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CS 401 ASSIGNMENT

GROUP 9

TEAM MEMBERS
Vishal Raj :13000117025
Vikash Ranjan Tiwari : 13000117027
Shreya Jaiswal : 13000117045
Shreya Agarwal : 13000117046
Shreshta Sarkar : 13000117047
Shivam Kumar : 13000117049
1. Explain pre emphasis & de-emphasis of FM system.
Pre-emphasis of FM system
Signals with higher modulation frequencies have lower SNR, in order to compensate
this, the high frequency signals are emphasised or boosted in amplitude at the
transmitter section of a communication system prior to the modulation process. That
is, the pre emphasis network allows the high frequency modulating signal to modulate
the carrier at higher level, this causes more frequency deviation.
This figure shows an active pre-emphasis network, which
consists of a transistor, resistor and an inductor. It is basically a
high pass filter or differentiator. A pre-emphasis circuit
produces a constant increase in the amplitude of the modulating
signal with an increase in frequency. By the use of an active pre-
emphasis network we can reduce the signal loss and distortion
with the increase of SNR.

De-emphasis of FM system
De-emphasis is the inverse process of pre-emphasis, used to attenuate the high
frequency signal that is boosted at the transmitter section. The de-emphasis network at
the receiver section restores the original amplitude vs frequency characteristics of the
information signal, after the demodulation process.
The circuit shows a passive de- emphasis network consisting of a resistor and a
capacitor which is basically a Low Pass Filter. The pre-emphasis network in front of
the FM modulator and a de-emphasis network at the output of the FM demodulator
improves the SNR for higher modulating signal frequencies, thus producing a more
uniform SNR at the output of demodulator.
2. What is the difference between single tome & multi tome AM signal?

3. Explain any suitable method for generating SSB - SC signal


In radio communications, single-sideband suppressed-carrier modulation (SSB-
SC) is a type of modulation, used to transmit information, such as an audio signal,
by radio waves. A refinement of amplitude modulation, it
uses transmitter power and bandwidth more efficiently. Amplitude modulation
produces an output signal the bandwidth of which is twice the maximum frequency of
the original baseband signal. Single-sideband modulation avoids this bandwidth
increase, and the power wasted on a carrier, at the cost of increased device complexity
and more difficult tuning at the receiver.
Methods to generate SSB-SC signal:
● BAND PASS FILTERING
● HARTELY MODULATOR
● WEAVER MODULATOR

HARTLEY MODULATOR:
An alternate method of generation known as a Hartley modulator, uses phasing to
suppress the unwanted sideband. To generate an SSB signal with this method, two
versions of the original signal are generated, mutually 90° out of phase for any single
frequency within the operating bandwidth. Each one of these signals then modulates
carrier waves (of one frequency) that are also 90° out of phase with each other. By
either adding or subtracting the resulting signals, a lower or upper sideband signal
results.

Shifting the baseband signal 90° out of phase cannot be done simply by delaying it, as
it contains a large range of frequencies. In analogue circuits, a wideband 90-degree
phase-difference network is used. The method was popular in the days of vacuum
tubes radios, but later gained a bad reputation due to poorly adjusted commercial
implementations. Modulation using this method is again gaining popularity in
the homebrew and DSP fields. This method, utilizing the Hilbert transform to phase
shift the baseband audio, can be done at low cost with digital circuitry.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

4. Determine the figure of merit for a DSB - SC system.


5. Determine SNR of SSB SC system.

6. Explain PLL
The phase locked loop or PLL is a particularly useful
circuit block that is widely found in many wireless,
radio, and general electronic items from mobile phones
to broadcast radios, televisions to Wi-Fi routers,
walkie talkie radios to professional communications
systems and vey much more.

A basic phase locked loop, PLL, consists of three basic elements:

i. Phase comparator / detector: As the name implies, this circuit block within
the PLL compares the phase of two signals and generates a voltage according to the
phase difference between the two signals.
ii. Voltage controlled oscillator, VCO: The voltage-controlled oscillator is the
circuit block that generates the radio frequency signal that is normally considered as
the output of the loop. Its frequency can be controlled over the operational frequency
band required for the loop.
iii. Loop filter: This filter is used to filter the output from the phase comparator
in the phase locked loop, PLL. It is used to remove any components of the signals of
which the phase is being compared from the VCO line, i.e. the reference and VCO
input. It also governs many of the characteristics of the loop including the loop
stability, speed of lock, etc.

Some phase lock loop applications include:

● FM demodulation: With PLL chips now relatively cheap, this PLL


applications enables high quality audio to be demodulated from an FM signal.
● AM demodulation: Phase locked loops can be used in the synchronous
demodulation of amplitude modulated signals. Using this approach, the PLL
locks onto the carrier so that a reference within the receiver can be generated.
As this corresponds exactly to the frequency of the carrier, it can be mixed
with the incoming signal to synchronous demodulate the AM.
● Signal recovery: This phase locked loop application is used in a number of
areas where signals may be interrupted for short periods of time, for example
when using pulsed transmissions.
● Timing distribution: Another phase locked loop application is in the
distribution precisely timed clock pulses in digital logic circuits and system,
for example within a microprocessor system.

7. Describe foster silly discriminator


The Foster Seeley detector or as it is sometimes described the Foster Seeley discriminator is
quite similar to the ratio detector. It has an RF transformer and a pair of diodes, but
there is no third winding - instead a choke is used.

The Foster-Seeley circuit operates using a phase difference between signals. To obtain the
different phased signals a connection is made to the primary side of the transformer
using a capacitor, and this is taken to the centre tap of the transformer. This gives a
signal that is 90° out of phase.
When an un-modulated carrier is applied at the centre frequency, both diodes conduct, to
produce equal and opposite voltages across their respective load resistors. These
voltages cancel each one another out at the output so that no voltage is present. As the
carrier moves off to one side of the centre frequency the balance condition is
destroyed, and one diode conducts more than the other. This results in the voltage
across one of the resistors being larger than the other, and a resulting voltage at the
output corresponding to the modulation on the incoming signal.
The choke is required in the circuit to ensure that no RF signals appear at the output. The
capacitors C1 and C2 provide a similar filtering function.

Advantages of Foster-Seeley FM discriminator:


Offers good level of performance and reasonable linearity.
Simple to construct using discrete components.
Provides higher output than the ratio detector
Provides a more linear output, i.e. lower distortion than the ratio detector
Disadvantages of Foster-Seeley FM discriminator:
Does not easily lend itself to being incorporated within an integrated circuit.
High cost of transformer.
Narrower bandwidth than the ratio detector

As a result of its advantages and disadvantages the Foster Seeley detector or


discriminator is not widely used these days. Its main use was within radios
constructed using discrete components.

8. Briefly discuss A-law, u- law of companding

A-law and u-law are two algorithms that are used in modifying an input signal for
digitization. These algorithms are implemented in telephony systems all over the
world.
The first difference between the two is the dynamic range of the output: U-law has a larger
dynamic range than a-law. Dynamic range is basically the ratio between the quietest
and loudest sound that can be represented in the signal. This simply means that a-law
would sound better than u-law when the sound input is very soft.

The advantages and disadvantages of one over the other are fairly insignificant and both are
currently in use in different areas of the world. U-law is currently being used by
companies in North America and in Japan while A-law is being used in Europe. Other
areas use a mixture of the two depending on the country.
Most countries use only one standard so there should be no problems with local call or even
with international calls between countries that use the same standard. A problem
arises when a call is made from a country that uses one standard to a country that uses
the other standard. Although it is possible to facilitate a conversion from one
algorithm to the other, this would be a lossy conversion and the result would be a
degraded signal. To avoid the problem, a-law is the algorithm that would be used
whenever either side uses a-law. Because of this, it is necessary for countries that use
u-law to also have the capability of using a-law while countries that use a-law do not
necessarily have to be able to do u-law.

9. Explain varactor diode modulator

The figure below shows the basic concept of a varactor diode modulator. The L1 and C1
represent the tuned circuit of the carrier oscillator. Varactor diode D1 is connected in
series with the capacitor C across the tuned circuit. The value of C2 is made very
large at the operating frequency so that its reactance is very low. As a result, when C2
is connected in series with the lower capacitance of D1, the effect is as if D1 were
connected directly across the tuned circuit. The total effective circuit capacitance then
is the capacitance of D1 in parallel with C1. This fixes the center carrier frequency.
The capacitance of D1, of course is controlled by two factors: fixed dc bias and the
modulating signal. D1 is set by voltage divider which is made up of R1 and R2. Either
of the two is made variable so that the center frequency can be adjusted over a narrow
range. The modulating signal is applied through C3 and RFC. The C3 is a blocking
capacitor that keeps the DC bias out of the modulating signal circuits. The modulating
signals derived from the microphone is amplified and applied to the modulator. As the
modulating signal varies, it adds to or subtracts from the fixed bias voltage. Thus, the
effective voltage applied to D1 causes its capacitance to vary. This in turn produces a
deviation of the carrier frequency as desired. A positive-going signal at point A adds
to reverse bias decreasing the capacitance and increasing the carrier frequency.
Similarly, a negative-going signal at A subtracts from the bias and increasing the
capacitance as well as decreasing the carrier frequency.
10. Write short notes on ISI, eye pattern, adaptive filter, matched filter

ISI – When digital data is transmitted over a band limited channel, dispersion
in the channel gives rise to a troublesome form of interference called intersymbol
interference (ISI). ISI is introduced in the signal due to the non-linearity of the circuit.
ISI refers to the interference caused by the time response of the channel spilling over
from one symbol into another. This has the effect of introducing deviations(errors)
between the data sequence reconstructed at the receiver output and the original data
sequence applied to the transmitter input.
When a waveform is transmitted over a communication channel, the frequency
response of the channel would introduce linear distortion. Linea distortion means that
the shape of the waveform undergoes a change, but no new frequency components are
generated in the spectrum. The linear distortion can take the form of ‘ringing’ in
which the pulse may have a tail added. The tail is a result of the natural build up and
decay of energy in the inductive and capacitive elements in the transmission path. In a
polar binary waveform, if the inversion coincides with the time that the waveform is
sampled to determine if a ‘0’ or ‘1’ is present, a bit error will occur. The interference
caused by the tails is referred to as ISI.

Eye pattern – One way to study ISI in a PCM or data transmission system
experimentally is to apply the received wave to the vertical deflection plates of an
oscilloscope and to apply a sawtooth wave at the transmitted symbol rate R = 1/T
(sampling time interval) to the horizontal deflection plates. The waveform in
successive symbol intervals are thereby translated into one interval on the
oscilloscope display. The resulting display is called an eye pattern because of its
resemblance to the human eye for binary waves. The interior region of the eye pattern
is called the eye opening.
An eye pattern provides a great deal of information about the performance of
the pertinent system:
● The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over which the
received wave can be sampled without error from ISI.
● The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate
of closure of the eye as the sampling time varied.
● The height of the eye opening, at a specified sampling time define the
margin over noise.

Matched filter – The matched filter is a filter that maximises the output signal
to noise ratio. For an optimum filter the noise is considered or generalised Gaussian
noise. When the noise is white Gaussian noise, then the optimum filter is a matched
filter.

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