local body geometry. These bounding volumes are generally sphere or
ellipsoid. The goal of neighbor search algorithm design is to minimize computational costs in
2
order to achieve less than O ( N ) cost. Perkins et al., 2001 [72] stated about the NBS
algorithm, the NBS algorithm overcomes the problem of sparse simulations through careful
book-keeping, and object based traversal of the bucket lists; instead of visiting each bucket in
order, the NBS algorithm checks the bucket for each object, and visits the 'occupied' bucket
once. If the current object's bucket has not yet been visited, that bucket, and the lower
adjacent one are both hashed on the next axis. Author have compared, and shown
superiority of NBS algorithm with spatial hashing, Spatial hashing which they summarized as,
in one hashing pass the object can be divided into buckets according to their discrete
coordinates along a given axis. Each of those buckets can be divided on another axis. By
keeping the most recent as well as the current bucket in each dimension, half of the contact
neighborhood is always accessible, and all of the contacts can be evaluated using only two-
bucket lists for each dimension. Because each object is only visited a constant number of
times, the computational cost of the whole algorithm is proportional to O(N ) .

An exhaustive description of methodologies available for contact detection such as

spatial sort, exhaustive spatial sorting schemes, spatial sorting using heap sort and the prior
knowledge required for spatial sorting algorithms are discussed in Williams et al., 1995 [65].
Article also compared the heap sort and Octree algorithm. Williams et al., 1995 [65] and
Williams et al., 1995 [22] reported DFR based contact detection algorithm of computational
complexity of O(N ) . DFR based contact detection determines whether pairs of objects
intersect, and then calculates a precise geometric description of the contact region. Each
object maintains a reference frame describing the position and orientation of the object's
local coordinate system. The local frame is in turn defined with respect to a fixed global
reference frame. The geometric description of each object is expressed using the DFR
scheme, in addition to a bounding box of the surface, both aligned with the local frame.

Nezami et al., 2004 [74] have declared that the applicability of a DEM code is directly
related to the efficiency of the employed contact detection scheme. Article emphasizes NBS
and DESS algorithm for contact detection. Barbosa, 1990 [75] briefs about the simple
algorithm for contact detection between polyhedron that requires comparing all the vertices
of one particle to all faces of other one and vice versa, with the computational complexity of
O ( N 2 ) . Nezami worked out the details of various methods for contact detection under the

scheme of common plane (CP), first proposed by Cundall, 1988 [76]. A common plane is a

20
plane that, in some sense, bisects the space between the two contacting particles. If the two
particles are in contact, then both will intersect the CP. Because of using CP, the expensive
particle-to-particle contact detection problem reduces to a much faster plane-to-particle
contact detection problem. Once, the CP is developed the normal to the CP defines the
direction of contact normal, therefore the direction of contact force. This is especially an
advantage to edge-to-vertex or vertex-to-vertex contacts, where the definition of contact
normal is a non-trivial problem. Method is having the computational complexity of order
O(N ) . Paper vastly details a typical method for obtaining CP for polygonal (2-D) and

polyhedral (3-D) particles. Figure 9 shows here the sign convention used by Nezami in his
work.

Fig. 9: Definition of distances and sign convention of a point to a plane (Nezami, 2004 [74])

Contact graphs are used to form contact groups in rigid body simulations. Contact
graphs provide an efficient underlying data structure for keeping information about the entire
configuration. Contact groups are used for splitting objects into disjoints group that can be
simulated independently. Mirtich, 2000 [77] has firstly used the contact graphs in advance
manner for other than contact force computation. Erleben, 2004 [78] have presented
detailed research on contact graphs as an alternative method for contact detection and
contact listing, through a unique data structure used in computation. Paper defines a contact
graph as a set consisting of nodes, where a node is an entity in the configuration, such as a
rigid body or a fixed body. Typical example of contact graph and contact group are
presented in figure 10 and 11 respectively, symbolic notation for which can be found in
Erleben, 2004 [78].

21
 Fig. 10: An example of contact graph (Erleben, 2004 [78])

Fig. 11: A typical example of contact group as per fig. 10

Mishra, 2003 [42] have considered the method of keeping track of contact of one
particle with all others at every time step, as a O( N ( N  1) / 2) pair of contact search
algorithm, regardless of the shape of particle. Reviewer enlightens the implementation of cell
and box in working space to divide the space into cells or boxes in 2D and 3D respectively. A
box in this technique is having box length equivalent to the maximum particle diameter. A
particle is having entries to all those boxes where the corners of circumscribing box have an
entry. Once the box list (the list of all boxes having entries of a particle) is generated, only
those particles that have entries into boxes associated with a given particle are assumed to
be in potential contact with it. Actual particle-to-particle contact is calculated by knowing the
particle coordinates. Mishra, 1991 [79] described contact listing and type of data structure
used, in details. According to author’s PhD thesis, the box list is a linked-list data structure.
For a given box, a module consists of two array cells containing the numeric identity of
discrete body present in that box and an address pointing to next module of two array cells.

22
The contact-list is also a linked-list data structure of having array cells in each module. For a
given body, a module contains the numeric identity of the discrete body in contact, the
contact number associated with the contact, and an address pointing to the next module of
three array cells. Figure 12 and 13 below shows typical examples of box-list and contact-list,
details of which can be found in Mishra, 1991 [79].

Fig. 12: Box list corresponding to an example

Fig. 13: Contact list as per example in figure 12

Also, Peng et al., 2005 [80] concentrated their study on efficient mesh construction in
3D with proposed 3D triangulation mesh encoder. Ferrez et al., 2005 [81] discusses the use of
Delaunay triangulation for contact detection in 3D. Williams et al., 1995 [65] briefs available
methods for object representation and contact search as discussed in previous sub-section as

23
well. Researchers worldwide follow any of the technique for contact search described in this
sub-section, and so it brings the overall background of contact search.

Shigeto et al., 2011 [82] studied with multi-core GPU and CPU with the newly
developed algorithm that drastically reduced the memory usage. Authors have proposed
new algorithm using multi-thread parallel computing on multi-core processors, and
simulated large-scale powder system with a complicated drive unit and compared the
performance using the latest GPUs and CPUs with the programs optimized for each
processor by employing the reaction calculation method. Generally, particles are registered in
the sub-spaces of an array called “array-in-grid” in collision detection grid (CDG) method.
Therefore, memory usage is proportionate to domain size and number of particles
registered. Proposed linked-list structure incorporates CDG structure. The array-in-grid
structure requires n integer variables for each grid, where n is the maximum number of
particles that can be registered in one grid. Whereas linked-list structure requires only 2
integer variables per grid with no limit on the capacity of grid, which reduces the memory
requirement to 2 / n . Authors have claimed that for n=32, using the linked-list structure a
calculation system 16 times larger than when using the array-in-grid method, can be
implemented.

2.4 Contact Resolution

Contact resolution is the stage in DEM simulation, which follows the stage of contact
search/detection. Immediately after the contact-list is prepared, the next stage is to analyze
each one contact in the list to achieve the force calculations. However, the researchers did
not make enough discussions on contact resolution or they have discussed it along with
contact search part. Williams et al., 1995 [65] have describes contact resolution using the DFR
scheme. Two-dimension DFR scheme represents the boundary as a single valued function of
one local parameter, for example y  f (x) . The function is then discretize at fixed intervals of
dx. This gives an ordered set of points, which are fast to search. The simplicity of DFR makes
it suitable as a low-level representation scheme in the sense that it is easily derived from
higher-level abstractions such as spline patches, implicit functions, or finite elements. DFR
based contact detection can also be incorporated into existing software systems, which use
other object representation schemes. In two dimensions, closed regions are first get
separated into two sub-regions each of which is described with respective single valued
function. The separating line in this case is taken to be the local X-axis of the object. Each half
region is then quantized with a uniformly spaced sampling, dx. Once a search point is
determined to lie between two of the quantized X--coordinates, all other boundary points

24
can be eliminated from search. The DFR contact resolution algorithm can now be described.
Two polygonal objects, A and B are considered, each represented with N vertices and a local
coordinate frame. A bounding box is also maintained for each object, with respect to the
local frame. The contact algorithm in this method follows number of steps, William et al., 1995
[65] can be referred for the same. A similar method for contact resolution is described in
Connor et al., 1993 [83]. Paper also compares the computational requirements of the DFR
and Cyrus-Beck algorithm.

Fig. 14: The DFR contact resolution steps (Williams et al., 1995 [65])

In figure, four stages of contact resolution through DFR scheme are shown. First, the
body is split into two along X-axis and formed with their respective implicit equations. Figure
14a and 14b graphically represent the same. Transformation of bounding box B onto A, and
projection extents of transformed box in the local X-axis in frame of bounding box A. Test is
performed if, the extents of projection lie outside the bounding box A then, no contact is
possible otherwise determine the minimum and maximum X-coordinates of the projection
inside bounding box A. Figure 14c describes the step followed. Then, the projected X-
coordinates inside bounding box A are used to create one reduced bounding box and then
transformed onto the X-axis in the frame of B, as shown in figure 14d.
A
X min  Max( xlbA , xBA,min )

A
X max  Max( xrbA , xBA,max)

......(1)

where,

25
xlbA , xrbA
are left and right bounds of A

xBA,min , xBA,max
are min/max transformed bounds

x mA in , xmA ax
are min/max sub-region bounds

xmA in  xrbA
If, then no overlap is developed and so no examination is required. Otherwise,
clipping bounds are used to calculate the corresponding start and end addresses of the
upper half-space of the object A:
ius  S xA ( xrbA  xmA ax 

iuf  S xA ( xrbA  xmix

A
1

......(2)
ius iuf
Where and
are the start (s) and finish (f) indices of the sub-region lying in the upper (u)
SA
half space of object A. x is the scaling factor between the physical space to address space
for object A. This is simply the inverse of the discretization step size, dx. The corresponding
address in the lower region is calculated from the upper address with the simple relationship:
ils  N  iuf  1

ilf  N  ius

......(3)
ils ilf
where and are the lower (l), start (s) and finish (f) indices, and N is the total number of
elements in the array storing the boundary points of object A. The preceding steps are then
applied in projecting the reduced bounding box of A onto the local X-axis of object B, as
shown in figure 14d. The bounds of the sub-region transformed on B are calculated using
equation (1) and (2) with the B as primary frame of reference.

Williams et al., 1995 [65] further discusses the test of candidate contact points. Due to the
implicit ordering of the objects boundary representation, the contact detection step is simply
a one to one bounds test as follows: Transform each point from its reference frame onto the
frame of the object to be tested against. Project the point onto local X-axis and transform to
the address space using the scaling factor as in equation (1) and (2). Calculate the array index

26
of the bounding edges of the partition in which the point potentially lies. Since, the boundary
representation is limited to a single valued function, each partition corresponds uniquely to a
single trapezoidal strip. Transformed point is then tested for presence in a trapezoidal panel,
as in figure 15.

Fig. 15: Simple contact bounds test (William et al., 1995 [65])

Geometric resolution algorithms strongly depend on complexity of the geometric

representation of particles. For example, if the boundaries of the particles are implicitly
represented by a single function f ( x, y, z)  0 , then a closed form solution is likely to be
available (for example Cundall et al., 1979 [59] for contacts between discs and spheres, Ting
et al., 1993 [49] for two-dimensional ellipses, and Lin et al., 1997 [84] for three-dimensional
ellipsoids). Efficiency of these contact detection schemes are mostly controlled by the
simplicity of the resulting equations. Nezami et al., 2004 [74] somehow considers contact
resolution as a part of common plane algorithm and thus, described in brief. Ting et al., 1993
[49] presented robust algorithm for ellipse shaped particle simulation. Such derivation is very
important to consider contact resolution and finding contact point. DEM considers particles
(x , y )
quasi-rigid with deformable contacts; one can arbitrarily define the “point” of contact c c
between two ellipses as the midpoint of the line connecting the two ellipse-ellipse
intersection points. Equation for ellipse in local coordinate can be defined as follows:
x x
( )  ( ) 1
a b

where a and b are the length of major and minor axis of ellipse. Transformation of this
equation in world coordinatesystem
x can
cos(beperformed
)  sin( ) as:dx   x 
   
 y   sin( ) cos( ) dy   y 
z 1   z 
  world  0 0

27
where θ is the orientation of the local system with respect to the world, measured
counterclockwise positive. For an ellipse with center at (dx,dy) in world coordinates and major
axis rotated at angle θ to the x-axis, measured counterclockwise, the general equation in
world coordinates would be:
f ( x, y )  A( x  dx) 2  B( y  dy) 2  2C (c  dx)( y  dy)  1

where parameters details for A and B can be referred from Ting et al., 1993 [49], also further
derivation of quartic equation, roots of which leads to the coordinates of the contact point,
can be referred from paper.

Williams et al., 1995 [22] extended the scheme of William et al. 1995 [65] from two-
dimension to three-dimension calculation, and highlighted the merit of DFR scheme that, it
determines whether the pair of objects intersect and calculates a precise geometric
description of the contact region. Each object maintains a local reference frame describing
the object's local coordinate system, and the object's geometry is presented by DFR scheme,
in addition to a bounding box of the surface, both aligned with the local frame. Algorithm
first checks for the bounding box overlap in the overlap region, parallel to local coordinate
axes, the upper and lower bound of the overlap are calculated and are saved as 3D vector
( x, y, z ) m ax
i.e. ( x, y, z ) min and . This vector pair is considered as zones of object and shows a
possible zone pair from a bounding box overlap test as shown in figure 16.

Fig. 16: Zone Index set from clip zone (Williams, 1995 [22])

2.5 Contact Models

Contact models are the guiding principles, based on which the forces in the
simulation are computed. DEM simulations are performed to calculate the particles behavior

28
in motion or under the action of complex set of forces, to predict the energy consumption in
a similar experiment/operation performed in reality, to predict the breakage pattern of
particle under those forces etc. In addition, in granular system, particles are highly
heterogeneous in their composition and mechanical properties, and they possess a wide
range of non-uniform shape in them. Under such conditions, it is difficult to represent
particles in virtual environment; still several attempts have been made to represent particles
with uniform shape viz. disc, ellipse, polygon in 2D and sphere, ellipsoid, polyhedral in 3D.
Such assumption/idealistic representation lead to respective errors, where such errors have
non-linear growth as simulation move towards idealism.

In a system of granular assembly, mechanical properties of individuals are important.

Once again contradicting to nature, simulation procedures assigns uniform mechanical
properties to one particle, leading to the cause one more type of error. Vast details on
contact model as good examples are discussed in Mishra, 2003 [42]. Paper details in, various
inter-particle contact models viz. Linear-spring dashpot model, Non-linear dashpot model, the
elastic perfectly plastic contact model. In addition, it briefs the tangential interaction between
two particles. Simplest model among all is the linear contact model in which the spring
stiffness is constant. Improvement over this law towards reality is visualized in Hertz theory
(1882) to obtain the force deformation relation, which leads to dissipation of energy due to
damping term in the force-deformation equation. Interaction between two particles assumed
to be linearly elastic and can be modeled with Linear-spring dashpot model, for which the
force in terms of incremental step is given as
Fn (t  t )  Fn (t )  vn k n t  Cn vn

......(4)
Fn (t ) k
where is the normal force at the end of the previous time step. Here, n is the normal
v
stiffness that assumes a constant value and n is the normal component of the relative
C
velocity of the particles. n is the normal damping coefficient, which was modeled by Ting et
al., 1992 [85] as
 k m 
Cn  2 ln(e) n 2
 ln e   
2

......(5)

29
where m and e is the normalized mass and coefficient of restitution respectively.

Hertz theory is employed in implementation of Nonlinear-spring dashpot model.

Johnson, 1985 [86] had proposed the Hertzian pressure distribution over the contact area of
(R ) ( Ei )
radius (a) , for two spheres in contact of radii i , elastic properties and Poisson’s ratio
(υi) as
r
p(r )  p0 [1  ( ) 2 ]1/ 2
a

......(6)

where p(r) is the pressure along the circle of radius r (r<a) inside the contact area of radius a.

Fig. 17: Pressure distribution over the contact area as per equation (6)
( Fn ) ( Ri* )
Further, Mishra, 2003 [42] shows the force as a function of normalized radii ,
*
normalized elastic stiffness ( E ) and relative approach of contact towards the centroid α as
4
Fn  E * ( R * )1/ 2  3 / 2
3

......(7)

Most important part of the Non-linear dashpot model is the variation in value of contact
(k )
stiffness n .
dF
kn   2 E * a  2 E * ( R * )1 / 2
d

......(8)

30
 C
Equation (4) incorporates the value of damping constant n while equation (5) shows
its derivation from coefficient of restitution (e) . In reality, coefficient of restitution is a function
of colliding velocity [98]; coefficient of restitution is lower for higher impacting velocities due
to higher dissipation of energy. So, it is difficult to fix the value of damping constant, as an
alternative Mishra et al., 2002 [88] had proposed to replace the viscous dissipation term
(damping constant) with the plastic dissipation term which is easily derivable from material's
stress-strain curve. Mishra, 2003 [42] further derived for elastic-perfectly plastic contact
model. In addition to above, Kruggel-Emdem et al., 2007 [87] dictates how the duration of
contact changes with the collision velocity; at the beginning of contact it drastically reduces
and then approach towards a constant. It was observed that the contact time is
comparatively for low for high velocity of collision. Article provides an excellent review on
force models used in DEM. Equation (9) discussed in Zhang et al., 1998 [43] is similar to
equation (4) presented by Mishra, 2003 [42], and can be further compared with equation (10)
proposed by Tsuji et al., 1992 [89], for the effect of damping constant.
d 2x dx
m 2  Cn  kx  0
dt dt

……(9)
2
d x dx
m 2
 Cn k 0.5 x 0.75  kx1.5  0
dt dt

......(10)

Equation (10) according to Zhang et al., 1998 [43] is more realistic towards behavior of
contact loss, because it terminates the contact when the force returns to zero rather than
when the distance between two ball centers become greater than the sum of the balls radii. It
is necessary because balls do not regain the original shape as fast as they are separating and
if the constant is not terminated the force between balls become attractive (negative value
force). Contact force starts from zero when following the equation (10) whereas equation (9)
starts the force from a non-zero and highest ever value which is not true in nature. Force
patterns by these two equations in graphical format can be referred from the article. Work
also claimed the inefficiency of single spring-dashpot model on the modeling forces at the
same time, including the surface properties viz. distinction between ball-ball contact and ball-
wall/liner contact. Authors have derivated the force model equation for double spring-

31
dashpot model following the basis of Newton's third law and compared it with single spring-
dashpot model. Figure 18 below shows graphical model of double spring-dashpot model.

Fig. 18: Double spring and damping contact model (Zhang et al., 1998 [43]

Mishra et al., 1994 [45] have also reviewed the force model equations for single
spring-dashpot model. Authors have shown the importance of keeping simulation time step
lower than the value of 2 m / k . Where m and k are the values of normalized mass and
(k )
spring stiffness. Authors have also re-explained the model for normal spring stiffness n
given in equation (11), and quoted by Chang et al., 1989 [82]. Table 1 shows an example for
parameters used in paper to simulate the mill conditions.
2G
kn 
(1  )[ 22 ln( 2r / A)  1]

......(11)

where
1 1 1 1 
   
r 2  r1 r2 

 2r (1   ) f n 
1/ 2

A 
 G 

where G and υ are the shear modulus and Poisson's ratio respectively for the discs and r is
the normalized radius. Authors have suggested that coefficient of restitution changes with the
velocity of colliding bodies, and they have chosen single value to minimize the computational

32
load. Paper predicted various results for ball mill simulation including the path of motion,
product size distribution inside the mill and power draw.

Table 1: Parameters used in simulation by Mishra et al., 1994 [45]

Normal stiffness 400,000N/m

Shear stiffness 300,000N/m
Coefficient of friction 0.4
Coefficient of restitution
ball-ball impact 0.9
ball-wall impact 0.3
Critical time step 1104 sec
Ting et al., 1993 [49] claimed that, in particular, use of discs and spheres leads to
typically low aggregate internal friction angles compared with real materials. Robust
algorithm for computing ellipse-ellipse and ellipse-wall interactions were presented by
authors. However, the similar algorithm is presented by most of the authors who have
claimed selection of ellipse shaped particle is better for simulation. In addition, Yang et al.,
2003 [91] describe the derivation for rotation of bodies, in principal. Kremmer et al., 2000 [92]
have shown the importance of inertia tensor in force calculations. Authors have shown inertia
tensor (I ) for an arbitrary shape particle
 Ias:  I xy  I xz 
xx
 
I   I yx  I yy I yz 
  I zx  I zy I zz 


 ( y 2  z 2 )dm 

  xydm   zxdm

I     xydm  ( z 2
 x 2
) dm   yzdm 
 
   zxdm   yzdm  ( x  y )dm
2 2

I xx I yy
where the diagonal elements are the moments of inertia , and I zz with respect to an
I  I zx
arbitrary coordinate system with axes XX, YY and ZZ. The off-diagonal elements xy ,
 I yz
and are the products of inertia with respect to the same frame, dm is the mass
differential and x, y and z are the distances of the differential mass from the respective axes
of the coordinate system. The inertia tensor is symmetric and has three non-complex

33
 *
I xx I* *
eigenvalues which are the principal moments of inertia , yy and I zz . The principal inertia
tensor is then:  I xx
*
0 0
 
I*   0 I *yy 0
0 0 I zz* 


Sakaguchi et al., 1993 [36] also focused on single-spring dashpot model. Cundall, in
his pioneering work used global damping in the calculations of rotational motion as the
rolling resistance:
I   M  C *

*
where I is the moment of inertia and C is the coefficient of global damping. Rolling friction is
M
usually formulated by the term of resisting moment, now may be expressed as Rf

M Rf  b  N

where b is the coefficient of rolling friction and N is the normal contact force at each point.
( fc )
Zhang et al., 1998 [93] shown the force as a component of is the contact force ,
(f ) (f )
external force e and gravitational force g .
d 2 X (t )
m  fc  fe  f g
dt 2

Authors have also recommended the spring-dashpot contact model as similar to Zhang et
al., 1998 [43], Mishra, 2003 [42] and Tsuji et al., 1992 [89]. Similar recommendation is also
found in Zhang et al., 1999 [48] who have shown force, as a summation of normal and
tangential components separately. Also, shown the equations for rolling friction as the
coefficient times the normal force.
dv(t )
 r N  M
dt

dw(t )
 r Nr  I
dt

34
w in the model represents the angular velocity. Authors have also proposed an additional
imbalance force on the contact area caused by damping which leads to additional
component of force in equation. The contact between two spheres is not a single point
contact due to deformation of both components is a finite area as shown in figure 19. The
forces acting on this area can be resolved into a tangential force and normal forces acting at
different locations. The force on the side where the surface is expanding is less than that on
the other side due to damping friction. This imbalance creates a moment at the contact
which is the additional component needed in the equation of motion. The fractional
difference from the mean normal force on each side of the contact is assumed to be
proportional to the normal force and to increase slowly, from an initial value, with increasing
velocity. The forces on each side of the contact are then:
1  qv(t )  q0
F1  N
2

1  qv(t )  q0
F2  N
2

where q is coefficient of rolling.

The contact also exerts a tangential force that adjusts itself to be consistent with the
equations of motion and the rolling condition. This force can take values up to a maximum
that is typically proportional to the normal force, and if the conditions are such that it exceeds
maximum value then rolling is replaced by sliding.

Fig. 19: Forces acting on two particles rolling on each other (Zhang et al., 1999 [48])

The rolling friction (fr) moment cause the angular velocity of one particle to decrease, and the
angular velocity of the other particle to increase. The modified rolling equations for two
particles become:

35
 dvT (t ) 1 1
  fr (  )
dt M1 M 2

dw1 (t )
I1  f r r1  (qvT (t )  q0 ) N (t ) s(t )
dt

dw2 (t )
I2  f r r2  (qvT (t )  q0 ) N (t ) s(t )
dt

where
v T (t )  V1T (t )  V2T (t )

Authors have performed useful derivations for time when the sliding switches to
rolling, the time when rolling stops. When the relative velocity at the contact point changes
from positive to negative or vice versa, it indicates, that sliding ends and rolling starts. The
relative velocity at contact point becomes zero when sliding switches into rolling. The relative
velocity at the contact point during switching is:
v c (t )  (V1T (t )  w1 (t )r1 )  (V2T (t )  w2 (t )r2 )
 1 r12 1 r2 
v c (t )  D    2   v0c
 M 1 I1 M 2 I 2 

where value of parameter D is the switching point parameter and can be referred from the
article. Similarly, rolling stops when particles rotate together as a solid, i.e. w1  w2 . Applying
this condition to the rolling, it becomes:

vT  V1T  V2T  w1 (r1  r2 )

Details on rolling stop time and corresponding common angular velocity at this time is
available in the concerned paper.

Fillot et al., 2007 [53] has discussed in details the contact model for third body flow
simulation in DEM under the action of adhesive forces. Authors have discouraged the use of
FEM for modeling two solids rub against each other. According to an Archard type law, the
part of mass can be deduce from the bodies rubbing against each other, after a certain time

36
step, leading to the formation of new contact surface. These, models are unsatisfactory as
they consider the detached particle ejected from the body immediately, and playing no role
in further detachment, which is not true in nature. Detached particles play role in abrasion
through adhesive and repulsive forces. In the light of aforementioned fact, work developed a
suitable model for ejection of particles as third body flow from the first body system.
Elemental part of the bodies were the spheres and among the two first body in rubbing one
was considered non-degradable for ease of simulation. A normal force for the contact in
form of linear spring-dashpot model with  spring stiffness (K), damping coefficient (C), overlap
(α), unit vector in direction of contact ) and normalized mass of bodies in contact (M), as:
(n
 
F1  ( K  2C KM  )n

The limiting tensile force for rupture was assumed as (Fr), under such circumstance, model for
contact rupture for spring elongation by x can was given as:
   
F2  Kxu F
while 2  Fr

  
F2  0 F
while 2  F r


where u is the unit vector in the direction of rubbing. As a third body sphere interact with
other third body spheres or first body then aforementioned repulsive force act along with the
adhesion force, in addition. Adding, adhesion term (γ) in previous equation:
 
F3  ( K  2C KM    )n

It was observed that highly adhesive particles form a stopper at the exit of the contact,
which leads to smaller ejection of third bodies. In addition, a thicker third body layer formed
with the increased particle adhesion, which reduced the flow of detached and ejected
particles, thus reduced the wear in operation.

Harthong et al., 2009 [94] have discussed the complexities associated with
reproduction of all physical phenomena involved in the densification of granular system. It is
said in the paper that due to failure in implementation of all the contact laws in simulation the
relative density of densification is only up to 0.8, but the new contact laws formulated with
meshed distinct element method (MDEM) which were subsequently validated through DEM,
was claimed to produce particle densification up to relative density of 0.95. It was done by
introducing a local relative density parameter in the force-displacement relationship, and
considering the incompressibility effects. Approach analyzed the densification of a simple

37
cubic lattice by using MDEM, which was validated, with DEM along with other complex lattice
models.

It has been discussed in Stratton et al., 2010 [95] that according to fundamental bases
of particles in simulation, DEM is of two type i.e. soft-sphere and hard-sphere type. Use of
soft-sphere approach as an example is discussed in Jerier et al., 2011 [96], where researchers
have studied the cold-compaction of powder, and the multi-particle simulation in YADE DEM
package were validated with experimental results. In the hard-sphere method, collisions are
conserved with the momentum and coefficient of restitution. In method, collisions for a single
iteration are arranged in the sequential instantaneous manner. It was proposed in the work
multiple intra-time-step collisions be instead applied by averaging the outcomes of all
collisions for each particle as detected at the beginning of the iteration, reducing the
computational burden of the method. Simulation results suggested that significant
computational time cost savings are available for simulation of dilute phase materials when
applying the averaged hard-sphere DEM in particular where the physical particle properties
require a small time step of soft-sphere DEM.

In addition to above, André et al., 2012 [97] have proposed a modified model for the
contact. In the work continuous material by using the cohesive beam were simulated by DEM.
Contact between two spheres is assumed as a cohesive beam and the force models for
cohesive beam is applied.

2.6 Parameters selection and force calculation

Parameters incorporated in suitable force models lead to respective force and
moment calculations. However, force, moment and other desired results of simulation are
very sensitive towards such parameters, and are tested by several researchers for their
effects. In spite of researchers’ approach to prevent revealing the details of selected
parameters by them, this work is an effort collect available data. For example, a typical set of
parameters for simulation of a system of ellipse of ratio 2:1, is presented in table 2. Before
proceeding to further examples, it is fruitful to brief the effects of parameters explained by
Mishra, 2003 [42]. Discussing the effect of coefficient of restitution, author suggested that the
coefficient of restitution is not a constant value but in most of the simulations it is assumed
constant, consequently the energy dissipation due to viscous damping has been made
proportional to the coefficient of restitution. Coefficient of restitution is the function of
material of the bodies, their surface geometry and the impact velocity. It is observed that the
ratio of energy dissipated during loading to that during unloading depends on the

38
magnitude of the impact velocity and therefore the coefficient of restitution. Contact stiffness
is a key parameter that determines the overall dynamic behavior of the particles. The value of
stiffness (k ) is generally chosen in such a way that the fraction of overlap in most severe
collision expected is a small fraction of the diameter of the colliding element. It was analyzed
that large values of parameters (damping and contact) limited the critical time step, which
consequently make the simulation too slow. Authors have recommended using linearized
parameters because they not even allow a larger time step, but also the use of a linear-
dashpot-model to significantly reduce the computational effort. Coefficient of friction is the
next important parameter to be considered, which actually controls the power draw to the
mill and which is particularly sensitive at higher mill speeds. Author have also concluded that
torque drawn to mill decreases with increase in coefficient of restitution as increase in a
higher value of coefficient of friction discourages the amount of cascading.

Table 2: Simulation parameters used in Ting et al., 1993 [49]

Gradation Ellipse1 Ellipse2 Ellipse3 Simulation

Information Parameters
a(mm) 9.76 6.52 4.35 Time Step (s) 2 10 5
b(mm) 4.88 3.26 2.17 gravity 0
(m 2 / s)

n 228 228 228

 ( g / cm 2 ) 1.5 1.5 1.5
Contact Wall Global
Properties
k n (kN / m 2 ) 3000 3000 3000 30000
2
k s ( kN / m ) 2000 2000 2000 20000
2
C n (kN / m / s ) 0.48 0.43 0.216 1.08 0
2
C s (kN / m / s ) 0 0 0 0 0

26 26 26 26
cohesion 0 0 0 0
e 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

where a and b are the length of major and minor axes of ellipses, is the angle of friction, e
C
is the coefficient of restitution used to calculate n , and n is the number of particles/ellipses
in simulation. In simulation, samples were initially dense with void ratios of about 0.19. Zhang

39
et al., 2001 [98] used stiffness (k): 2000, damping (C): 0.4, gravity: 9.8, sliding coefficient (µ):
q
0.7, rolling coefficient (q): 0.4, 0 : 0.3, static friction coefficient: 10, time step size: 0.01
seconds. However, authors have also tested for time step size as 0.1, 0.001 seconds, out of
which they found 0.01 seconds most suitable. Buchholtz et al., 2000 [99] followed elastic
constant Y  8 10 g / s , and N  800 s , T  3000s as damping in normal and tangential
6 2 1 1

direction. They assumed Coulomb friction constant to be µ=0.5. Mishra et al., 1994 [46]
claimed 1.5 more power draw due to increase of coefficient of friction from 0.2 to 0.7, in
particular conditions of mill speed, mill filling percent and certain number of balls of particular
sizes. Ting et al., 1991 [50] implemented the coefficient of restitution 0.5, disc-disc and disc-
5 2 6 2
wall normal spring stiffness 10 kN / m and10 kN / m , respectively and time step of
integration 0.00025 seconds. Table 3 is another example for the set of parameters used to
perform simulation of explosion of a disc-shaped solid.

Table 3: The parameters used in simulation by Kun et al., 1996 [100]

Parameter Unit Value

Density (ρ) g / cm 3 5
Grain bulk young modulus (Y) dyn / cm 2 1010

Beam young modulus (E) dyn / cm 2 5109

Time step (dt) s 106
Diameter of the solid (d) cm 40
Average number of polygons (n) 1100
erg 5109
Energy of the explosion (E0)
Average initial speed (v0) m/ s 200
Estimated speed of sound (c) m/ s 900
Zhang et al., 1998 [93] compared bouncing of single and two ball system on a rigid
surface. For which ball-ball stiffness, ball-surface stiffness, ball-ball damping and ball-surface
damping were 50000, 50000, 0.9 and 0.4 respectively. Another example of set of parameters
is already shown in table 1. Similarly, number of examples can be presented in this report.

Hunt et al., 2003 [101] in their simulation of Kaiser Effect (KE) and deformation rate
analysis (DRA) on synthetic sandstone specimen core for uniaxial compression, simulated
2505 particles ranging 0.8-1.2 mm in size. For the physical experiment core of 61 mm
diameter comprising of 40% Quartz, 40% Feldspar and remainder being fine-grained
cement. Well cemented/compacted specimen had average grain size=0.25 mm, bulk-
density=2397 kg/m3, uniaxial compressive strength=82.1 MPa and Young’s modulus=14.3
40
GPa. For simulation, it is very important to keep micro-parameters of simulation as near as
possible to real experiment environment. In the simulation parameters were maintained as
ball-density=2397 kg/m3, ball contact modulus=20 GPa, ball stiffness ratio=1.8, ball friction
coefficient=0.5, contact ball normal strength=82 MPa, contact bond shear strength=82 MPa.
It is observable that the experimental and simulation parameters such as grain size, density,
Young’s modulus and compressive strength are having comparable values. Notably,
sometimes keeping parameter values higher or lower than the experimental becomes
necessary either to avoid possible error or to obtain the near to natural environment. For
example, a natural would always contain some amount of moisture but in simulation, it is
formidable to incorporate in exactly same pattern. Under such circumstance, researchers
sometimes adjust the value of coefficient of friction to accommodate the effect of moisture.

Fillot et al., 2007 [53] for their third body flow simulation in rubbing of two first bodies
is already discussed in contact models section. Contact stiffness and tensile force for
2
degradable bodies was respectively k=0.K and Fr  7.5 10 k .R ; adhesion term for the third
bodies γ=0, viscous damping C=0.2 etc. were chosen. It is important to note that the paper
does not reveal the information on absolute values on particle radii, stiffness, rather they
shown in relative terms with respect to their average value.

In addition to above all, Malone et al., 2008 [102] vastly discussed about the schemes,
methodologies for parameters selection for DEM simulations of granular systems.
Additionally paper reviews the past selection and respective discretions for the
implementation of linear-spring-dashpot (LSD) and non-linear Hertzian-spring-dashpot (HSD)
contact models. Paper discussed in details the effect of value of stiffness on inter-particle
overlap, method to estimate particle impact velocity, effect of damping coefficient on particle
rebound velocity, determination of suitable step size for simulation. Researchers have
observed that (i) the relationship between the stiffness and inter-particle overlap is well
defined and derivable while conserving the principal energy in purely elastic collision (ii) the
relationship between damping coefficient and coefficient of restitution is also well defined for
LSD model and provides a first approximation for HSD model (iii) central differences scheme
exhibited a form of sinusoidal, fluctuating decay relationship of the numerical error with the
decreasing time step. Paper can be referred for the mathematical relationships for the
mentioned outcomes. It was claimed that simple numerical tests have highlighted the
interesting issues relating to the determination of contact parameters for DEM simulation.

41
2.8 Updating Position & Velocity
Numerous numbers of algorithm for updating position and velocity are
recommended by researchers. These schemes are also known as numerical integration
scheme. Mishra, 2003 [42] has implemented successfully the Leapfrog type integration
scheme where the velocity of a particle at time step say n+1/2 can be calculated, by knowing
acceleration at the Nth time step. As an example, here position and velocity of ith particle in an
assembly are updated as follows
( xi ) N 1  ( xi ) N  ( xi ) N 1 / 2  t

( xi ) N 1 / 2  ( xi ) N 1 / 2  ( xi ) N  t

......(12)

Therefore, algorithm takes three major steps in calculation: increment in velocity therefore
( xi ) N  t ( x )
followed by updating the velocity as i N 1/ 2 and lastly updating the position as
( xi ) N 1
. The instantaneous velocity at the Nth time step is:
( x )  ( xi ) N 1/ 2
( xi ) N  i N 1/ 2
2

The above explicit integration scheme is the 2nd order accurate and it is also regarded as the
best for overall accuracy, stability, and efficiency. Leapfrog integration is a second order
method and hence usually works better than Euler integration that is only of first order.
Leapfrog integration is equivalent to calculating positions and velocities at interleaved time
points, interleaved in such a way that they 'leapfrog' over each other. For example, the
position is known at integer time steps and the velocity is known at integer plus half time
steps. Cundall and Strack, the pioneers of DEM have first implemented Leapfrog scheme.
There are several researchers who implemented Leapfrog scheme in updating position and
velocity in their work, some of them can be quoted as, Ting et al., 1993 [49], Ting et al., 1991
[50].

In Zhang et al., 1998 [93] a different method, using velocity and position summations
to calculate the particle motion in normal direction was introduced. For an accurate
calculation, the particle motion calculation was divided into normal motion calculation and
tangential motion calculation. The velocity and displacement summation method takes the
force equation:

42
 d 2x
m  fc  fe  f g
dt 2

where, fc, fe and fg are the contact force, external force and gravitational force respectively.

1 t t 1 t t 1 t t

VN 1  VN  
m t
f c dt   f e dt   f g dt
m t m t

1 t t t t 1 t t t t 1 t t t t

X N 1  X N  VN t  
m t t  f c dtdt    f e dtdt    f g dtdt
m t t m t t

.....(13)

where
1 t t 1 t t t t 1 f
Vc 
m t
f c dt
,
X c 
m t t
f c dtdt V  gt X g  gt 2 Ve  e t
, g
, 2 , m and
fe 2
X e  t
2m

Combining the acceleration due to gravity and external force

an  g  f e / m

Substituting all above newly defined terms in equation (13), we get final model for position
and velocity update as per Zhang et al., 1998 [93]
VN 1  VN  Vc  an t

1
X N 1  X N V Nt  X c  an t 2
2

Models above describe the position and updating method suggested by Zhang et al.,
1998 [93], for effect of normal forces on the particle under consideration. Zhang et al., 1999
[48] voids this limit by extending models to cause the effects of tangential forces such as
sliding and rolling. Figure 19 is a typical graphical representation of force and velocity
directions acting on the pair of spherical particles. Then, the integral forms of velocities of the
particles:

43
 
v1TN 1 (t )   D  v1TN
M1


v2TN 1 (t )  D  v2TN
M2

r1
w1N 1 (t )  D  w1N
I1

r2
w2 N 1 (t )  D  w2 N
I2

where value of parameter D is the switching point parameter and can be referred from the
article. vn is the velocity in normal direction, m is the mass, µ is the coefficient of friction, w is
the angular velocity, M is the mass of particle, I is the moment of inertia and r is the radius of
particle.

However, most of the researchers implement the mentioned methods, there are other
models proposed by few researchers in their work. In Zhang et al., 1993 [103], a system of
two-dimensional circular discs was used to simulate the dynamic motion of the body water.
The dynamic equilibrium equations for a circular disc in the DEM model are defined:
mx   Fx

my   Fy

I c   M c

where m is the mass of the particle, Ic is the moment of inertia with respect to center of mass,
x, y and θ are the global centroid coordinates of the particle respectively, and Fx, Fy and Mc
are the resultant forces and moments acting on the particle. A numerical solution to above
equation of motion is obtained by using an explicit Euler time stepping scheme. For two-
dimensional planar discs the explicit time velocity update equations are:
t
x N 1/ 2  x N 1/ 2   Fx
m

t
y N 1/ 2  y N 1/ 2 
m
 Fy

44
 t
N 1 / 2  N 1 / 2 
Ic
 Mc

Thus, the corresponding position update equations are defined by:

x N 1  x N  x N 1 / 2  t

y N 1  y N  y N 1 / 2  t

 N 1   N  N 1/ 2  t

Fillot et al., 2006 [53] used the Verlet velocity algorithm for updating position
 t t t and
  t
V
velocity. It is a classical explicit algorithm in DEM which integrates the velocity i ( xi , yi , zi )
 t t t t t t t t
P
and then the new positions i ( xi , yi , zi ) over a small time step (∆t).
 t  t t  ait t  ait 
Vi  Vi     t
 2 

 t t  t  t  t t 2
Pi  Pi  Vi  t  Ai 
2

2.9 Step size and recursions

Step size is one of the most important parameter to determine the stability of
simulation. Importance of step size in simulation is dedicatedly discussed in this section. The
step size determines the accuracy of a discrete element simulation. Zhang et al., 2001 [98]
compared the simulations using fixed time steps and variable time step method. According
to Cundall and Strack, the pioneers of DEM, the following relation must be satisfied to give
stable calculation:

t  2 m / k

where k is the stiffness, m is the particle mass and t is the size of time step. Tsuji et al., 1993
[104] found that the calculation become unstable when the time step is near to the limit value
given by this equation. Therefore, Tsuji proposed that time step should be proportional to
the oscillation period of the spring-mass system. The oscillation period of the system is given
by:

t  2 m / k

45
 A suitable time step can be obtained by dividing one of the natural oscillation periods
by a small integer n, e.g. 5. However, particle separation time is less than one half of the
oscillation period because the impacting particles will separate when impact forces equals to
zero, and a second oscillation or changes in other forces could happen within this time step
to affect the particles impact. A similar time step is needed to obtain accurate calculation of
the particle motion. Zhang et al., 1998 [93] introduced a method of using accurately
integrated tables of updates to the velocity and position of each discrete element. A step
doubling scheme to control the accuracy of this velocity and position updating by varying the
step size has been developed. This method allows the time step size to be adjusted to a
suitable size automatically according to the calculation error in each part of the simulation.
The step-doubling scheme calculates each simulation step twice: firstly, it calculates the
simulation results for whole step and secondly, it calculates the results by two half steps. The
calculation error for each step is defined as the difference of simulation results from one full
step and the results from two half steps. If the calculation error is within the predefined error
tolerance, the simulation moves on to the next step. The step size used for the next step is
related to the calculation error of the previous step. If the calculation error is larger than the
error tolerance, the step size is reduced and the calculations repeated until the error is within
the error tolerance.

The step size needs to give the required accuracy typically varies in different parts of a
discrete element simulation and at different times in the simulation. The extra computation
needed to check the accuracy of a given step size can often be justified by the reduction in
computations obtained by being able to use larger steps in parts of the calculation. In
addition, the controlled accuracy avoids the need to choose a conservative step size and to
make multiple runs to check the accuracy. In the calculation of total error, the error term for
control of step size needs to involve both position and velocity errors and the optimum
combination of these can vary with the type of simulation. Various values of time steps
chosen, is already being presented in sub-section 1.6. Zhang et al., 2001 [98] performed the
simulations for fixed time step sizes viz. 0.1, 0.01, 0.001 and 0.0001 sec. Among which they
found t  0.01 suitable and given similar accuracy to the variable step size calculation.
Authors also performed the simulations for variable time step (based on step-doubling
scheme). Figure 20 and 21 shows the path of bouncing object and error associated to them
respectively, for different step sizes (t ) . They found variable time step gives reliable solution
while the fixed time step method with large step size gives inaccurate simulation results.
Simulation with fixed time step may require number of trials to find its appropriate value

46
while variable step size method (step doubling scheme) finds a suitable value for all parts of
simulation.

Fig. 20: Simulation trajectory with variable and fixed step size (Zhang et al., 2001 [98])

Fig. 21: The error in trajectory in figure 20 with two simulations

In example of Kun et al., 1996 [100] time step chosen was 10-6 seconds for explosion of
a disc-shaped solid. Since an explosion itself completes in fraction of seconds, so such a small
value of step size is fairly justified to simulate the system with substantial number of
simulation data. Comparing this with Zhang et al., 2001 [98], it concludes that a wide range of
step size is possible, depending upon the conditions of simulation, accuracy and
computational load of operation. Nezami et al., 2004 [74] claimed that 80% of the step time
is consumed in contact detection subroutines. In the paper for two stages simulations i.e.
firstly fall of assembly of particles in a closed box and then secondly, flow of fallen particles
5
when one side of the box was removed, time step of 1.5 10 sec was chosen. In Fortin et
al., 2002 [44] for two examples of simulation, firstly bouncing ball experiment and secondly,
4
rolling of a cylinder on a rigid surface, researchers implemented a step time value of 10 sec.

47
 Performing recursions is an integral part of simulation. In DEM, recursion repeats
different stages of simulation which includes updating particle definition in 2D or 3D, contact
search followed by contact listing for each particle, contact resolution for each contact in
each contact list, force calculation, updating position, velocity and acceleration, and updating
step size (optional e.g. in case of step doubling scheme). Among all, according to some
authors [74] 80% of the computational cost is consumed in contact search step. Sufficient
number of recursions are very important to obtain substantial amount of data that can be
analyzed later. It is important that after sometime a natural system either start repeating its
previously followed behavior or they become stagnant with their behavior and therefore
output of simulation. Therefore, recursion should be made up to that, time when it ensures
that the system has obtained the stagnant behavior or system is repeating the results.

Fillot et al., 2006 [53] have claimed that the time step has to be short enough to
localize all the inter-particle contacts and long enough to avoid prohibitive computer
1 times.
m/ k
To optimize the mentioned condition the simulation was performed for the 20 sec

step size.

In addition of above, Kruggel-Emden et al., 2008 [105] presented collective review on

explicit numerical time integration schemes and time steps. In addition, the effect of fixed
time step is analyzed, and guidelines for the efficient selection of an integration scheme
considering the additional computational cost by contact detection and force calculations are
presented. Combining accuracy and computing time results in identification of the most
efficient algorithms. However, it is not sufficient just to consider the computational time for
the integration itself but also the time needed for force calculation and contact detection.
Additional computational cost increases the feasibility of complex integration schemes. In
general, collision properties can be resolved with a high enough accuracy.

3 Applications in Mineral Processing Operations

There are number of mineral processing operations that can be simulated with the
technique of discrete element method. Continues research in the field of DEM opens up new
avenues for DEM to simulate more number of mineral processing operations, and therefore
make predictions about their operation. In general, equipment of mineral engineering are
very inefficient due to number of reasons. These reasons include large number of
independent parameters, their complex relationships with the outputs, their inter-
dependency, lack of mathematical models to represent feed material properties etc. Under

48
such circumstances and complex relationships, calculations become difficult, and results due
to error of one calculation generally become the input for another calculation. This leads to
rapid increase in total accumulated error, which becomes comparatively very large and
unacceptable. On the other hand, method of trial and error experiments to optimize the
operational parameter for best performance of equipment is not a suitable option as time
and cost involved for such experiments is comparatively very high. Therefore, DEM
simulations to predict operational conditions for best operation, remains as a good option,
where the physical laws are fed into the computer system and then computer works similar to
a black-box computing system. In this system algorithm may also fed to control the amount
of error. Therefore, on crossing the pre-defined limit of error, system may control it by
retrying simulation with other concerned values or in some cases, it may ask the researcher
to enter some other value of related input parameter. For example, double stage step size
evaluation method as explained in step size and recursion sub-section, which controls the
step size value. However, DEM application involves almost all the mineral processing
operation; this section will provide some examples.

3.1 Particulate Flow

Granular materials typically consist of particles with a distribution of sizes, shapes, and
densities, which, upon handling, may induce segregation of the material. This segregation of
granular materials is undesirable for many solids handling processes, as the product quality is
often contingent on maintaining blend homogeneity – such as tablet production in the
pharmaceutical industry. Research uses the discrete element method (DEM) to investigate the
effects of various hopper geometries and particle properties on the segregation of a
spherical, bidisperse granular material during hopper discharge. Studies also incorporate the
effect of particle cohesivity due to liquid bridging. Plassiard et al., 2010 [106] optimizes the
design of rockfall embankments with a discrete element method. This paper’s intent is to
contribute to the design of massive rockfall protective structures, such as embankments. The
relationship between the block and the embankment characteristics remains a key issue in
evaluating the efficiency of the impacted structure. Because of the large deformation process
occurring during an impact, the discrete element method (DEM) was chosen in study to
assess the respective influence of the geometrical and mechanical properties of the
embankment. It was seen that the maximum impact force transmitted to the embankment is
governed not only by the kinetic energy of the block, but also by the stiffness and the
upstream side inclination of the construction. Moreover, it has been observed that the
dissipative capacity of the construction depends more on its geometrical properties than on
its mechanical properties. Shmulevich et al., 2007 [107] discusses the Interaction between soil
and a wide cutting blade using the discrete element method. Modeling soil-tillage interaction
is a complex process due to dynamic soil-implement interaction which includes a high rate of

49
plastic deformation and soil failure, characterized by the flow of soil particles. The need for a
sound modeling technique for soil implement interaction is the motivation for the present
work. The discrete element method (DEM) seemed to be a promising approach for
constructing a high-fidelity model to describe the soil-implement interaction and can serve as
a predicting simulation tool in the process of designing the implement shape. The wide
cutting-blade interaction was modeled using a 2D discrete element code-PFC2D and the soil
particles by clumps of two disks with a cohesion force contact model between the particles.
Four different blade shapes were analyzed by the discrete element model and experimentally
by a soil box filled with sand. Avery good correlation was obtained between the discrete
element simulation and the experimental results. The simulations indicate an increasing
horizontal force applied on the blades during motion, as a result of the piling effect of the
soil in front of the blade. It was found that the soil flow beneath the blade tip can affect
the vertical force applied on the blade. Figure 22 is taken from the paper and shows the
modeling of particle behavior from cutting blade.

Fig. 22: Snapshots from typical simulation with LC blade at a depth of 25 mm [107]

In one more example of soil-tillage interaction example of Shmulevich, 2010 [108], a snapshot
of simulation has been shown in figure 23, which is self-explanatory for its application area.

Fig. 23: Snapshots from the DEM sinkage [108]

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3.2 Milling Operation
As a preliminary study Dong et al., 2002 [109] has performed the assessment of DEM
for one ball bouncing in a grinding mill. The Discrete Element Method (DEM) has been used
to simulate tumbling, vibration, centrifugal, and Hicom Nutating mills in mineral processing
research. Information about mills such as power draw, torque, load behavior, velocity, impact
force and energy can be produced by DEM simulation. It is a promising and potentially
powerful vehicle for the design and optimization of mills. The validation of DEM simulation
results has been carried out to a limited extent. This paper introduces a specially designed
two-dimensional mill which is the prototype producing what the DEM simulates. The entire
trajectories of a single ball at different mill speeds were recorded and the velocities before
and after its impact with the mill shell were calculated. Figure 24 is taken from the article and
shows a typical simulation example.

Fig. 24: Trajectories at different coefficients of friction at 70% critical [109]

In the figure bw stands as abbreviation for ball-wall. Additionally, Bwalya et al., 2001 [110]
worked on use of DEM for grinding rate prediction in a grinding mill. Agrawala et al., 1996
[111] vastly analyzed the motion of charge inside a grinding media. The charge motion in a
tumbling mill was analyzed in detail using a numerical simulation scheme known as the
discrete element method (DEM). In particular, the profile of the ball charge, impact energy
distribution and power draft were predicted as a function of mill operating conditions. The
analyses are verified by direct experimentation in a 90-cm diameter ball mill of adjustable
length fitted with a transparent end-plate. The images of the charge motion are captured on
a video camera and analyzed with image-processing software. Simultaneously, the mill power
was recorded with a torque sensor. The DEM prediction of power draw was compared with
experimental measurements. Also, predicted charge profiles are compared with video
images. Both ball segregation and surging phenomena are analyzed. A novel scheme of

51
analyzing video images for obtaining impact energy spectra was shown. In all cases, the
results of the numerical scheme were in good agreement with experimental measurements,
thereby proving that the three dimensional numerical code as a viable tool for ball mill
analysis. Figure 25 shows the segregation effect shown by the Agrawala et al., 1996 [111].

Fig. 25: Segregation of balls by 3D DEM simulation at 60% critical speed [111]

In addition, Nierop et al., 2001 [112] worked on discrete element method investigation
for the charge motion and power draw of an experimental two-dimensional mill.

3.3 Jigging
Mishra et al., 2001 [113] has performed simulation for jigging operation and validated the
results in DEM. A contact model based on the discrete element method coupled with a
simplified fluid model was used to describe the motion of particles during jigging. The 3D
DEM model is able to predict the concentration of particles of each and individual particle
types across the jig bed. The model was validated against experimental data collected from a
properly instrumented and controlled pilot scale jig. The experimental results show a
reasonably good agreement with the model predictions. Mishra et al., 1998 [114] analyzed the
stratification of charge in a jig. Paper also attempted to review mathematical models for
jigging operation. It was realized that a microscopic model is the one that is most suited to
study stratification in jigs. A new modeling approach based on Newtonian mechanics was
used to study the stratification behavior of particles in a batch jig. In this approach, the
motion of solid particles was treated using the discrete element method (DEM). Since in DEM,
the motion of the particles was computed from the forces acting on them, the effect of the
fluid was easily incorporated through the buoyancy and drag forces. For illustration purposes,
a jig bed consisting of 400 particles of two different densities was simulated. Preliminary
results show that the model predicts the stratification of particles reasonably well.

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3.4 Miscellaneous applications
Khanal et al., 2007 [115] have simulated the bed comminution process with DEM. This
paper evaluates fragmentation behaviour, particle size distribution and liberation degree
during bed comminution of particles. Three different cases of bed comminution were
modelled through discrete element simulations. The role of stressing velocities on breakage,
effects of crushing walls on fragmentation and influence of crushing gaps on liberation and
particle size distribution were considered. It was observed that the particles around the
stressing walls fail differently than the inner particles during bed comminution. The stressing
velocity and the crushing walls were found to affect the cracking mechanism of the particles.
The liberation degree in bed comminution was less as compared to single particle crushing.
The results presented in this paper can be used to model the liberation and recycling of
valuable aggregates from cheaper matrixes.

Fig. 26: different stages of bed crushing [115]

Hancock et al., 2011 [116] have simulated the stratification sampling during solid dosage from
manufacturing through hopper flow. Discrete element model (DEM) simulations of the
discharge of powders from hoppers under gravity were analyzed to provide estimates of
dosage form content uniformity during the manufacture of solid dosage forms (tablets and
capsules). For a system that exhibits moderate segregation the effects of sample size,
number, and location within the batch were determined. Figure 27 shows a typical simulation
snapshot form the article.

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 Fig. 27: A cross section of 3D conical hopper computational domain [116]

Apart from all above, Moysey et al., 2005 [117] analyzed the charge motion in screw conveyor
through DEM. Kalala et al., 2005 [118] used Discrete element method (DEM) modeling of
evolving mill liner profiles due to wear. Since the early 1990s the discrete element method
(DEM) gained considerable success in its ability to predict the power draw and the load
behavior in mills as affected by operating conditions. The DEM can also be used to design
milling equipment and predict the breakage of particles. A detailed validation of this method
was required in order to produce accurate results. In this paper, they assessed the ability of
the DEM to predict forces exerted by the mill charge on liners. Data obtained on an
experimental two-dimensional mill designed in order to record the normal and tangential
forces exerted on an instrumented lifter bar was available. The measured results were
compared to the DEM simulated results. Good agreement was found in terms of amplitude
of forces and positions of shoulder and toe at low speed. Figure 28 is taken from the paper
that shows the contour view charge motion a ball mill.

Fig. 28: Simulated contour plot of the position density behavior at 50% of critical speed [118]

54
4 Study of MillSoft©1997
Section analyzes the source code written by Dr. R.K. Rajamani and his team at
University of Utah, and later improved and developed by number of researchers involved.
One of the key developer of the program, Prof. (Dr.) B.K. Mishra who is the professor at IIT
Kanpur and on deputation currently holding the position of Director of Institute of Minerals
and materials Technology (IMMT), a Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) lab at
Bhubaneswar, India. Program first version was successfully tested in 1997, as an advancement
of code 2D-DEM© written in 1995 by Dr. B.K. Mishra for simulation of planetary mill. Dr.
Mishra with others also developed codes like MillSoft©1997 to predict power draw, monitor
collisions on lifters.

4.1 Introducing grinding mill simulation

Considering a SAG mill in operation, industrial SAG mills process material that enters
the mill on continuous basis. During the short time period the material spends inside the mill,
it experienced a “grinding field” or field of breakage that is a result of the grinding media in
constant motion inside the mill. When the material exits the mill, its size is reduced. To
maintain an optimal level of grinding, keeping the capacity at its peak, it is imperative that the
so-called grinding field must be maintained at its best. This necessitates a good
understanding of charge behavior. Deciding the charge profile of the mill, a priori knowledge
to various operating and design constraints is not a trivial task. One can always look for
sensors, but the grinding environment inside the mill is so severe that none of the online
sensors would withstand the impact of the large steel balls falling from a 10-cm height inside
the mill. Since direct observations by means of online sensors is impractical, the next best
option is numerical simulation. It is apparent that, DEM provides the best solution as a tool
for charge motion analysis in tumbling mills. It is quite reliable because the underlying
principles originate from the fundamental laws of physics. Consider, another problem of
milling efficiency, it is believed that only 20% of the energy is utilized in comminution (Flavel
et al., 1981 [117]). Therefore, there is huge potential of saving energy in milling operations.
DEM analysis of the tumbling mills, not only provide an insight into the charge motion, it
simultaneously gives a host of other information, such as distribution of impact energy, force
transmission paths inside the ball load, stresses on the wall, etc. This opens various avenues
of research encompassing but not limited to energy utilization, material flow, lifter design,
scale-up, etc. For example, the distributions and time histories of forces on the liner and
lifters allows calculation of wear and it is also true for the ball charge.

55
4.2 Executions in MillSoft©1997
The major disadvantage of the DEM is the requirement of an enormous amount
computational time. This is due to the explicit nature of the algorithm that requires a very
small time step of simulation to assure numerical stability and accuracy. However, DEM
naturally renders itself for parallelization. One can develop a flexible parallel computer code
that is capable of generating external shell, internal surfaces and multi-body assemblies for
carrying out simulations to track particle trajectory and even fragmentation. In the current
scenario, while comparing the other available options with DEM, DEM has advantage to use
as a tool for predictions of Mineral Processing operations, as rapid growth in computational
capacity is observed. Nowadays, Core i7-975 Extreme Edition type very fast computers are
available in market; also there is availability of supercomputers like Fujitsu k computer with
maximum speed of 10.51 PFLOPS, for high level, accurate simulation with very slow pace (step
size) advancement.

Successive work in this thesis will describe the execution steps of Dr. Rajamani's code.
The author of the thesis studied code and so the development stages in the program is
described here. This will also supplement as a good example to the stages already explained
in the review part of the report. A flow chart is given here which shows the executions of the
program to simulate a charged ball mill.

Note:

1. Flow chart presented in this section is possibly the very simplified form of representing
execution sequence.
2. Chart is prepared to accommodate the major steps for simulation without
compensating the presentable form of execution to understand.
3. Data structures and pointers in executions are not shown in this chart .

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57
58
59
60
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4.3 Simulation of grinding mill with MillSoft©1997

In 1945, A.F. Taggart stated that the net power of a grinding mill cannot
be determined analytically because of a general ignorance of the internal
dynamics of the tumbling load. In 1985, C.C. Harris commented that, in the 40
years since, 1945, few attempts had been made to dispel this ignorance, and that
Taggart’s observations remains essentially valid.

As introduced earlier MillSoft is a charge motion simulation program for ball, SAG, AG
and rod mills. It is a modified version of DISC, from 2-dimension to 3-dimensional analysis
tool. DISC was coded in Fortran 77 and employed single-linked list data structure. MillSoft
uses the discrete element method (DEM) to simulate the motion of ball and rock particles in a
tumbling mill to show the effects of different lifter configurations, mill loading, mill speed, and
other operating conditions. Unlike single-particle trajectory programs which show only the
worst-case condition of a particle path, MillSoft takes into account the entire charge, the user
can effectively see the "kidney" shape of the charge, the dead zone, toe and shoulder of the
charge, and areas of high-impact on the mill lifters.

4.3.1 Simulation environment

In the review section, the different options for designing the DEM were presented.
MillSoft is a similar DEM package that followed the options as mentioned below:

1. Particle shape: Sphere

2. Particle definition: Octree algorithm in 3D
3. Contact search: Data structure scheme as presented in figure 12 and 13
4. Contact resolution: Contact list of boxes containing spheres with potential contact
5. Contact models: Single spring-dashpot contact model
6. Parameters: As presented in table 1
7. Position and velocity updating models: Leap-frog scheme
4
8. Step Size: 110 sec

Aforementioned is simulation environment in MillSoft that, apart from few features like
particle shape, particle definition scheme, contact search algorithm, contact resolution
scheme, contact model and position/velocity updating algorithm is user customizable.
Customizable features include parameters selection, step size, mill length, mill diameter,
number of particles, size of particles, mill speed as fraction of critical mill speed, time of

62
simulation, time requirement to achieve the stable simulation and mill-filling percentage etc.
Mentioned parameters are generally defined at the start of simulation.

4.3.2 Phases of simulation

It must be noted that up to a certain duration that can be defined as the percentage
of total simulation time, simulation is not ready for data collection, and this duration may
refer as pre-simulation period. There are two phases of pre-simulation, first which is the time
required to define all the particles. In this phase, same algorithm, which updates the particle
position, behaves differently. During regular simulation even if particle found with some
overlap with any other particle(s), program keeps it with the new position and further directs
the algorithm to compute the contact forces due to overlap. However, in the first phase of
pre-simulation any overlap directs the particle to regain a new and different position until it is
free from any overlap. It is because during particle definition the charge motion is not
actually started. After first phase for a short period, appear before the second phase of pre-
simulation. This conform the settlement of all particles that were defined inside the mill in 3-
dimension, due to gravitational force, and therefore under this situation particles may have
some overlap values depending upon the height of the layer in which the particle actually
consist of. The second phase of pre-simulation is the duration from beginning of motion of
charge to certain time from which the results can be noted down. End for the second time is
not fixed and can be taken as the percentage of the total simulation time based on
researcher’s discretion.

4.3.3 Intermediate and output parameters

There are values computed during the simulation that may not of final interest, and
are used for further calculations. These intermediate parameters include torque on the
particles in motion, power draft on particle for its motion, fall heights of particles inside the
mill, contact forces, broken mass from feed particles etc. While the major values of output
parameters are calculations quantum selection of energy spectra, number of impacts
associated with each quantum of energy, final values on energy spectra and subsequently
calculations on broken mass distribution for different sizes. Among final outputs except
broken mass distribution rest of the things are the results of mainframe simulations inside
MillSoft. Broken mass distribution calculations are based on the final energy spectra results.
Since, the final mass distribution is affected by the gradual changes in mass distribution for
various sizes, which is not actually considered by the MillSoft simulation, and therefore
cannot be considered as mainframe simulation result.

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 Numbers of models are available to correlate the broken mass with the energy of
breakage. However, experiments were not performed in this work to find the model for
relationship between broken mass and breakage energy, rather model used by Mishra, 1991
[79] was used to calculate broken mass from energy spectra. Model used in Mishra, 1991 [79]
correlate broken mass fraction as a function of quantum of energy in Joule as:
m  0.131  0.084 log( E )

……(14)

4.3.4 Charge motion analysis

Collection of charge profile in the subsequent figures was generated by MillSoft – the
initial DEM based 2D and later 3D mill modeling software. Importantly MillSoft is the
advanced version of 2DMILL and the example shown in this sub-sub-section can be
simulated in 2DMILL as well for the prediction of number of impacts. These profiles
demonstrate the effect of changing liner style on the charge motion. Improved mill efficiency
is possible when line design is selected which minimize contacts between the cascading
grinding media and opposing cylinder wall. In this series of models, it appears the
configuration shown below - Hi Lifters with increasing slant angle- demonstrate the best
charge profile. The circular lifters shown at the far left are fitted on a ball mill – which unlike
SAG mill, works to grind particle by rubbing the media together – not cascading and
smashing.

Fig. 29: Charge motion analysis for 13.5 ft ball mill with rectangular and circular lifters

64
 Fig. 30: Charge motion analysis for 28 ft SAG mill with Hi-Lo lifters

Fig. 31: Charge motion analysis for 28 ft SAG mill with Hi lifters and Hi lifter with increased

slant angle

Different simulation environment were created that included variations in mill length,
mill diameter and liner design as apparent from figure 29-31. As the liner design changes
from rectangular to circular design toe heights reduces. This is because circular liners have
65
comparatively less grasp on particles and eventually face difficulties to take them off. Figure
30 shows a snapshot for the charge motion inside a SAG mill with combination of Hi and Lo
type liners. Hi and Lo type lifters can be distinguished by their heights. In figure 31 charge
motion in two different SAG mills, one with Hi liner and another with Hi liner with increased
slant, are compared. Apparently, the height of falls and eventually the toe heights are
comparatively more in case of Hi lifter design with fewer slants because of its better hold on
the revolving particles. Following figures provide some snapshots that were taken during
simulation and shows how simulation leads from the static ball mill condition to its
advancement in simulation. Snapshots do not cover the first phase for pre-simulation rather
the first snapshot is taken right after the pre-simulation period and the particle settlement
time. One can clearly analyze that as simulation proceeds charge motion achieves the stable
motion with equilibrium for the fall heights.

Fig. 32: Typical advancement pattern in ball mill during the simulation test

Sometimes for visualizing MillSoft outputs additional visualization packages may be of good
use. One such example is of OpenMill , a typical snapshot during simulation output from it is
presented in figure 33.

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 Fig. 33: A typical snapshot from OpenMill
4.3.5 Energy spectra and broken mass analysis
A symbolic idea for the simulations that were performed is given in previous sub-sub-
sections. As seen earlier MillSoft simulates the motion of charge inside a mill, and
subsequently note the heights of fall of charge along with the number of falls. Thus,
multiplying the individual fall heights or eventually the energy of collision with the number of
falls gives the energy spectra. Simulation consists of thousands of impacts varying
continuation in their energy of impact. It is difficult to quantize them in groups of energy
level. However, the average values of groups of interval of 10 mJ were taken as quantized
form of energy levels. Number of impacts corresponding to each level of energy for 25
revolutions for 40 seconds of the simulation was noted down. Subsequently based on
equation (14) the amount of breakage material was calculated. Table 4 below summarizes the
results obtain from performed simulation for 80 balls inside mill:

67
 Table 4: Tabulated form of simulation results

Energy Broken No. of impacts (80 balls, 25 Total broken Energy/revolution (J)
(mJ) Mass (g) revolutions) mass (g)
[E] [m] [N] [M] [Er]
5 - 13524.08 - 2.70
15 - 7950.11 - 4.77
25 - 4770.06 - 4.77
35 0.0087 3369.83 29.32 4.71
45 0.0178 2146.21 38.35 3.86
55 0.0251 1536.12 38.69 3.37
65 0.0312 1127.86 35.28 2.93
75 0.0365 872.13 31.83 2.61
85 0.0410 681.76 28.00 2.31
95 0.0451 490.25 22.12 1.86
110 0.0504 849.77 42.89 3.73
130 0.0565 708.14 40.06 3.68
150 0.0617 520.06 32.13 3.12
170 0.0663 412.27 27.35 2.80
190 0.0704 275.80 19.42 2.09
215 0.0749 357.79 26.80 3.07
245 0.0796 250.01 19.92 2.45
275 0.0839 182.91 15.34 2.01
305 0.0876 116.97 10.25 1.42
335 0.0911 70.52 6.42 0.94
365 0.0942 47.59 4.48 0.69
395 0.0971 30.96 3.00 0.48
425 0.0997 29.24 2.91 0.49
455 0.1022 13.76 1.40 0.25
485 0.1046 4.58 0.47 0.08
600 0.1123 18.34 2.06 0.44
Total 61.63
There were several simulations performed for the varying values of % critical mill
speed, coefficient of friction etc. Above simulations were performed with 40 % of critical mill
speed. In the above energy of impact (E) and number of impacts (N) are the results of
simulation. Remaining quantities are calculated as:

M  m N
N
Er  E 
25

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Fig. 34: Broken mass prediction as a function of impact energy by the model of equation (14)

Fig. 35: Prediction of number of impact by simulation

Fig. 36: Variations in Energy requirement per revolution with impact energy

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 Fig. 37: Variations in Er with impact energies and number of impacts

Above figures indicate about some important natural behavior of charge motion and
its breakage inside a ball mill. Figures are generated from the contents of table 4 in graphical
format for improved understanding. Equation (14) shows a logarithmic relationship between
individual mass breakages due to impact of certain energy. In figure 35 it is very apparent
that the with some uncertainties number of impacts reduces with the increase in amount of
impact energy. In addition, decrease in number of impacts first gradually reduces and then
approaches to a constant value. This behavior is natural in ball mill because a particle needs
sufficient energy to raise its height, and therefore the probability to achieve higher energy
levels is comparatively low. Figure 36 shows overall decrease in the value of energy per
revolution with the increase in individual impact energy. Energy per revolution for a particular
height of fall is the summation of individual energies of impact for one mill revolution, and it
reduces with the amount of individual impact energy as shown in figure 36. However, there
number of exceptions observable in the figure. Last figure, shows the effect of number of
impacts and the impact energies in a combined manner.

5 Results and discussions

Section covers the papers, which are not dealt in previous sections. It is apparent that
some of the researchers do not reveal information about their force models, parameters and
their DEM models. For example Mohebkhah et al., 2008 [119] developed DEM model for non-
linear analysis of masonry-infilled steel frames with openings. Researchers developed a two-
dimensional model using the specialized DEM software-universal distinct element code
70
(UDEC, Itasca), 2004 [120]. It was observed that model can predict collapse load, joint
cracking patterns and explore the possible failure models. Work compared four specimen
solid masonry-infilled frame, solid masonry-infilled frame with specified door opening, solid
masonry-infilled frame with specified door opening offset towards loaded side and solid
masonry-infilled frame with specified door opening offset away from loaded side, with other
specified parameters for lateral displacement against lateral loads. Work found that method
simulated correctly the failure mechanisms based on joint separation and sliding.

Hunt et al., 2003 [101] modeled the Kaiser effect (KE), interaction of micro-cracks and
deformation rate analysis (DRA) in synthetic cored sandstone specimen for simulation of
uniaxial compression test using particle flow code-2D (PFC2D). Uniaxial compression behavior
of in-situ rocks in mining and oil industry is having growing concern. KE and DRA [121-123]
tests can be performed by applying cyclic uniaxial load on cored specimen. PFC2D allows
visualizing progressive bond breakage from the start of deformation. PFC2D, before this work
was already used in several simulation schemes for example in the simulation acoustic
emissions in bonded particle models of rock. From this work, authors have confirmed the link
between the KE and the development of micro-cracks by observing inter-particle bonds
breakage.

Jin et al., 2011 [124] provides a new concept of numerical tool, 3-dimensional mode-
deformable discrete element method (3MDEM) for block that satisfy small strain, finite
displacement, and finite rotation conditions. Under the assumption of small strain, the motion
of points in a deformable block can be decomposed into the sum of the rigid body motion of
the block and the deformation of block itself. Simulation experiments were performed for the
cases of cantilever beam, impact simulation of pillar and simulation for wave propagation in
pillar with the tool of 3MDEM and 3-dimensional deformable distinct element method (3DEC).
The number of degrees of freedom calculated in the 3MDEM was much smaller than that in
the 3DEC. It was concluded that the 3MDEM can give result as good as the FEM, under the
small strain conditions, and it can simulate a failure process similar to the 3DEC.

Several other areas where DEM is implemented are not previously discussed here eg.
Determination of particle residence time at the walls in gas fluidized bed [125], study of
particle flow through conveyer transfer hoods [126], modeling of solids flow and conveying in
DEM, in energy and environmental engineering [127], modeling of pharmaceutical tablet
swelling and dissolution using DEM [128] and immense use of coupling of FEM and DEM in
analysis of structural failure and collapse [129]. It is apparent that, DEM provides the best

71
solution as a tool for charge motion analysis in tumbling mills. It is quite reliable because the
underlying principles originate from the fundamental laws of physics. Consider, another
problem of milling efficiency, it is believed that only 20% of the energy is utilized in
comminution (Flavel et al., 1981 [130]).
Various sections in thesis reflect the methodologies, capabilities, applicabilities and
future possibilities with DEM. An effort is made in this context to cover utmost possible areas
of DEM in context of Mineral Engineering, which can be fruitful for a new researcher in the
field of DEM to start his/her work. Attempts are made to show the possibility of simulation of
Mineral Processing operation through DEM for better efficient operations. Reviews are
arranged in chronological order in each section to present sequential development.
Apparently, in each section numbers of techniques are discussed with their merits and
demerits eg. Boundary and Implicit representation for particle definition 2D and 3D. It
provides discretionary ideas to a researcher to use one technique among them. In addition,
reviews are discussed in such a manner that how one technique of DEM is compatible with
other technique of concerned DEM step. Focus is made in this thesis to analyze each
technique for their effect on computational cost. However, at present DEM predictions for
mineral processing operation are not that much of worth and accuracy that can be easily
implemented in cost and labor intensive mineral industry. Nevertheless, at the same time, it is
also a fact that no other technique can replace the merits of DEM to simulate mineral
processing equipment. Mineral processing circuits are very inefficient but they also possess a
high economic value to add marginal value in national GDP count. Inefficiency is due to
inefficient circuit operation and inefficiencies in individual equipment operation. Circuit
parameters can be controlled but they would not exceed a limit value of increased efficiency.
Therefore, author have chosen a technique i.e. DEM to discuss in vast detail for its possible
implementation for better prediction to improve equipment performance.
Inadequate awareness among the researchers to use DEM for mineral processing
equipment simulation is the important concern for author. Computational load for each step
is important but may not be given sufficient weightage at this moment as several research
laboratories are having high performance computing devices. But this may attract additional
efforts in future as people will start incorporating more mathematical models in simulation
which will incur additional computational cost.

72
Nomenclature
DEM discrete element method

FEM finite element method

DFR discrete function representation

EDEM extended distinct element method

CAD computer aided design

SSA spatial sorting algorithm

DESS double-ended spatial sorting (DESS)

NBS no binary search

CP common plane

GPU graphical processing unit

CPU central processing unit

CDG collision detection grid

UDEC universal distinct element code

PFC particle flow code

KE Kaiser effect

LSD linear-spring-dashpot

HSD Hertzian-spring-dashpot

DRA deformation rate analysis

MDEM meshed distinct element method

73
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