Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126

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Engineering Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

The mechanism of rockfall disaster: A case study from Badouzih, Keelung,

in northern Taiwan
Lun-Wei Wei a,b, Hongey Chen b,c,⁎, Ching-Fang Lee a, Wei-Kai Huang a, Ming-Lang Lin d,
Chung-Chi Chi e, Hsi-Hung Lin d,e
a
Disaster Prevention Technology Research Center, Sinotech Engineering Consultants, INC., No. 280, Xinhu 2nd Road, Taipei, Taiwan
b
Department of Geosciences, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei, Taiwan
c
National Science and Technology Center for Disaster Reduction, Taipei, Taiwan
d
Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei, Taiwan
e
Environmental & Engineering Geology Division, Central Geological Survey, MOEA, No. 2, Lane 109, Huaxin Street, New Taipei City, Taiwan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: On August 31st, 2013, high intensity rainfall caused a severe rockfall disaster in Badouzih, Keelung. This study
Received 11 April 2014 combines the results of detailed field investigation and process-based as well as empirical-based method to
Received in revised form 10 October 2014 point out unsafe road sections. The mechanisms and the characteristics of motions of rockfall are analyzed in
Accepted 11 October 2014
the field. Two intersecting joints and the bedding plane divided bedrock into blocks. Weathering and the infiltra-
Available online 22 October 2014
tion of rainfall accelerated the erosion process and precipitated ruptures. When the rainfall reached its highest
Keywords:
intensity which is 94.5 mm/h in this event, a great deal of water on the slope surface eroded the matrix, causing
Landslide instability and leading to the failure of the rock blocks. The process of rockfall took 23 s and can be divisible into 4
Rockfall stages including roll, fall, bounce, and roll. Process-based simulations are adopted in this case and several critical
Geological investigation road sections to understand the characteristic of movements. With the empirical-based energy line angle
Energy line analysis, potential road sections which may affect by rockfall are showed and their energy are also estimated
for the purpose of mitigating rockfall impact, reducing similar disasters in this area.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
“Rockfall” refers to the phenomenon of bedrock fragments rapidly
moving downward and is one of the most common forms of landslides
in the world (Varnes, 1978; Guzzetti et al., 2004; Ferrari et al., 2013).
Understanding both the mechanism of rockfall as well as the runout dis-
tance of rockfall by means of field investigation and simulation is crucial
to planning disaster mitigation efforts (Wieczorek et al., 1998; Guzzetti
et al., 2003; Crosta and Agliardi, 2004; Aksoy and Ercanoglu, 2006). The
principal causes of rockfall include gravity, discontinuities, and weather
impacts (Wyllie, 1980; Sartori et al., 1999; Santi et al., 2009; Lato et al.,
2012). It is still uncertain how much cumulative rock removal due to
erosion by weathering, pressure release, and/or long-term stress relax-
ation is necessary for an independent block to fall (Chen et al., 1994).
Furthermore, discontinuities have proven to provide potential failure
modes with inherent capacities for instability or even the collapse of
an entire slope (Hoek and Bray, 1981). Joints have been observed to
become unstable and prone to form increasingly open fissures due
to weathering and water infiltration (Priest and Hudson, 1981; Viles,
2013). After conducting detailed investigations and paired with
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 2 33662946; fax: +886 2 23636095.
E-mail address: hchen@ntu.edu.tw (H. Chen).
simulation results (Lo et al., 2011; Nappi et al., 2013; Moon et al., 2014;
Zheng et al., 2014), possible mitigation methods can be tested and con-
firmed before implementation so as to apply efficient methods to reduce
losses incurred by rockfall disasters (Nicot et al., 2001; Cazzani et al.,
2002; Spadari et al., 2012).
This research focuses on the rockfall disaster caused by typhoon
Kong-Rey, which struck northern Taiwan on August 31, 2013. Typhoon
Kong-Rey delivered high intensity rainfall from 13:30 to 16:30 (Fig. 1).
The highest intensity rainfall of 94.5 mm/h occurred around 15:00, lead-
ing to a rockfall disaster at 16:19 in which a passing car was stuck on
Provincial Highway No. 2, in Badouzih, Keelung. The rockfall had a
weight of roughly 150 t and dimensions of 4.5 m × 3.5 m × 3.5 m;
another roughly 2000 t block, remains perched on the slope (Fig. 2).
According to the Ministry of Transportation Highway Administration
(Directorate General of Highways, 2012), the estimated traffic volume
near the rockfall location is 21,659 PCU/day (passenger car unit/day).
Due to frequent rockfall events and increasing traffic volume, the num-
ber of rockfall which caused disasters and casualties has increased since
1979 when the transport service commenced operations (Chen et al.,
1997). Though some of the most threatening blocks have been eliminat-
ed after this disaster, many unstable blocks remain perched on the
hilltop. Also, the slope is segmented by discontinuity planes, which
may increase the likelihood of future disasters. This study will present

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.10.008
0013-7952/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 L.-W. Wei et al. / Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126 117

Fig. 1. The rainfall pattern of Keelung rain gauge during 2013/08/31–9/1 (Central Weather Bureau).

not only the results from detailed field investigations but also analysis of
the mechanism and path of the falling block to identify road sections
that are prone to be affected by rockfall. These results may be crucial
to remedial works and disaster mitigation.
2. Study area
2.1. Location
2.2. Geomorphology
The study area lies in the eastern sector of the Wuchishan Mountain
range. Hills near the study area range from 100 to 155 m in elevation. In-
tense erosion and weathering process along the coastline has created a
cliffy topography of which the gradient ranges from 35° to 80°. Conse-
quently, this area is prone to rockfall and large amounts of falling debris
have formed talus at the toe of the slopes.

The study area is located in Badouzih, about 10 km northeast of
downtown Keelung City, northern Taiwan (Fig. 3). The north side of
the study area is rocky coast, while the rest can be described as hilly.
The toe of the slope is encircled by Provincial Highway No. 2, which
runs west to Taipei City and east to Yi-Lan County along the coastline
of Pacific Ocean. This highway also separates the study area from
Bisha Fishery Harbor and Bisha Park.
2.3. Geological setting
The study area consists mainly of calcareous massive sandstone be-
longing to the Taliao Formation (Tl) which features ridges and promon-
tories along the northern coast (Fig. 3). The attitude of the bedding
plane is approximately N81°E/8°S and the attitude of slope surface at
the source area is about N70°W/35°N, forming a anaclinal slope. This

Fig. 2. (a) Source area (the box) and the path of rockfall (the dotted line), (b) remaining giant block which weighs about 2000 t and (c) the rockfall and the damaged car.
118 L.-W. Wei et al. / Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126

Fig. 3. Study area and geological setting of Badouzih, Keelung (After Central Geological Survey, 1988, scale: 1/50,000). Numbers noted in the picture are the main peaks which remain
prone to cause disasters.

area includes at least two interlocking joint sets: the first one is parallel
to coastline at an attitude of N 72°W/88°N (J1) while the other one has
an attitude of N16°E/88°N (J2) and runs perpendicularly to the coast-
line. Three discontinuities, including two joint sets (which are

Table 1
Meteorological statistics for Keelung, 1981 to 2010 (Central Weather Bureau).

Month Average temperature Average rainfall Average rainy days

(°C) (mm) (day)

Jan 16.0 331.6 20.3

Feb 16.2 397.0 19.1
Mar 17.9 321.0 19.9
Apr 21.3 242.0 16.9
May 24.5 285.1 17.0
Jun 27.3 301.6 14.8
Jul 29.3 148.4 8.8
Aug 28.9 210.1 10.8
Sep 27.0 423.5 15.8
Oct 24.1 400.3 16.6
Nov 21.2 399.6 18.6
Dec 17.7 311.8 19.0
Annual 22.6 (Average) 3,772 (Total) 197.6 (Total)
Fig. 4. The giant block perched on the slope and the joint sets.
 L.-W. Wei et al. / Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126 119

Fig. 5. The panorama on the hilltop and the characteristics of discontinuities around the perched giant block.

perpendicular to each other) and the bedding plane cut the rock mass
into blocks and generate the materials causing rockfall.
2.4. Meteorology
Statistical data provided by the Central Weather Bureau from 1981
to 2010 (Table 1) indicate that the average annual rainfall in this area
is 3772 mm, with an average 197.6 rainy days per year. In winter and
early spring, the northeast monsoon and the orographic effect cause
predominately drizzly weather with dense fog while in summer and
fall a series of rain-bearing typhoons may strike the study area and
bring lots of rains. Hence, Keelung is also known as “Rainy Harbor.”
420 kg/cm2. Deep rust-colors were observed on these rocks, indicating
strong weathering process here. As Fig. 5. shows, three spacing have de-
veloped along joint J1 on the west side cliff. Spacing I has a width of
about 20 cm and is filled with weathered materials. Spacing II and III
have widths of about 10 cm and most of the weathered materials in
the spacing have been washed away, leading to instability of blocks.
At the same time, the plumose structure found on the east side cliff
indicates fracturing sequences and direction of fracture. Beneath the
giant block, debris and rock blocks continuously eroded by the surface
water which also increases the instability of the giant block. There

2.5. Predisposing factors

Given the frequent rains in this area, infiltration, weathering, and

erosion processes are highly active, causing highly weathered bedrock,
especially along discontinuities. Besides, gradient of slopes are very
steep and materials are prone to fall especially during high-intensity
rainfall events. Thus, rockfall susceptibility in this area has been de-
scribed as “high” by the Central Geological Survey (Central Geological
Survey, 2006), indicating that disasters are likely to occur in this area.

3. Field investigation

Except the block which caused this disaster, several giant

blocks remain perched on the hill. The biggest one is approximately
10 m × 10 m × 8 m in size, and at least 2000 t in weight (Fig. 2(b)).
According to detailed field investigations, this block was formed by
three major discontinuities, including joints J1, J2 and the bedding
plane (Fig. 4). The Schmidt Hammer test was applied to derive Fig. 6. Two downward rolling routes: (I) is the route which causes disaster and (II) is
the strength of the block (Aydin, 2009), which is about 220 to another one which is still covered with rock blocks.
120 L.-W. Wei et al. / Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126

Fig. 7. Video frames and the analysis of the rockfall process (the video can be seen on YouTube at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8wWuH7MIeCA).

are at least two downward rolling routes (Fig. 6). The route that
precipitated this disaster is 10 to 20° northeast of the source area
while the other one is about 45° northeast and still covered by rock
blocks which are over 1 m3 in size that may precipitate future disasters.
The factors precipitated this disaster can be concluded as followed:
two well-developed joint sets and the bedding plane spaced the
massive sandstones in Taliao Formation as “rock blocks.” These discon-
tinuities were weathered as a result of prolonged exposure to rainfall
waters. Weathered materials in the spacing were eroded away by
surface water during high intensity rainfall events, leading to the
disintegration and falling of the rock toward Provincial Highway No. 2.
Notably, the same mechanism was observed to be at work throughout
this area.
4. Motion characteristics of the rockfall
A camera recorded the entire rockfall process, providing essential in-
formation for tracking and analyzing the motions of the block according
to the modes of travel proposed by Ritchie(1963) including roll, bounce,
and fall in accordance with slope gradient.
Analysis of the video indicates that the block started rolling at
16:19:43 (Fig. 7, t = 3) and hit the slope surface at 16:20:01 (t = 21),
causing an eruption of debris and water. Afterwards, the rock, debris,
and water struck Provincial Highway No. 2 at 16:20:06 (t = 26) and
finally stopped at 16:20:10 (t = 30). The rockfall process took about
23 s in total (from t = 3 to t = 26). Laser range finders were used to
track and measure the route of the rockfall in this event. The elevation
of the source area is about 114 m, the horizontal distance from source
area to Provincial Highway No. 2 is about 158 m, and the gradient of
the slope ranges from 24° to 77° (Table 2).
where the gradient steepened. The block then hit talus at point b
(elevation is about 30 m), forming a pothole of 6.0 m × 5.0 m × 0.5 m.
After the impact, the block bounced and crashed against an existing
house on the talus slope. That impact as well as the obstacles of talus
and vegetation dissipated the energy, making the block rolling again
at point c (elevation is about 25 m) and finally stopped on the road.
5. Simulation of rockfall
This study not only investigated the rockfall path and the impact
point but also analyzed the video record of the rockfall for the purpose
of simulating the process and determining the affected area as well as
making suggestions for future disaster mitigations. Path and energy of
rockfall can be derived by means of kinematic formulas (Chen et al.,
1994), which is handled efficiently by means of simulation software.
The simulation is carried out using the Rocscience Rocfall program
(Rocscience, 2004; Sadagah, 2010; Ansari et al., 2012; Admassu and
Shakoor, 2013), which depicts the rockfall as a particle (Piteau and
Clayton, 1977) considering the characteristics of rockfall and slope in
calculating the results. This study divides the slope areas into 4 types
according to geological conditions (Fig. 9). Parameters are set based
on the literature and modified according to the field investigation
Table 2
Rockfall movement characteristic.
Parameter value Source

The rockfall path depends not only on the gradient and morphology Size of rockfall 4.5 m × 3.5 m × 3.5 m In-situ measuring
of the slope but also on the geological material, the shape and size of the Weight of rockfall ~150 t In-situ measuring
Elevation of source area 114.0 m In-situ measuring
fallen block (Pfeiffer and Bowen, 1989; Giani, 1992; Chen et al., 1994).
Horizontal distance from 158.0 m In-situ measuring
The modes of motion and the geological conditions can be confirmed source area
by tracing the rockfall path on the slope and this also helps to produce Gradient of slope 24–77° (51.4° in average and In-situ measuring
a 1/1000 scale profile. According to our investigation (Fig. 8), the 35° in the source area)
block can be categorized as an ellipsoidal/cuboid block and rolled down- Size of hitting pothole 6.0 m × 5.0 m × 0.5 m In-situ measuring
Time elapsed 23 s Video record
ward for a while firstly, then suddenly fell at point a (elevation = 58 m)
 L.-W. Wei et al. / Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126
Fig. 8. Analysis of rockfall path and the cross-section of the slope: (a) the point where rolling mode changes to falling mode, (b) the hitting point after falling, forming a pothole and (c) the
point where bouncing mode changes to rolling mode due to the decrease in energy.
including the path and the location of pothole. Principal factors deter-
mining rockfall path are interpreted as followed (Table 3):
(1) Initial velocity: The initial state of rockfall is static; therefore, the
initial horizontal, vertical and angular velocity are set to 0.
(2) Geological materials: The slope materials have a great influence
on rockfall motion. This program uses the coefficient of normal
restitution (Rn) and the coefficient of tangential restitution (Rt)
as factors in accounting for the impact of the slope materials
(Piteau and Clayton, 1977). The values of Rn and Rt are often be-
tween 0 and 1. If the slope is composed of a stronger material and
has sparse vegetation, these values will be closer to 1, which
means less energy dissipation and that the rockfall is more likely
to run farther. On the other hand, if the slope is composed of
loose debris and dense vegetation, these values will be closer to
0, which means more energy dissipation, and indicates that the
block will stop more quickly (Chen et al., 1994). In this study,
Rn and Rt are first set based on the literature and report (Chi,
121
1997; Artech Engineering Service, INC., 2008). After that, the
values are adjusted according to the path of rockfall investigated
in the field. The final Rn and Rt values used in this study are 0.32–
0.51 and 0.76–0.95, respectively. The friction angle of materials
can reflect the strength, which also affects the motion of the
block. In this study, the friction angle is derived from the equa-
tion of motion according to the information of the travel time
of rockfall. From the video record, travel time can be estimated
as followed: the first rolling motion took about 15 s, the falling
and bouncing motion took about 2–3 s and the final rolling
motion took about 4–5 s. Using the information of travel time,
the calculated friction angle used in the simulation was set to
16–22° according to different materials.
(3) Variations in geometry: The trajectory of rockfall will vary a lot
according to the impact point on slope; it will be varied on an
undulant slope and more consistent on a smoother slope. Based
on the results of field investigation, the shale bedrock and rego-
lith in Taliao Formation are deeply weathered and featured
122 L.-W. Wei et al. / Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126
Fig. 9. Simulation result of rockfall paths which closely match the reality, showing that the
parameters are suitable for further applications. In this figure, (a)–(d) represent different
materials on the slope while (1)–(3) are the points from rolling to falling, from falling to
bouncing and from bouncing to rolling, respectively.
dense vegetation (Fig. 9(a)). Therefore, their roughness is
assigned to 3°. The sandstone in Taliao Formation is interbedded
with thin shale (Fig. 9(b)), the roughness is assigned to 5° be-
cause of the undulation due to differential erosion. In addition,
the roughness of talus is assigned to 2° because of the discernibly
uniform surface (Fig. 9(c)).
Regarding the travel mode, simulation results reveal that the block
firstly rolls on the slope and then accelerates as it moves downward. Be-
cause the slope steepens at X = 91(Fig. 9(1)), the block starts to fall and
then hits the surface of talus at X = 114 (Fig. 9(2)), bouncing for a while
and starting to roll again along the slope at X = 118 (Fig. 9(3)) and final-
ly stops on Provincial Highway No. 2 where X = 160. Simulation results
also reveal the kinetic characteristics of the block (Fig. 10). Before
hitting talus, the highest velocity reaches 33.4 m/s (120.2 km/h) with
kinetic energy of up to 92,000 kJ. After impact, the velocity rapidly
decreases to 6.9 m/s (24.8 km/h) and the kinetic energy decreases to
4500 kJ. Finally, when the block rolls onto the road, the velocity is
only 5.3 m/s (19.1 km/h) and slows down to zero. The results of the
simulation are remarkably similar to what appears in the video record,
indicating that the elevation model and the parameters used in this
study accurately reflect the reality and can be used for further disaster
mitigation analyses.
Table 3
Parameter used in the rockfall simulation.
Coefficient of normal restitution (Rn)
Coefficient of tangential restitution (Rt)
Friction angle
Roughness
6. Rockfall energy assessment and suggestions for mitigation
6.1. Simulations for other critical sections
Potential rockfall areas extend several tens of kilometers along the
highway (Chen et al., 1997). For the purpose of providing suitable reme-
dial suggestions, historical disaster records are collected (Table 4). The
size of most rockfall is smaller than 40 m3; the height of source area
ranges from 30 m to 105 m; the gradient of slope is about 57° to 73°
and the highest energy of rockfall is mostly lower than 10,000 kJ
(Fig. 11). It can also be found that in this study, the rockfall could be
an 800 m3 one. The height, gradient and energy are all higher than
most of the historical records.
6 critical sections which similar to the geological settings of
the study case are also simulated (Fig. 12). According to the results
(Table 5), rockfall from Peak 1 and 4 may not hit the highway due to
the sufficient recessional distance and the gentle slope at the toe formed
by talus. On the other hand, there was an 800 m3 block on the top of
Peak 2 after the disaster. If it fell, the energy might be higher than
44,000 kJ which can barely stop even by highly flexible fences. More-
over, the energy of blocks fall from Peak 3 may be 500,000 kJ because
of its giant block size, high velocity and short of sufficient recessional
distance; this is also the worst case near the study area. Besides, simula-
tions also show that the impact energy at 75 K + 000 and 77 K + 900
are relatively low since the small spacing of discontinuity forming
smaller blocks while at 82 K + 400, the energy is estimated to be
more than 6,300 kJ because the slope is steeper and mainly consist of
sandstone (higher Rn and Rt), resulting in high velocity.
The size of rockfall in this case study is up to 55 m3 and 800 m3,
involving a relatively large volume comparing with other rockfall
cases around the world (Moon et al., 1996; Schweigl et al., 2003;
Perret et al., 2004; Moon et al., 2005; Abellàn et al., 2006; Dorren
et al., 2006; Masuya et al., 2009). Hence, simulation results in this
study also show that the rockfall moves with much greater kinetic
energy which maybe up to 500,000 kJ. These results indicate that the
rockfall in Badouzih, Keelung were high energy rockfall cases and
deserved more discussions on identifying the runout distance and the
impacting energy.
6.2. Rockfall energy assessment along Provincial Highway No. 2
By analyzing the study case, parameters for simulations can be de-
rived and other critical sections around the study area can also perform
the process-based simulations which can provide the information of the
ELA (energy line angle, Table 5). ELA is used as an empirical model to
Parameter Value (±S.D.)
(a) Taliao Formation (shale and regolith) 0.35 ± 0.04
(b) Taliao Formation (sandstone) 0.51 ± 0.04
(c) Talus 0.32 ± 0.04
(d) Asphalt 0.35 ± 0.04
(a) Taliao Formation (shale and regolith) 0.80 ± 0.04
(b) Taliao Formation (sandstone) 0.95 ± 0.04
(c) Talus 0.76 ± 0.04
(d) Asphalt 0.80 ± 0.04
(a) Taliao Formation (shale and regolith) 20° ± 2°
(b) Taliao Formation (sandstone) 16° ± 2°
(c) Talus 22° ±2 °
(d) Asphalt 20° ±2°
(a) Taliao Formation (shale and regolith) Angle of segment ±3°
(b) Taliao Formation (sandstone) Angle of segment ±5°
(c) Talus Angle of segment ±2°
(d) Asphalt Angle of segment ±0°
 L.-W. Wei et al. / Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126 123

Fig. 10. Velocity and energy distribution of rockfall from simulation results.

predict the runout distance of rockfall derived from energy line (EL)
which is a line from the top of a rockfall source scar to the stopping
point of rockfall (Dorren, 2003; Fig. 13). ELA is calculated by the follow-
ing equation:


−1 H
ELA ¼ tan ð1Þ
L surface.
where H and L are the height and horizontal distance from source
scar to the stopping point respectively. Besides, previous study had
confirmed that the maximal velocity of a block can be estimated by
the height between the energy line and the slope profile using the
following equation:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V max ¼ 2gh ð2Þ
where g is the gravity, and h is the height between energy line and slope
As long as a dangerous rock on the slope is identified, the EL can be
drawn with the usage of ELA. The intersect point of EL and road is the
maximal runout distance and can thus separates the safe/unsafe areas.
In unsafe area, the maximal velocity of a block hitting the road can

Table 4
Historical disaster records on Provincial Highway No. 2 near study area.

Location Occurrence date Causative event/factor Rock mass discontinuity spacing (cm)a Uniaxial compressive strength (MPa)a

34 K + 500 2012/07/13 Typhoon SOULIK 60–200 10–25

68 K + 000 2013/08/31 Rainfall 200–1,000 25–50
75 K + 000 2013/08/31 Rainfall 20–60 10–25
77 K + 900 2013/12/25 Rainfall 20–60 10–25
82 K + 400 2012/03/09 Rainfall 60–200 25–50
82 K + 800 2013/09/01 Rainfall 60–200 25–50
82 K + 900 2012/01/08 Rainfall 60–200 25–50
84 K + 100 1995/05/11 Rainfall 60–200 25–50
84 K + 500 1995/11/07 Rainfall 60–200 25–50
87 K + 200 1994/03/17 Rainfall 6–20 10–25
87 K + 600 1995/01/02 Rainfall 6–20 10–25
88 K + 600 1994/03/17 Rainfall 6–20 10–25
88 K + 800 1995/04/02 Rainfall 6–20 10–25
88 K + 800 1996/04/04 Rainfall 6–20 10–25
90 K + 300 1994/03/17 Rainfall 6–20 10–25
90 K + 750 1994/11/24 Rainfall 60–200 50–100
91 K + 250 1994/11/24 Rainfall 60–200 50–100
92 K + 000 1994/03/17 Rainfall 60–200 50–100
96 K + 350 1994/11/24 Rainfall 6–20 10–25
97 K + 150 1994/11/24 Rainfall 20–60 25–50
109 K + 000 2012/05/30 Rainfall 20–60 10–25
114 K + 250 2014/05/21 Rainfall 20–60 25–50
114 K + 500 2010/10/21 Typhoon MEGI 20–60 25–50
117 K + 300 2008/09/11 Typhoon SINLAKU 20–60 25–50
120 K + 300 1994/03/17 Rainfall 20–60 25–50
121 K + 600 1994/03/17 Rainfall 20–60 25–50
a
Central Geological Survey (1988).
124 L.-W. Wei et al. / Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126

Fig. 11. Characteristics of historical records including the size of rockfall, the height of source area, the gradient of slope and the highest energy of rockfall. This can provide an idea for the
disaster mitigation and also reveal that the case study is a relatively serious one.

Fig. 12. Simulation results of several critical sections around the study area including main peaks noted in Fig. 3, 75 K + 000, 77 K + 900 and 82 K + 400. The results reveal that falling blocks
usually stop on the highway or beyond the highway about 5 m, thus, the best way to mitigate disasters is to increase the recessional distance and set up fence about 10 m from the toe.
 L.-W. Wei et al. / Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126 125

Table 5
Simulation results at critical sections near study area.

Locationa Translational velocity (m/s) Rotational velocity (rad/s) Estimated block size and weight (m3; ton)b Total kinetic energy (kJ)c Energy line angle (°)

Peak 1 No hit No hit 1000; 2600 No hit 35.4

Peak 2 5.6 0.9 800; 2080 44,000 35.4
Peak 3 16.9 2.4 1000; 2600 500,000 27.4
Peak 4 No hit No hit 1000; 2600 No hit 41.5
75 K + 000 9.6 24.0 0.216; 0.562 36 33.0
77 K + 900 16.8 41.6 0.216; 0.562 110 38.9
82 K + 400 20.9 15.2 8; 20.8 6,300 29.8
a
Peak 2 is the study case and peak 1, 3, 4 refer to the main peaks in Fig. 3.
b
Block size is estimated according to the maximum rock mass discontinuity spacing in Table 4 except for Peak 2 which has the real size. Weight is calculated with density 2,600 kg/m3.
c
Total kinetic energy is calculated according to the formula of motion with estimated block size.

also be calculated according to the Eq. (2). Besides, the size of falling 1992; Spang and Sonser, 1995; EOTA, 2013; Tran et al., 2013; Moon
blocks can be estimated with the rock mass discontinuity spacing et al., 2014). To sum up, these mitigation measures for rockfall areas
annotated in the geological map (Central Geological Survey, 1988). can be undertaken as preventive and protective methods (Tran et al.,
Hence, the kinetic energy of a falling block can be calculated with the 2013). Preventive methods include mostly smashing the most likely
following general equation: rocks which may precipitate disaster, draining off water and setting
up protective wire nets while protective methods may include building
1 2 1 3 2 berms, rock sheds, ditches, fills and fences (Spang and Rautenstrauch,
E¼ mv ¼ ds vmax ð3Þ
2 2 1988). Since rockfall occurrences are somewhat random, adopting
total protections such as wire nets in this area would be not only expen-
where d is the density of rock, s is the discontinuity spacing and vmax is sive and time consuming but also altered the natural landscape. Hence,
the velocity of block. passive protections are a more viable way to go. It is observed that in
The concept mentioned above can be used to quickly estimate the most of the critical sections, falling blocks usually stop on the highway
safety and the energy of each road sections. With the ELA, dangerous or cross the highway for about 5 m. Thus, it might be the best way to
road sections between 68 K + 000 and 82 K + 400 are classified increase the recessional distance by keeping the original road as a buffer
(Fig. 14). For safe areas where the roads not likely hit by rockfall are
marked as green line. For unsafe areas where the energy of rockfall is
lower than 5000 kJ, which is a common capacity of flexible fence
(Bourrier et al., 2014), are marked as yellow line. And for unsafe
areas where the energy of rockfall is higher than 5000 kJ are marked
as red line. To sum up, high energy rockfall occurs mainly around
68 K + 000, 68 K + 500, 70 K + 150, 79 K + 000, 79 K + 500 and
81 K + 500–82 K + 250; moderate energy rockfall occurs mainly
around 69 K + 200, 70 K + 000, 70 K + 500, 75 K + 000,
75 K + 200–76 K + 100, 76 K + 250–78 K + 000 and 82 K + 200.
These are the most important sections need to take the remedial works.

6.3. Preliminary suggestions for remedial works

Rockfall disasters can be mitigated by engineering methods such as

building up protective barriers or cutting slopes (Badger and Lowell,

Fig. 14. Classification of road sections between 68 K + 000 and 82 K + 400 using the con-
Fig. 13. The concept of energy line (EL) and the energy line angle (ELA) is used for the es- cept of ELA. Red lines indicate the energy of rockfall may higher than 5000 kJ while yellow
timation of the safety of road and the maximal velocity of the blocks hitting the road. lines indicate the energy is lower than 5000 kJ. This can provide as the priority of mitiga-
(modified after Jaboyedoff and Labiouse, 2011). tion works.
126 L.-W. Wei et al. / Engineering Geology 183 (2014) 116–126
zone and setting up fences 10–15 m away from the toe with about 3 m
in height which is approximately 1/3 of the longest side of the block to
prevent it from rolling over the fence. On the other hand, for places
where it is impossible to increase recessional distance, setting up
constructions such as highly flexible fences or rock sheds at the toe is
suggested; however, the fence will need a capacity of several thousands
of kJ according to different sites.
7. Conclusion
Main reasons for this disaster can be concluded into geological, mor-
phological and meteorological factors. Two sets of joints as well as the
bedding plane divided the massive sandstone into rock blocks, forming
high, steep slopes around this area. High annual precipitation here not
only accelerates the weathering process but also causes some disasters
especially during high-intensity rainfall events. Simulations of rockfall
processes tally with the reality and show that the highest speed reaches
33.4 m/s while the highest energy exceeds 92,000 kJ. Moreover, several
blocks perch on the hill which the volume could be over 800 m3 may
threaten vehicles and passerby. The simulations of sever critical sections
show that the ELA (energy line angle) of this area ranges from 27.4 to
41.5. With is information, the energy of rockfall hitting the road can
be quickly derived and the assessments of dangerous road sections are
pointed out. The preliminary suggestions for remedial works are also
suggested. Due to the high energy of rockfall and for the sake of preserv-
ing natural landscape, realignment of some critical sections of roads and
constructions of protective methods maybe a more proper way for the
disaster mitigation.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Central Geological Survey,
Taiwan, for supporting this research financially and providing helpful
comments on the submitted manuscript.
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