Notes (Student Version - Printable) PDF

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
BDA 31203 - Mechanical Component Design

(Lecture Slides)
Semester II 2017 / 2018
Course Coordinator : MR. MOHD AZWIR BIN AZLAN
Lecturers :
1) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sia Chee Kiong – (S1 & S2)
2) Mr. Mohd Azwir Bin Azlan (S3 & S4)
3) Dr. Koh Ching Theng - (S5 & S6)
4) Mr. Mohd Nizam bin Katimon- (S7 & S8)
5) Dr. Ahmad Mubarak Bin Tajul Ariffin – (S9 & S10)
FACULTY : FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING (FKMP)
SEMESTER : 2
SESION : 2017 / 2018
COURSE : BDA 31203 - MECHANICAL COMPONENT DESIGN (MCD)
TIME SCHEDULE
DAY / SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY

TIME ITEMS LOCATION ITEMS LOCATION ITEMS LOCATION ITEMS LOCATION ITEMS LOCATION ITEMS LOCATION
8.00 - 8.50 BDA 31203 BDA 31203 BDA 31203

BDA 31203
(S3 & S4) PERP - BT10
(S9 & S10) (S5 & S6) (S1 & S2)
PERP - BT10 PERP - BT10 PERP - BT10 (En. Azwir) /
9.00 - 9.50 (Dr. Ahmad
[max - 60]
(Dr. Koh
[max - 60]
(PM Dr. Sia
[max - 60] / G3-BKB2
Mubarak) Ching Theng) Chee Kiong)
(S7 & S8) [max - 60]
10.00 - 10.50 (En. Nizam)
11.00 - 11.50
12.00 - 12.50
1.00 - 2.00
2.00 - 2.50
3.00 - 3.50
4.00 - 4.50
5.00 - 5.50
6.00 - 6.50
7.00 - 8.00
8.00 - 8.50
9.00 - 10.00
10.00 - 11.00
Sem 2 Sesi 2017/2018
Borang Akuan Mengikuti Kuliah Ganti

Kursus BDA 31203 - Rekabentuk Komponen Mekanikal
Saya pelajar yang bernama no matrik ,
dari seksyen mengakui bahawa saya telah mengikuti kuliah ganti yang telah diajar oleh
(PM Dr. Sia / Dr. Koh / Dr. Mubarak / En. Azwir / En. Nizam ) pada bagi
(Sila potong yang tidak berkenaan)
menggantikan kuliah yang tidak dapat saya hadiri pada .
Topik yang dipelajari adalah:-
Sila tandakan () bagi topik / kuliah ganti yang telah diikuti.
Week 1 Lesson Plan, Introduction To Design Process, Analysis And Synthesis

Week 2 Static Design Failure Of Theories
Week 3 Fatigue Design Failure Of Theories (Topic 4.1 ~ 4.7)
Week 4 Fatigue Design Failure Of Theories (Topic 4.8 ~ 4.11)
Week 5 Gear – Part 1 (Topic 5.1 ~ 5.13)
Week 6 Design Project (Project Briefing, Review on Best Example Project Report)
Week 7 Gear – Part 2 (Topic 5.14 ~ 5.19)
Week 8 Gear – Part 2 (Example & Discussion)
Week 9 Shaft Design
Week 10 Bearing
Week 11 Non-Permanent Joints (Topic 8.1 ~ 8.5)
Week 14 Project Supervision
Tandatangan Pelajar, Disahkan oleh,
........................................... ...........................................
Tarikh : Nama Pensyarah :
Tarikh :
Lampiran A
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL DAN PEMBUATAN
PERANCANGAN KULIAH
LECTURE PLAN
MAKLUMAT KURSUS (COURSE INFORMATION)

SEMESTER / SESI (SEMESTER / SESSION) : II / 2017 - 2018
KOD KURSUS (COURSE CODE) : BDA 31203
NAMA KURSUS (COURSE TITLE) : REKABENTUK KOMPONEN MEKANIKAL
(MECHANICAL COMPONENT DESIGN)
BEBAN AKADEMIK PELAJAR (STUDENT ACADEMIC LOAD) :
Kategori Aktiviti Aktiviti Pembelajaran Jumlah Jam/ Semester

(Category of Activities) (Learning Activities) (Total Hours/ Semester)
Kuliah (Lecture) 36
Pembelajaran bersemuka Tutorial / Amali (Tutorial / Practical) -
(Face-to-face learning) Aktiviti pembelajaran berpusatkan pelajar lain 6
(Other student centered learning activities)
Penyediaan tugasan, projek dan lain-lain 24
(Preparing assignment, project and others)
Pembelajaran kendiri Ulangkaji 36
(Independent study) (Revision)
Persediaan bagi pentaksiran 12
(Preparation for assessment)
Pentaksiran berterusan 6
Pentaksiran rasmi (Continuous assessment)
(Formal assessment) Peperiksaan akhir -
(Final examination)
JUMLAH JAM BELAJAR PELAJAR (JBP) 120
(TOTAL STUDENT LEARNING TIME (SLT))
Kursus Pra-syarat (Prerequisite course) : BDA 10703 – Lukisan Teknikal & CAD /
Technical Drawing & CAD
BDA 20903 – Mekanik Pepejal II / Solid Mechanics II
Nama Staf Akademik (Name of Academic Staff) :  Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sia Chee Kiong (S1 & S2)
 Mr. Mohd Azwir bin Azlan (S3 & S4) – coordinator
 Dr. Koh Ching Theng (S5 & S6)
 Mr. Mohd Nizam bin Katimon (S7 & S8)
 Dr. Ahmad Mubarak bin Tajul Arifin (S9 & S10)
Disediakan oleh (Prepared by): Disahkan oleh (Approved by):

Tandatangan (Signature): Tandatangan (Signature):
Nama (Name): MOHD AZWIR BIN AZLAN Nama (Name): Assoc. Prof. Dr. SUFIZAR AHMAD
Tarikh (Date): 05th February 2018 Tarikh (Date): 05th February 2018
RPP-04 / Prosedur Pelaksanaan Kuliah

Edisi: 4 / No. Semakan: 0
Lampiran A
MATLAMAT (GOALS):
Matlamat kursus ini adalah untuk menyediakan para pelajar dengan keupayaan untuk mengaplikasi,
menganalisis dan merekabentuk komponen mesin yang lazim seperti, aci, galas, giar dan skru yang
menekankan kepada kekuatan, ketegaran, kegagalan statik dan lesu.
The goal of this course is to provide the student with the capability to apply, analyze and design of
standard machine components such as shaft, bearing, gears and screws etc. which are emphasized on
strength, rigidity, static and fatigue failure.
SINOPSIS (SYNOPSIS):
Kursus ini terdiri daripada analisis, sintesis dan reka bentuk bagi komponen mekanikal asas dan kompleks
iaitu galas, aci, giar, sambungan kekal dan tidak kekal, spring, skru dan pengikat dengan mengambil kira
faktor kekuatan, ketegaran, keboleharapan serta kegagalan statik dan lesu.
This course consists of analysis, synthesis and design basic and complex mechanical component i.e.
bearings, shafts, gears, permanent and non permanent joining, springs, screw and fastener with
consideration of strength, rigidity, reliability, static and fatigue failure.
HASIL PEMBELAJARAN (LEARNING OUTCOMES):
Di akhir kursus ini, pelajar dapat :

 Mengira faktor keselamatan dengan menggunakan teori-teori kegagalan statik dan lesu.
(C3, LO1)
 Menilai beberapa komponen mesin (iaitu gear, aci dan galas) yang berfungsi dalam satu sistem
mekanikal atau mesin. (C5, LO10)
 Mencari sumber maklumat yang paling sesuai bagi pemilihan komponen dalam projek reka
bentuk. (A3, LO6)
 Menghasilkan model dan simulasi dengan menggunakan perisian kejuruteraan dalam
mengesahkan rekabentuk projek. (C4, LO2)
After completing this course, the students are able to:
 Calculate factor of safety by using static and fatigue failure of theories. (C3, LO1)
 Evaluate several machine components (i.e. gears, shafts and bearing) that function in one
mechanical system or machine. (C5, LO10)
 Seek for the most appropriate information source for component selection in the design project.
(A3, LO6)
 Produce model and simulate by using engineering software for project design validation.
(C4, LO2)

Lampiran A
ISI KANDUNGAN (CONTENT):
MINGGU KANDUNGAN PENTAKSIRAN

(WEEK) (CONTENT) (ASSESSMENT)
W1 1.0 PENGENALAN KEPADA PROSES REKABENTUK

(INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN PROCESS) ---- (1 hours)
(18th ~ 24th
Feb 2018) 1.1 Definisi Rekabentuk (Design Definition)
1.2 Rekabentuk Kejuruteraan Mekanikal (Mechanical Engineering
Design)
1.3 Proses Rekabentuk (Design Process)
1.4 Sumber Rujukan dan Peralatan Rekabentuk (Design Tools and
Resources)
1.5 Tanggungjawab Professional Jurutera Rekabentuk (Design
Engineer’s Professional Responsibilities)
1.6 Kod dan Piawaian (Standards and Codes)
1.7 Ekonomik (Economics)
2.0 ANALISIS DAN SINTESIS (ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS) ---- Ujian 1 (1st Test)
(2 hours)
2.1 Kekuatan dan Kekerasan Bahan (Material Strength and Stiffness)
2.2 Keseimbangan dan GBB (Equilibrium and FBD)
2.3 Jenis-Jenis Daya (Types of Load)
2.4 Tegasan (Stress)
2.5 Prinsip Tegasan untuk Tegasan Satah (Principle Stress for Plane
Stress)
2.6 Bulatan Mohr bagi Tegasan Satah (Mohr’s Circle for aPlane
Stress)
2.7 Asas Tegasan 3 Dimensi (General 3 Dimensional Stress)
2.8 Tegasan Tertabur Seragam (Uniformly Distributed Stresses)
2.9 Tegasan Normal pada Rasuk akibat Lenturan (Normal Stress for
Beam in Bending)
2.10 Tegasan Ricih pada Rasuk akibat Lenturan (Shear Stress for
Beam in Bending)
2.11 Kilasan (Torsion)
2.12 Penumpuan Tegasan (Stress Concentration)
W2 3.0 TEORI-TEORI KEGAGALAN REKABENTUK STATIK Tugasan 1

(STATIC DESIGN FAILURE OF THEORIES) ---- (3 hours) (1st Assignment),
th
(25 Feb ~ Ujian 1 (1st Test)
03rd Mac 3.1 Pengenalan (Introduction)
2018) 3.2 Kenapa Perlu Teori Kegagalan (Why Need Failure Theories)
3.3 Teori Kegagalan Statik (Static Failure Theories)
3.4 Teori Tegasan Ricih Maksimum (Maximum Shear Stress Theory)
3.5 Teori Tenaga Herotan (Distortion Energy Theory)
3.6 Teori Column-Mohr (Column-Mohr Theory)
3.7 Teori Tegasan Normal Maksimum (Maximum Normal Stress
Theory)
3.8 Teori Pengubahsuaian Column-Mohr (Modification of Mohr
Theory)
Tugasan 1 – Hantar Sebelum 08/03/2018 ; 3:30 pm

(1st Assignment – Submit before 08/03/2018 ; 3:30 pm)

Lampiran A
W3 & W4 4.0 TEORI-TEORI KEGAGALAN BAGI REKABENTUK LESU Tugasan 2

(FATIGUE DESIGN FAILURE OF THEORIES) ---- (6 hours) (2nd Assignment),
th th
(04 ~ 17 Ujian 1 (1st Test)
Mac 2018) 4.1 Pengenalan kepada Lesu (Introduction to Fatigue)
4.2 Kegagalan dan Beban Lesu (Fatigue Load and Failure)
4.3 Hayat dan Kekuatan Lesu (Life and Fatigue Strength)
4.4 Rajah S-N (S-N Diagram)
4.5 Had Ketahanan (Endurance Limits)
4.6 Faktor Berubah Had Ketahanan (Endurance Limit Modifying
Factors)
4.7 Penumpuan Tegasan dan Kepekaan Takuk (Stress
Concentration and Notch Sensitivity)
4.8 Kekuatan Lesu (Fatigue Strength)
4.9 Ciri-ciri Tegasan Berulang (Characterizing Fluctuating
stressess)
4.10 Kombinasi Mod Beban (Combination of Loading Modes)
4.11 Faktor Keselamatan (Safety Factor)
Tugasan 2 – Hantar Sebelum 22/03/2018 ; 3:30 pm

(2nd Assignment – Submit before 22/03/2018 ; 3.30 pm)
W5 5.0 GEAR – BAHAGIAN 1 (GEAR – PART 1) ---- (3 hours) Projek

berkumpulan
(18th ~ 24th 5.1 Pengenalan: tatanama, jenis-jenis giar dan kegunaannya (Group Project),
Mac 2018) (Introduction: terminology, types of gears and its application) Ujian 2 (2nd Test)
5.2 Pembinaan Giar (Construction of gears)
5.3 Sistem Gigi (Tooth systems)
5.4 Nisbah Giar (Gear ratio)
5.5 Barisan gear (Gear train)
5.6 Analisis Daya pada Gigi (Gear Tooth Analysis)
W6 PROJEK REKABENTUK (DESIGN PROJECT)
(25th ~ 31st  Penerangan Projek – Tajuk Projek, Tema, Jadual Perancangan,

Mac 2018) Format Laporan, Penilaian Laporan dan Kemahiran Insaniah.
(Project Briefing – Project Title & Theme, Planning Schedule, Report
Format, Report & Soft Skill Assessment)
 Perbincangan dan Semakan Contoh Laporan Projek Terbaik.
(Discussion and Review on Best Example Project Report)
 Pembahagian Kumpulan (Group Distribution)
 Pendaftaran Kumpulan (Group Registration)
W6 - UJIAN 1 (1st TEST) --- (1.5 hours) (27/03/2018 ; 8:00 – 9:30 pm)
W7 – W8 5.0 GEAR – BAHAGIAN 2 (GEAR – PART 2) ---- (6 hours) Projek

berkumpulan
(01st ~ 21st 5.7 Analisis Lenturan Gigi Giar (Gear Tooth Bending Analysis) (Group Project),
April 2018) 5.8 Analisis Kehausan Gigi Giar (Gear Tooth Wear Analysis) Ujian 2 (2nd Test)
5.9 Faktor Keselamatan (Factor of Safety)

Lampiran A
W9 6.0 REKABENTUK ACI (SHAFT DESIGN) ---- (3 hours) Projek

berkumpulan
(22nd ~ 28th 6.1 Pengenalan (Introduction) (Group Project),
April 2018) 6.2 Bahan-Bahan Aci (Shaft Materials) Ujian 2 (2nd Test)
6.3 Aturan pada Aci (Shaft Layout)
6.4 Rekabentuk Aci untuk Tegasan (Shaft Design for Stress)
6.5 Had dan Padanan (Limits and Fits)
W10 7.0 GALAS (BEARING) ---- (3 hours) Projek

berkumpulan
(29th April 7.1 Pengenalan (Introduction) (Group Project),
~ 05th May 7.2 Jenis-Jenis Galas (Bearing Types) Ujian 3 (3rd Test)
2018) 7.3 Perletakan dan Pemasangan galas (Bearing Mounting and
Enclosures)
7.4 Hayat Galas (Bearing Life)
7.5 Hayat Galas Berbeban Pada Kadar Keboleharapan (Bearing
Load, Life at Rated Reliability)
7.6 Perhubungan Hayat, Beban dan Keboleharapan (Relating
Load, Life and Reliability)
7.7 Kombinasi Beban Jejarian dan Paksi (Combined Radial and
Thrust Loading)
7.8 Pelinciran (Lubrication)
W10 - UJIAN 2 (2nd Test) --- (2.5 hours) (02/05/2018 ; 8:00 – 10:30 pm)
W11 – 8.0 PENYAMBUNGAN SEMENTARA Ujian 3 (3rd Test)

W13 (NON-PERMANENT JOINTS) ---- (9 hours)
(06th ~ 26th 8.1 Pengenalan (Introduction)

May 2018) 8.2 Definasi dan piawaian bebenang (Thread standard and
definition)
8.3 Mekanik skru kuasa (The mechanic of power screw)
8.4 Bebenang pengikat (Threaded fasteners)
8.5 Penyambung: Kekukuhan pengikat (Joints: Fastener
stiffness)
8.6 Penyambung: Kekukuhan anggota (Joints: Member
stiffness)
8.7 Kekuatan bolt (Bolt strength)
8.8 Ketegangan sambungan : Beban luaran (Tension joints : The
external load)
8.9 Perkaitan daya kilas bolt dengan ketegangan bolt
(Relating bolt torque to bolt tension)
8.10 Ketegangan sambungan beban statik berserta pra beban
(Statically loaded tension joint with preload)
8.11 Sambungan gasket (Gasketed joints)
8.12 Beban lesu pada ketegangan sambungan
(Fatigue loading of tension joints)
8.13 Bolt dan penyambungan rivet dibebankan dalam ricihan
(Bolted and riveted joints loaded in shear)
W14 PROJEK REKABENTUK (DESIGN PROJECT)

(27th May ~
02nd June  Penyeliaan Projek – (Project Supervision)
2018)
W14 - UJIAN 3 (3rd Test) --- (2.0 hours) (30/05/2018 ; 8:00 - 10:00pm)

Lampiran A
W15 PENGHANTARAN LAPORAN PROJEK REKABENTUK Laporan Akhir

(SUBMISSION OF DESIGN PROJECT REPORT – 05th June 2018) Projek (Final
(03rd June Project report)
2018
TUGASAN / PROJEK (ASSIGNMENT / PROJECT):
Projek rekabentuk merupakan antara aspek penting di dalam kursus ini. Ia membawa pemberat bernilai
40% di mana ianya bertujuan untuk memenuhi kehendak Universiti yang menawarkan pengajaran dan
pembelajaran berkualiti berpusatkan pelajar dengan melaksanakan aktiviti PBL (Problem Based
Learning).
Projek ini akan dijalankan di dalam kumpulan di mana setiap kumpulan mempunyai ahli antara 3 hingga
5 orang pelajar. Projek ini berhubungkait dengan merekabentuk sebuah kotak transmisi yang bersesuaian
yang akan digunakan pada sebuah mesin. Pelajar perlu menganalisis semua komponen-komponen
mekanikal di dalam sistem gearbox/transmisi seperti aci, galas dan giar dari segi kekuatan, keselamatan
statik dan lesu, keboleharapan, pergerakan dinamik, jangka hayat dan lain-lain seperti apa yang telah
dipelajari dalam teori bagi meramalkan sistem fizikal dan tingkah laku sebenar produk. Kemudian,
pelajar perlu membuat pemodelan 3D rekabentuk tersebut beserta dengan lukisan kejuruteraannya
dengan menggunakan perisian CAD yang bersesuaian.
Design project is one of the important aspects in this course where it brings 40% of marks. This design project is
target to meet the requirements of the University which offer high quality learning through student-centered
learning by implementation of a PBL (Problem Based Learning) activity.
The project will be carried out in groups where each group has 3 to 5 members. In this project, students have to
design an appropriate gearbox that will apply to a machine. Students must analyze all mechanical components
inside the gearbox / transmission system such as shaft, bearing and gears in term of their strength, static and
fatigue safety, reliability, dynamic motion, life estimation and others like what have been learned in the theory to
predict the real physical system and product behaviour. Then students also need to make a 3D model of their
design include with the engineering drawing by using suitable CAD software.
PENTAKSIRAN (ASSESSMENT):
1. Kuiz (Quiz) : 0 %
2. Tugasan (Assignment) : 10 %
3. Ujian (Test) : 50 %
4. Project (Project) : 40 %
5. Lain-lain (Others) : 0 %
6. Peperiksaan Akhir (Final Examination) : 0 %
Jumlah (Total) : 100 %

Lampiran A
RUJUKAN (REFERENCES):
1. BDA 31203 Lecturer Notes
2. Richard. G. Budynas, J. Keith Nisbett, (2015), “Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design”, Tenth
Edition in SI Units, McGraw Hill Education. (ISBN: 978-981-4595-28-5)
3. Robert L. Mott, (2014), “Machine Elements in Mechanical Design”, New Jersey: Pearson.
(ISBN: 978-013-3349-07-8)
4. Robert L. Norton, (2011), “Machine Design – An Integrated Approach (Fourth Edition)”, New Jersey:
Pearson. (ISBN: 978-013-6123-70-5) ; (Call number: TJ230 .N67 2011)
KEHADIRAN / PERATURAN SEMASA KULIAH (ATTENDANCE / REGULATIONS DURING LECTURE)
1. Pelajar mesti hadir tidak kurang dari 80% masa pertemuan yang ditentukan bagi sesuatu kursus termasuk
kursus Hadir Wajib (HW) dan kursus Hadir Sahaja (HS).
Students must attend not less than 80% of the contact hours specified for a course including Compulsory
Attendance (HW) course and Attendance Only (HS) course.
2. Pelajar yang tidak memenuhi perkara 1 di atas tidak dibenarkan menghadiri kuliah dan menduduki
sebarang bentuk pentaksiran selanjutnya. Markah sifar ‘0’ akan diberikan kepada pelajar yang gagal
memenuhi perkara 1. Manakala untuk kursus HW, pelajar yang gagal memenuhi perkara 1 akan diberi
gred Hadir Gagal (HG).
Students who do not fulfill item 1 of the above are not allowed to attend further lecture and sit for any
form of assessment. Zero ‘0’ mark will be given to students who fail to comply with item 1. As for HW
course, students who fail to comply with item 1 will be given Failure Attendance (HG) grade.
3. Pelajar perlu patuh kepada peraturan berpakaian yang berkuatkuasa dan menjaga disiplin diri masing-
masing untuk mengelakkan dari tindakan tatatertib diambil terhadap pelajar.
Students should adhere to the dress regulations in effect and must discipline themselves to avoid from
any disciplinary actions.
4. Pelajar perlu mematuhi peraturan keselamatan semasa aktiviti pembelajaran dan pengajaran.
Students should adhere to the safety regulations during the learning and teaching activities.
MATRIK HASIL PEMBELAJARAN KURSUS DAN HASIL PEMBELAJARAN PROGRAM

(MATRIX OF COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES AND PROGRAMME LEARNING OUTCOMES)
Dilampirkan.
(Attached).

Lampiran A
MATRIK HASIL PEMBELAJARAN KURSUS DAN HASIL PEMBELAJARAN PROGRAM

MATRIX OF COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES AND PROGRAMME LEARNING OUTCOMES
Fakulti (Faculty) : FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING Matrik ini perlu digunakan bersama:
(This matrix is to be used together with)
Program (Programme) : BACHELOR OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING WITH HONOURS 1. Objektif Pendidikan Program (PEO)
(Programme Educational Objectives (PEO))
Kod Kursus (Course Code) : BDA 31203 2. Hasil Pembelajaran Program (PLO)
(Programme Learning Outcomes (PLO))
Nama Kursus (Course Title) : MECHANICAL COMPONENT DESIGN
Pemetaan kepada PLO (Mapping to PLO) Kaedah
Kaedah
PLO11
PLO10
PLO12
PLO13
Bil. Hasil Pembelajaran Kursus Pentaksiran
PLO1
PLO2
PLO3
PLO4
PLO5
PLO6
PLO7
PLO8
PLO9
Penyampaian KPI*
(No.) (Course Learning Outcomes) (Method of
(Method of Delivery)
Assessment)
1 Calculate factor of safety by using static Lecture, Assignment 1, 100%
and fatigue failure of theories. (C3, LO1) Case Study, Assignment 2, students
C3
Project – Report, pass
Test 1.
2 Evaluate several machine components Lecture, Test 2, 100%
(i.e. gears, shafts and bearing) that Case Study, Test 3, students
C5
function in one mechanical system or PO-PBL Project - Report. pass
machine. (C5, LO10)
3 Seek for the most appropriate information PO-PBL Project - Soft Skill. 100%
source for component selection in the A3 students
design project. (A3, LO6) pass
4 Produce model and simulate by using PO-PBL Project - Drawing. 100%
engineering software for project design C4 students
validation. (C4, LO2) pass
*KPI – Petunjuk prestasi utama (Key performance indicator)
Jumlah (Total) 1 1 1 1
Taksonomi Pembelajaran (Learning Taxonomy)

Kognitif (Cognitive) Psikomotor (Psychomotor) Afektif (Affective)
C1 Pengetahuan (Knowledge) P1 Persepsi (Perception) A1 Menerima (Receiving)
C2 Pemahaman (Comprehension) P2 Set (Set) A2 Memberikan Maklum Balas (Responding)
C3 Aplikasi (Application) P3 Respons Berpandu (Guided Response) A3 Menilai (Valuing)
C4 Analisis (Analysis) P4 Mekanisme (Mechanism) A4 Mengorganisasi (Organising)
C5 Sintesis (Synthesis) P5 Respons Ketara Kompleks (Complex Overt Response) A5 Menghayati Nilai (Internalising)
C6 Penilaian (Evaluation) P6 Adaptasi (Adaptation)
P7 Lakuan Tulen (Origination)

Edisi: / No. Semakan:
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 1 – Introduction to Engineering Design
Department of Material and Engineering Design, Learning Outcomes

Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor.
At the end of this topic, the students would be able to apply

BDA 31203 Notes – Mechanical Component Design and appreciate the knowledge to:
• understand the basic principles of mechanical engineering

Week 1
and its applications in engineering design.
Chapter 1 • recognize the approach and the process of engineering
Introduction to Engineering Design design.
• practice standards and codes, ethics and professionalism of
mechanical engineer.
Prepared by: Mohd Azwir Bin Azlan
Department of Material and Engineering Design, 2

BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 1 – Introduction to Engineering Design BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 1 – Introduction to Engineering Design
What you will be learn here? 1.1 – Design Definition
• 1.1 - Design Definition

• Word design is derived from the Latin designare, which
• 1.2 - Mechanical Engineering Design means “to designate, or mark out.”
• 1.3 - Design Process • Webster’s gives several definitions, “to outline, plot, or
• 1.4 - Design Tools and Resources plan, as action or work… to conceive, invent – contrive.”
• 1.5 - Design Engineer’s Professional Responsibilities • To design is either to formulate a plan for satisfaction of
a specified need or to solve a problem.
• 1.6 - Standards and Codes
• 1.7 - Economics
• Design is an innovative and highly iterative process. It is
also a decision making process.
Department of Material and Engineering Design, 3 Department of Material and Engineering Design, 4
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor. University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor.
1.2 - Mechanical Engineering Design 1.3 - Design Process
• Mechanical engineering design involves all disciplines of

mechanical engineering.
• Examples:
A simple journal bearing involves fluid flow, heat transfer, friction,
energy transport, material selection, thermomechanical
treatments, and so on.
1.3 - Design Process 1.3 - Design Process
Recognition of need
Recognition of Need Definition of Problem
• Often consist highly creative act, Definition of Problem

• Is more specific and must include
because the need may be only a all the specifications for the object
vague discontent, a feeling of that is to be designed.
uneasiness, or a something is not
right. • The specifications are the input
and output quantities, the
• Usually triggered by a particular characteristics and dimensions of
adverse circumstance or a set of the space the object must occupy,
random circumstances that arises and all the limitations on these
almost simultaneously. quantities.
Synthesis Analysis and Optimization
• The combination of ideas into a • Construct or devise abstract

complex whole. models of the system that will
admit some form of mathematical
• Is sometimes called the invention analysis.
Synthesis
of the concept or concept design.
• Carry out to simulate or predict
• Generate concept ⇒ variant real physical system very well.
concept ⇒ concept selection ⇒ Analysis and Optimization
concept improvement ⇒ detailing

concept.
Evaluation Presentation
• Is the final proof of a successful • Presentation is a selling job.

design and usually involves the
• When designers sell a new idea, they
testing of a prototype in the also sell themselves. If they are
laboratory. repeatedly successful in selling ideas,
designs and new solutions to
• Intent to discover if the design management, they begin to receive
really satisfies the needs. salary increases and promotions; in
fact, this is how anyone succeeds in
• Is it reliable? Will it compete their profession.
successfully with similar products?
Evaluation Is it economical to manufacture • Undoubtedly, many great designs,
and to use? Is it environmental inventions and creative works, have
friendly? been simple lost because the
Presentation
originators were unable to explain their
accomplishment to others.
1.4 - Design Tools and Resources 1.5 - Design Engineer’s Professional Responsibilities
Today engineer has a great variety of tools and resources available to • Required to satisfy the needs of customers and is expected to do so
assist in the solution of design problems:-
in a competent, responsible, ethical and professional manner.
¾ Computational Tools
CAD (Computer Aided Design) – AutoCAD, I-Deas, SolidWorks, ProEngineer
CAE (Computer Aided Engineering) – Cosmos, Algor, Fluent, ADAMS • The way to develop professional work ethic and skills:
CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) – MasterCam, UniGraphic, SolidCAM – Sharpen your communication skills either oral or writing
– Keep a neat and clear journal / logbook of your activities, entering dated
¾ Acquiring Technical Information
entries frequently
Libraries – Encyclopaedia, Monographs, Handbooks, Journals
Government sources – U.S. Patent and Trademarks Office, SIRIM – Develop a systematic approach when working on a design problem
Professional societies – ASME, SAE, SME, ASTM, AWS – Must keep current in the field of expertise by being an active member of
Commercial vendors – Catalogs, Test data, Samples, Cost information a professional society, attending meetings, conferences and seminar of
Internet – the computer network gateway to website associated with most of the societies, manufacturers, universities, etc.
categories listed above.
– Conduct activities in an ethical manner.
1.6 - Standards and Codes 1.6 - Standards and Codes – cont…
• Standard – is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or Some organizations or societies that interest to mechanical engineers are:-
processes intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency and
Aluminum Association (AA)
a specific quality. American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
– aim to place a limit on the number of items in the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
specification so as to provide a reasonable inventory of American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
tooling, sizes, shapes and varieties. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM)
American Welding Society (AWS)
• Code – is a set of specifications for the analysis, design,
American Bearing Manufacturers Association (ABMA)
manufacture and construction of something.
British Standards Institute (BSI)
– aim to achieve a specific degree of safety, efficiency Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
and performance or quality. Institution of Mechanical Engineers (I. Mech. E.)
International Bureau of Weights and Measure (BIMP)
International Standard Organization (ISO)
Society of Automotive Engineer (SAE)
1.7 - Economics 1.7 - Economics – cont…
The consideration of cost plays such an important role in the design

decision process. Breakeven Points
Some general concepts and simple rules of cost factor study involves: Use when two or more design
approaches are compared to
cost.
Standard Sizes
Use of standard or stock sizes is a first principle of cost reduction. The choice between the two
depends on a set of conditions
Specify a parts that are readily available.
such as the quantity of
Select a part that are made and sold in large quantities because of production, the speed of the
usually the cost is somewhat less.
assembly lines, or some other
Large Tolerances condition.
Tolerances, manufacturing processes and surface finish are The point corresponding to
interrelated and influence the producibility of the end product in many equal cost known as the
way. breakeven point.
Large tolerances can often be produced by machines with higher
production rates; costs will be significantly smaller.
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 2 – Analysis and Synthesis
Department of Material and Engineering Design, Learning

Learning Outcomes
Outcomes

• perform and analyse load, stress and strain, which applied

WEEK 1
in standard machine components.
Chapter 2
Analysis and Synthesis

BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 2 – Analysis and Synthesis BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 2 – Analysis and Synthesis
What you will be learn here? What you will be learn here?
• 2.1 - Material Strength and Stiffness • 2.11 - Torsion

• 2.2 - Equilibrium and Free Body Diagram • 2.12 - Stress Concentration
• 2.3 - Types of Load • 2.13 - Part Failure
• 2.4 - Stress • 2.14 - Design Factor
• 2.5 - Principle Stress for Plane Stress • 2.15 - Factors Effecting Design Factor
• 2.6 - Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress • 2.16 - Predictions of Failure for Static Load
• 2.7 - General Three Dimensional (3D) Stress • 2.17 - Predictions of Failure for Fluctuating Load
• 2.8 - Uniformly Distributed Stresses
• 2.9 - Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending
• 2.10 - Shear Stress for Beam in Bending
2.1 – Material Strength and Stiffness 2.1 – Material Strength and Stiffness – cont…
• pl ⇒ Proportional limits
– Curve begins to deviate from a straight line
The standard tensile test is used to obtain a variety of material Stress-strain diagram obtained from the – No permanent set observable
standard tensile test for Ductile material – The slope of the linear known as Young’s modulus or the
characteristics and strengths that are used in design. Modulus of elasticity; E.
• el ⇒ Elastic limit
– Beyond this limit, plastic deformation will occur and material
will take on permanent set when load is removed
• y ⇒ Yield point
– Strain begins to increase very rapidly without a
corresponding increase in stress
– Point ‘a’ is define by offset method usually about 0.2% from
original gauge length (ε = 0.002)
– Stress at this point known as yield strength, Sy
A typical tension-test specimen. Some of the standard
dimensions used for do are 2.5, 6.25 and 12.5 mm and • u ⇒ maximum stress
0.505 in, but other sections and sizes are in use. Common – Stress at this point known as Ultimate or tensile strength, Su
gauge length lo used are 10, 25 and 50 mm and 1 and 2 in. • f ⇒ fracture point
– Stress at this point known as fracture strength, Sf
2.1 – Material Strength and Stiffness – cont… 2.2 – Equilibrium and Free Body Diagram
• y ⇒ Yield point
Stress-strain diagram obtained from the – Strain begins to increase very rapidly without a
Equilibrium
standard tensile test for Brittle material corresponding increase in stress
– Point ‘a’ is define by offset method usually about 0.2% from • Assume that the system to be studied is motionless or at most have
original gauge length (ε = 0.002) constant velocity then the system has zero acceleration.
– Stress at this point known as yield strength, Sy
• u ⇒ maximum stress
• Under this condition, the system is said to be in equilibrium.
– Stress at this point known as Ultimate or tensile strength, Su
• For equilibrium, the forces and moments acting on the system
• f ⇒ fracture point
balance such that:
– Stress at this point known as fracture strength, Sf
• There is little deformation occurs for brittle

material before it fail.
∑F = 0
• For brittle material ultimate strength is
sometimes called as fracture strength ∑M = 0
2.2 – Equilibrium and Free Body Diagram – cont… 2.2 – Equilibrium and Free Body Diagram – cont…
FBD Example – Gear reducer

Free Body Diagram (FBD)
Info given:
• Use to simplify the analysis of a very complex structure or machine Input torque, Ti = 240 Ibf
by isolating or freeing a portion of the total system in order to study Pitch radii of gear ;
G1 ⇒ r1= 0.75 in Gearbox
the behaviour of one of its segments.
G2 ⇒ r2= 1.50 in
• Thus FBD is essentially a means of breaking a complicated Gear pressure angle, ∅ = 20o Input Shaft
problem into manageable segments, analyzing these simple
problems, and then usually putting information together again. Output Shaft
2.2 – Equilibrium and Free Body Diagram – cont… 2.3 – Types of Load
Bending load
Tension load
Answers:
To = 480 Ibf
RAY = 192 Ibf
RAZ = 69.9 Ibf
RBY = 128 Ibf Torsion load
RBZ = 46.6 Ibf
RCY = 192 Ibf
RCZ = 69.9 Ibf
Compression load
RDY = 128 Ibf
RDZ = 46.6 Ibf
Shear load
2.4 – Stress 2.4 – Stress – cont…
Stress components on General three-dimensional Plane stress with “cross-shears”

surface normal to x direction stress equal
• The force distribution will not be uniform across the surface.

If the stresses in one face is zero, the state of stress is called plane stress.
• The force distribution at a a point will have components in the normal an tangential
direction giving rise to a normal stress (σ) and tangential shear stress (τ).
2.5 – Principle Stress for Plane Stress 2.6 – Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress
σy σave
τxy τ1,2
σave
σx φ
θo
τ1,2
τxy
Stress components on surface Maximum and minimum normal Maximum shear stresses have
normal to ‘x’ and ‘y’ direction stresses are called principle stresses average normal stresses
which have zero shear stresses
σ x +σ y ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
2
⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
2
σ x +σ y
σ1,σ 2 = ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy2 τ 1 ,τ 2 = ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy2 σ ave =
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
2.7 – General Three Dimensional (3D) Stress 2.8 – Uniformly Distributed Stresses
• In design, 3D transformations are rarely Simple tension, compression and shear loads that always perform this uniform
performed since most maximum stress distribution of stress which results
states occur under plane stress conditions.
• But if there is need to be countable, make

A
sure the principle normal stress are always F
ordered so that σ1 > σ2 > σ3 σ= : tensile and compression stress
F F
A
• Therefore τmax = τ1/3 where
A
σ1 − σ 3 σ1 − σ 2 σ 2 −σ3 F
τ 1/ 3 = ; τ 1/ 2 = ; τ 2/3 = τ= : shear stress e.g. a bolt in shear F
2 2 2 A F
2.9 – Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending 2.9 – Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending – cont…
Bending stress, σ is directly proportional to the distance, c Bending Moment Diagram

from the neutral axis and bending moment, M. Is sometimes needed to determine:-
• location where moment is maximum
where; Loading diagram
Mc
σ= M – moment • moment in specified location.
I c – distance from neutral axis
I – second moment of area E.g.
A B Shear-force diagram
Mmax =
MB
MA
A B
Bending-moment diagram
2.10 – Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending 2.10 – Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending – cont…
Formula for Maximum Shear Stress Due to Bending
Beam Shape Formula Beam Shape Formula
3ν 2ν
τ max = τ max =
2A A
Rectangular Hollow, thin-walled round
• Maximum shear stress exists when y1= 0, which is at

4ν ν
bending neutral axis
τ max = Web
τ max =
• As it move away from the neutral axis, the shear stress 3A A web
decrease parabolically until it zero at the outer surfaces Circular Structural I beam (thin-walled)
where y = ± c
2.11 – Torsion 2.11 – Torsion – cont…
• Any moment vector that is collinear with an • Obtain the torque T from a consideration of the power and speed of a rotating shaft
axis of a mechanical element is called a • When USC units is used, the equation is :
torque vector or torsion.
FV 2πTn πTn Tn
• For solid round bar, the shear stress is zero at H= = = =
the center at maximum at the surface. 33,000 33,000(12) 198,000 63,025
where ; where ;
Tr H = power (hp) n = shaft speed (rev/min)
τ max = T = torque
r = bar radius (1 hp = 33,000 ft.Ib/s) F = force (Ibf)
J J = polar second moment of area T = torque (Ibf.in) V = velocity (ft/min)
• For noncircular cross-section members especially rectangular b x c • When SI units is used, the equation is : • The torque T corresponding
section bar which use to transmit torque, maximum shearing stress is: to the power in watts is given
H = Tω approximately by
T ⎛ 1.8 ⎞ where ;
where ;
τ max = 2 ⎜3 + ⎟ b = is the longer side
H = power (W) H
bc ⎝ b / c ⎠ c = is the shorter side
T = torque (Nm) T = 9.55
ω = angular velocity (rad/s) n
2.12 – Stresses Concentration 2.12 – Stresses Concentration – cont…

σ • Any discontinuity in a machine part alter a
• A theoretical or geometric, stress concentration factor Kt or Kts is used to relate the actual
stress distribution in the neighbourhood of the
discontinuity
maximum stress at the discontinuity to the nominal stress.
Stress
distribution • Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, • The factors are define by the equations:
σ0= F/A0 and the regions in which they occur are called
σ max τ max
σmax
areas of stress concentration.
Kt = K ts =
σo τo
A Stress
A0 =d (w-d )t A Stressdistribution
distributionnear nearaaholeholeininaa
plate
plateloaded
loadedinintension.
tension.The Thetensile
tensilestress
stress where Kt is used for normal stress and Kts for shear stress.
on
onaasection
sectionB-B,B-B,remote
remotefrom fromthethehole
holeisis
σ=
σ=F/A
F/Awhere
whereAA==wt wt
Stress • The stress concentration factor depends on the geometry of the part which cause difficult
trajectories and
andt tisisthe
theplate
platethickness.
thickness.On Onaasection
section
atatA-A,
problem since not many analysis of geometric shapes solutions can be found.
A-A,through
throughthe thehole,
hole,thethearea
area
B A = wt B AA0 ==(w-d)t
0 (w-d)t • However stress concentration factors for a variety of standard geometries may be found in
and
andnominal
nominalstress,
stress,
w σ σσo ==F/A Tables A-15 and A-16.
o F/Ao.o.
Note
Notethat
thatthe
thestress
stressare areincreases
increaseswhen when • In static loading, stress concentration factors are applied as follow to predict critical stress;
σ= F/A move
movetowards
towardsto tothethehole
holeand
σmax >σ0 > σ maxsimum
maxsimum stress occur at the edgeofof
stress occur at
and
the edge x Ductile material (ε ≥ 0.05) – not usually applied since has a strengthening effect in plastic region
f
the
thehole
holewhere
wherethe theloadloadlines
linesbecome
become
very √ Brittle material (εf < 0.05) – applied to the nominal stress before comparing it with strength
verycompact
compactthere.
there.
2.13 – Part Failure 2.14 – Design Factor
P
Parts Fail When? • Analysis
Factor of Safety =
Failure Strength
Applied Stress
Sy
Crack initiation site Example : N=
σ
This crack in the part is very small. If the • Design

level of stress in the part is SMALL, the
Failure Strength
crack will remain stable and not expand. If Allowable Stress =
the level of stress in the part is HIGH Design Factor
enough, the crack will get bigger Sy
(propagate) and the part will eventually fail. Example : σ ALLOW =
N
P
2.14 – Design Factor – cont… 2.14 – Design Factor – cont…
Factor of
Application
Safety
Material properties known in detail. Operating conditions known in detail Loads and
resultant stresses and strains known with high degree of certainty. Material test
1.25 - 1.5
certificates, proof loading, regular inspection and maintenance. Low weight is
important to design.
Known materials with certification under reasonably constant environmental

1.5 - 2 conditions, subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined using qualified
design procedures. Proof tests, regular inspection and maintenance required
Materials obtained for reputable suppliers to relevant standards operated in normal

2 - 2.5 environments and subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined using
checked calculations.
For less tried materials or for brittle materials under average conditions of
2.5 - 3
environment, load and stress.
For untried materials used under average conditions of environment, load and
3-4
stress.
Should also be used with better-known materials that are to be used in uncertain
3-4
environments or subject to uncertain stresses.
Adapted from R. B. Englund

2.15 – Factors Effecting Design Factor 2.15 – Factors Effecting Design Factor
• Application • Application • How many will be produced?

• Environment • Environment • What manufacturing methods will
• Loads • Loads be used?
• Types of Stresses • Types of Stresses • What are the consequences of
• Material • Material failure?
• Confidence • Confidence Danger to people
Cost
• Size and weight important?

• What is the life of the component?
• Justify design expense?
• Application • Temperature range. • Application • Nature of the load considering all

• Environment • Environment modes of operation:
• Exposure to electrical voltage or Startup, shutdown, normal operation,
• Loads current. • Loads any foreseeable overloads
• Types of Stresses • Susceptible to corrosion • Types of Stresses • Load characteristic
• Material • Material Static, repeated & reversed,
• Is noise control important? fluctuating, shock or impact
• Confidence • Confidence
• Is vibration control important? • Variations of loads over time.
• Will the component be protected? • Magnitudes
Guard Maximum, minimum, mean
Housing
• Application • What kind of stress? • Application • Material properties

• Environment Direct tension or compression • Environment
Direct shear • Ultimate strength, yield strength,
• Loads • Loads endurance strength,
Bending
• Types of Stresses Torsional shear • Types of Stresses
• Ductility
• Material • Application • Material Ductile: (εf ≥ 5%)
Uniaxial Brittle: (εf < 5%)
• Confidence • Confidence
Biaxial
Triaxial • Ductile materials are preferred for
fatigue, shock or impact loads.
2.15 – Factors Effecting Design Factor 2.16 – Predictions of Failure for Static Loads
• Application • Reliability of data for • Brittle Materials:

• Environment Loads
Material properties – Maximum Normal Stress - Uniaxial
• Loads Stress calculations
• Types of Stresses – Modified Mohr - Biaxial
• How good is manufacturing
• Material quality control
• Confidence • Will subsequent handling, use
• Ductile Materials:
and environmental conditions – Yield Strength - Uniaxial
affect the safety or life of the – Maximum Shear Strength - Biaxial
component?
– Distortion Energy - Biaxial or Triaxial
2.17 – Predictions of Failure for Fluctuating Loads Example 1:

Figure below shows a crank loaded by a force F = 300 Ibf that causes twisting and bending of a ¾ in
diameter round bar fixed to a support at the origin of the reference system. In actuality, the support may
• Brittle Materials: be an inertia that we wish to rotate, but for the purpose of a stress analysis we can consider this is a
static problem.
– Not recommended a) Draw separate FBD of the shaft AB

and the arm BC, and compute the
values of all forces, moment, and
torques that act. Label the directions
of the coordinate axes on these
• Ductile Materials: diagram.
b) Compute the maxima of the torsional
– Goodman stress and the bending stress in the
arm BC.
– Gerber c) Locate a stress element on the top

surface of the shaft at A, and
– Soderberg calculate all the stress components

that act upon this element.
d) Determine the maximum normal and
shear stresses at A.
Solution : Solution :
(a) The results are:- (b) Maximum torsional and bending stress at arm BC
At C ; F = -300j Ibf, T = -450k Ibf.in • The bending moment will reach a maximum near
At end B of arm BC ; F = 300j Ibf, M = 1200i Ibf.in, T = 450k Ibf.in the shaft at B which is 1200 Ibf.in
At end B of shaft AB ; F = -300j Ibf, T = -1200i Ibf.in, M = -450k Ibf.in Mc M (h / 2) 6 M

σ= = = 2
At A ; F = 300j Ibf, T = 1200i Ibf.in, M = 1950k Ibf.in I bh 3 bh
12
6(1200)
= = 18,400 psi
0.25(1.252 )
(300 Ibf)
• For rectangular section having torsional stress
(450 Ibf.in)
T ⎛ 1.8 ⎞
τ= ⎜3 + ⎟
bc 2 ⎝ b / c ⎠
(1200 Ibf.in)
450 ⎛ 1.8 ⎞
(300 Ibf) = ⎜3 + ⎟ = 19,400 psi
(450 Ibf.in)
1.25(0.252 ) ⎝ 1.25 / 0.25 ⎠
(c) Stress element on the top surface of the shaft at A (d) Maximum normal and shear stresses at A.
τxz x
• The bending is tensile and is
σx A σx
τxz
Mc M (d / 2) 32 M The maximum normal stress is given by The maximum shear stress is
z σ= = =
I πd 4 πd 3 2
⎛ σ x −σ z ⎞
2
64 σ x +σ z ⎛σ −σ z ⎞
σ1 = + ⎜ x ⎟ + τ xz
2
τ1 = ⎜ ⎟ + τ xz
2
32(1950) 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= = 47,100 psi
π (0.753 ) 2 2
47.1 + 0 ⎛ 47.1 − 0 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 47.1 − 0 ⎞
= + ⎜ ⎟ + 14.5 = ⎜ ⎟ + 14.5
2
• The torsional stress is

2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(1950 Ibf.in) = 51.2 kpsi = 27.7 kpsi

Tr T (d / 2) 16T
(1200 Ibf.in)
τ= = =
(300 Ibf)
J πd 4 / 32 πd 3
(300 Ibf)
(450 Ibf.in)
16(1200)
= = 14,500 psi
π (0.75)3
(1200 Ibf.in)
Example 2: Solution :
The 1.5-in diameter solid steel shaft shown in figure below is simply supported at the ends. Two pulleys (a) Figure below shows the FBD of the net forces, reactions and torsional moments on the shaft.-
are keyed to the shaft where pulley B is of diameter 4.0 in and pulley C is of diameter 8.0 in. Considering
bending and torsional stress only, determine the locations and magnitudes of the greatest tensile,
compressive, and shear stresses in the shaft.
• Although this is a 3D problem, the components of the moment vector is perform in a two plane analysis.
• Thus the moment are label as My versus x for xy plane and Mz versus x for xz plane:- • In this case where the shaft diameter is same along the axis, maximum bending stress
occurs at location where the bending moment is maximum which is at point B.
Mc M (d / 2) 32 M 32(8246)
σ= = = = = 24,890 psi
I πd 4 / 64 πd 3 π (1.53 )
• The maximum torsional shear stress occurs between B and C and is:
Tr T (d / 2) 16T 16(1600)
τ= = = = = 2414 psi
J πd 4 / 32 πd 3 π (1.53 )
• Maximum tensile stress σ1 is given by:
2 2
σ x +σ z ⎛ σ −σ z ⎞ 24,890 ⎛ 24,890 ⎞
σ1 = + ⎜ x ⎟ + τ xz =
2
+ ⎜ 2
⎟ + 2414 = 25,120 psi
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
• The extreme shear stress τ1 is given by:
2 2
• The net moment on a section is the vector sum of the components. That is ⎛σ x −σ z ⎞ ⎛ 24,890 ⎞
τ1 = ⎜ ⎟ + τ xz = ⎜
2 2
⎟ + 2414 = 12,680 psi
M = M y2 + M z2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
M B = 2000 2 + 8000 2 = 8246 Ibf.in
Department of Material and Engineering Design, 2 2 47 Department of Material and Engineering Design, 48
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, M C = 4000 + 4000 = 5657 Ibf.in Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 3 – Static Design Failure of Theories


• explain and apply the various static failure theories,

Week 2
including the use of safety factors and reliability in
Chapter 3 mechanical engineering design.
Static Design Failure of Theories

BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 3 – Static Design Failure of Theories BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 3 – Static Design Failure of Theories
What you will be learn here? 3.1 – Introduction
• 3.1 - Introduction Tacoma Bridge Failure 1940
• 3.2 - Why needs Failure Theories?
• 3.3 - Static Failure Theories
• 3.4 - Maximum Shear Stress (MSS) Theory
• 3.5 - Distortion Energy (DE) Theory
• 3.6 - Colomb-Mohr Theory

•It was built with shallow plate girders for the aesthetics purposes.
• 3.7 - Maximum Normal Stress (MSN) Theory •This vibration motion lasted 3 hours and the bridge collapsed. The failure
caused millions fund loss.
• 3.8 - Modification of Mohr Theory •In 1950, the bridge was rebuilt and truss-girders were used to increase the
stiffness of the bridge.
3.1 – Introduction – cont… 3.2 – Why needs failure theories?
Safety and Failure:-

¾ Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more pieces and ¾ To design parts or components that meet it
become permanently deformed
requirements and functions as it suppose to be.
¾ Why parts fail ⇒ stresses exceed its strength.
¾ Can be categories : ⇒ under static loading
⇒ under dynamic loading ¾ It suppose to test the real components exactly the
same loading conditions to obtain precise
Static Load:-
information => increase cost
¾ is a stationary force or couple applied to a member
¾ the force or couple must be unchanging in magnitude, point or points of
application, and direction.
¾ can produce axial tension or compression, a shear load, a bending load,
a torsional load or any combination of these.
3.3 – Static Failure Theories 3.3 – Static Failure Theories – cont…
Static Failure
Actually, there is no universal theory of failure for the general Theories
case of material properties and stress state.
Over the years, several hypotheses have been formulated and Ductile Materials Brittle Materials
tested, leading today’s engineering practice. - ε f ≥ 0.05 - ε f < 0.05
Being accepted worldwide, these practices are used as theories - S yt = S yc = S y - Sut & Suc
as most designers do.
Yield Criteria Fracture Criteria
-Maximum Shear Stress -Maximum Normal Stress
-Distortion Energy -Brittle-Coulomb-Mohr
-Ductile Coulomb-Mohr
( example 1 , example 2 , example 3 )

3.4 – Maximum Shear Stress (MSS) Theory 3.4 – Maximum Shear Stress (MSS) Theory – cont…
predicts that yielding begins whenever the maximum shear stress in any
element equals or exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension-test Sy
of the same material. τ max =
also known as Tresca or Guest Theory.
2
for a simple tensile stress σ, max. shear stress occurs on a surface 450
from the tensile surface with a magnitude of:
σ
τ max =
2 σ −σ S
∴ 1 3= y
or at yield, τmax = S y 2 2
2
3.4 – Maximum Shear Stress (MSS) Theory – cont… 3.4 – Maximum Shear Stress (MSS) Theory – cont…
S sy = 0.50S y The maximum-shear

stress (MSS) theory for
plane stress, where σA and
Therefore, taking N as safety factor; σB are the two nonzero
principal stresses
Maximum Allowable Load or Stress
Usually safety factor, N is defined by;
Applied Load or Stress Case 1 : σA ≥ σB ≥ 0.
For this case, σ1 = σA , σ3 = 0.
Case 2 : σA ≥ 0 ≥ σB.
S sy 0.50S y Sy / 2 Sy Here, σ1 = σA , σ3 = σB.
N= = = =
τ max τ max (σ 1 − σ 3 ) / 2 (σ 1 − σ 3 ) Case 3 : 0 ≥ σA ≥ σB.
For this case, σ1 = 0 , σ3 = σ B.
3.5 – Distortion Energy (DE) Theory 3.5 – Distortion Energy (DE) Theory – cont…
¾ Predicts that yielding begins when the distortion strain energy

per unit volume reaches or exceeds the distortion strain energy
per unit volume for yield in simple tension for the same material.
¾ Ud at element in specimen ≥ Ud for yield in simple tension.
¾ Also known as von Mises or von Mises-Hencky Theory
¾ Developed by studying a unit volume in a three-dimensional

(a) Element with triaxial stresses; this element undergoes both volume change and
stress state angular distortion.
(b) Element under hydrostatic tension undergoes only volume change.
(c) Element has angular distortion without volume change.
Department of Material and Engineering Design,

13 Department of Material and Engineering Design,
U = Uv + Ud 14
3.5 – Distortion Energy (DE) Theory – cont… 3.5 – Distortion Energy (DE) Theory – cont…
1
strain energy = U = σε
2 σ1 + σ 2 + σ 3
σ av =
for 3-D analysis; 3
1
U= (σ 1ε1 + σ 2ε 2 + σ 3ε 3 ) The strain energy for producing only
2
volume change Uv can be obtained by
1 substituting σav for σ1, σ2, and σ3 in Eq. (1).
where ε1 = (σ 1 − vσ 2 − vσ 3 ) The result is:-
E
1
ε 2 = (σ 2 − vσ 1 − vσ 3 )
E
3σ 2 av
1
ε 3 = (σ 3 − vσ 1 − vσ 2 )
Uv = (1 − 2v ) ------- (2)
E 2E
1
U= ⎡σ 12 + σ 22 + σ 32 − 2v (σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 1σ 3 ) ⎤⎦ ------- (1)
2E ⎣
Von Mises Effective Stress
Ud = U −Uv
⎛σ +σ2 +σ3 ⎞
2 σ ' = σ 12 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ 1σ 2 − σ 2σ 3 − σ 1σ 3
⎧ 1 ⎫ 3⎜ 1 ⎟ (1 − 2v )
=⎨ ⎡⎣σ 12 + σ 22 + σ 32 − 2v (σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 1σ 3 ) ⎤⎦ ⎬ ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎩ 2E ⎭ −
(σ − σ y ) + (σ y − σ z ) + (σ z − σ x ) + 6 (τ xy2 + τ yz2 + τ zx2 )
2 2 2
2E
σ =
' x
2
1+ v 2
Ud = ⎡⎣σ 1 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ 1σ 2 − σ 2σ 3 − σ 1σ 3 ⎤⎦ --- for element
3E in speciment
σ ' = σ 12 − σ 1σ 3 + σ 32 (for 2D principal stress)
(1 + v ) --- for yield in simple tension where σ1 = Sy ,
Ud = S y2 σ2 = σ3 = 0
3E
σ ' = σ x2 + σ y2 − σ xσ y + 3τ xy2 (for 2D plane stress)
Ud at element in specimen ≥ Ud for yield in simple tension. For Pure Shear:
1+υ 2 1+υ 2
[ ] S y2 = σ 12 + σ 1σ 1 + σ 12 = 3σ 12 = 3τ max
2
σ 1 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ 1σ 2 − σ 2σ 3 − σ 1σ 3 ≥ Sy
3E 3E
Sy
σ1 = = 0.577 S y = τ max
σ 12 + σ 22 + σ 32 − σ 1σ 2 − σ 2σ 3 − σ 1σ 3 ≥ S y 3
σ average
σ ' ≥ S y2
S sy
n= S sy = 0.577 S y
Therefore, safety factor N is: N=
Sy τ max τ max
σ' σ average
3.5 – Distortion Energy (DE) Theory – cont… 3.6 – Coulomb-Mohr Theory
- used when Syt ≠ Syc

The distortion- - based on Mohr’s theory, whereby the failure line is assumed to be
energy (DE) theory
for plane stress straight
states. This is plot
of points with Three Mohr circle, one for the
σ’ = Sy. unaxial compression test, one
for the test in pure shear, and
one for the unaxial tension test,
are used to define failure by the
Mohr hypothesis. The strengths
Sc and St are the compressive
and tensile strengths,
S sy = 0.577 S y
respectively, they can be used
for yield or ultimate strength.
3.6 – Coulomb-Mohr Theory – cont… 3.7 – Maximum Normal Stress (MNS) Theory
From the diagram, equation developed can be simplified to:

σ1 σ 3
− =1 - states that failure occurs whenever one of the three
St Sc
principal stresses equals or exceeds the strength
Incorporating the safety factor;
σ1 σ 3 1
σ1 > Sut or σ3 < - Suc
− =
St Sc n
- where Sut and Suc are the ultimate tensile and
For pure torsional shear strength;
compressive strength respectively
S sy S yt S yc
n= S sy =
τ max S yt + S yc
3.7 – Maximum Normal Stress (MNS) Theory – cont… 3.8 – Modification of Mohr Theory
- 3 modifications of the existing Mohr theory are applicable

in analyzing brittle materials.
Graph of maximum-normal
- by limiting the discussion to plane stresses, those theories
stress (MNS) theory of
failure for plane stress
are as follows:
states. Stress states that
plot inside the failure locus
a) Brittle Coulomb Mohr Theory
are safe.
b) Modified I-Mohr
c) Modified II-Mohr
3.8 – Modification of Mohr Theory – cont… 3.8 – Modification of Mohr Theory – cont…
Equations
Theories
σA ≥σB ≥ 0 σA ≥ 0 ≥σB 0 ≥σA ≥σB
Brittle Coulomb- S ut σA σB 1 S uc
σA ≥ − = σB ≥ −
Mohr n Sut Suc n n
S ut ( Suc − Sut )σ A σ B 1 S uc
Modified I-Mohr σA ≥ − = σB ≥ −
n Suc Sut Suc n n
2
S ut nσ A ⎛ nσ B + Sut ⎞ S uc
Modified II-Mohr σA ≥ +⎜ ⎟ =1 σB ≥ −
n Sut ⎜⎝ Sut − Suc ⎟⎠ n
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 3 – Static Design Failure of Theories
Conclusion

Exercise 1:
Problem
Certain stresses are applied at one object which σ1 = 200 MPa and σ2 = -50 MPa.
This object is made by steel that it has a yield strength of 500 MPa. Find the factor of
safety of this object by using DE and MSS theory. Solve FOS by using graph method.
Answer
[MPa]
500
200
[MPa]
500
- 500 - 50 •A B
••C
Y
- 500
FOS
y x
DE ⇒ n = MSS ⇒ n =
200 200
Exercise 2:
Problem
Determine the safety factors for the bracket rod shown in figure above based on both
the distortion-energy theory and the maximum shear theory and compare them.
Given:
The material is 2024-T4 aluminum with a yield strength of 47 000 psi. The rod length
l = 6 in and arm a = 8 in. The rod outside diameter d = 1.5 in. Load F=1 000 lb.
Assumptions:
The load is static and the assembly is at room temperature. Consider shear due to
transverse loading as well as other stresses.
Answer
Element at point A
1.
MC ( Fl ) c 1 000 ( 6)( 0.75)
σx = = = = 18 108 psi
I I 0.249
Tr ( Fa ) r 1 000 ( 8)( 0.75)

τ xz = = = = 12 072 psi
J J 0.497
2 2
⎛σ −σ z ⎞ ⎛ 18108 − 0 ⎞
2. τ max = ⎜ x ⎟ + τ 2 xy = ⎜ 2
⎟ + 12072 = 15090 psi
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
σ x +σ z 18108
σ1 = + τ max = + 15 090 = 24144 psi
2 2
σ2 = 0
σx +σz 18108
σ3 = − τ max = − 15090 = −6036 psi
2 2
3. σ ' = σ 1 2 − σ 1σ 3 + σ 3 2
σ ' = 24144 2 − 24144(−6036) + (−6036) 2 = 27 661 psi
Sy 47000
4. N= = = 1.7 ------------- DE theory
σ' 27661
0.50 S y 0.50(47000)
5. N= = = 1.6 --------------- MSS theory
τ max 15090
Element at point B
4V 4(1000)
6. τ bending = = = 755 psi
3 A 3(1.767)
τ max = τ torsion + τ bending = 12072 + 755 = 12827 psi
0.577 S y 0.577(47000)
7. N= = = 2.1 --------- DE theory
τ max 12827
0.50 S y 0.50(47000)
N= = = 1.8 -------- MSS theory
τ max 12827
Exercise 3:
Problem
A 25-mm diameter shaft is statically torqued to 230 Nm. It is made of cast 195-T6
aluminium, with a yield strength in tension of 160 MPa and a yield strength in
compression of 170 MPa. It is machined to final diameter. Estimate the factor of
safety of the shaft.
Answer
Tr 16T 16(230)
τ= = = = 75MPa
J πd 3 π 2.53
The two nonzero principal stresses are 75 and -75 MPa, making the ordered principal
stresses σ1 = 75, σ2 = 0, and σ3 = -75 MPa.
1 1
∴n = = = 1.10
σ1 σ3 75 / 160 − (−75) / 170
−
S yt S yc
Alternatively;
S yt S yc S sy 82.4
S sy = ∴n = = = 1.10
S yt + S yc τ max 75
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 4 – Fatigue Design Failure of Theories


• explain and apply the fatigue failure of theories,

Week 3 & 4
including the use of safety factors and reliability in
Chapter 4 mechanical engineering design.
Fatigue Design Failure of Theories • confidently apply this technique in the selection and
analysis of machine components, and make decision on
material selection.

BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 4 – Fatigue Design Failure of Theories BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 4 – Fatigue Design Failure of Theories
• 4.1 - Introduction to Fatigue

• 4.2 - Fatigue load and failure
• 4.3 - Life and fatigue strength
• 4.4 - Stress Life Method Cause by the action of static load or load that acts only once until a component
destruct such as in tensile test. However this phenomena is rarely occur.
• 4.5 - Endurance limits, Se
• 4.6 - Endurance Limit Modifying Factors (Marin Factor)
• 4.7 - Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
• 4.8 - Fatigue Strength
• 4.9 - Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses
• 4.10 - Combination of Loading Modes Cause by the action of variable, repeated, alternating or fluctuating load and
this load are often found in many failure cases that occurs.
• 4.11 - Safety Factor
4.2 – Fatigue Load and Failure 4.2 – Fatigue Load and Failure – cont…
Example of repeated load

1st Case – Bending a steel wire repeatedly 2nd Case – Impact and Vibration on vehicle axle
Often, machine members are found to have failed under the action of
NG
repeated or fluctuating stresses; yet the most careful analysis reveals
Too much repeatedly
that the actual maximum stresses were well below the ultimate NG
Impact and Vibration
will break the axle
strength of the material, and quite frequently even below the yield
Too much repeatedly
Bending that beyond the
strength. The most distinguishing characteristic of these failures is limit will break the steel wire
3rd Case – Steel Bridge 4th Case - Vehicle Suspension

that the stresses have been repeated a very large number of times.
Hence the failure is called a fatigue failure.
4.2 – Fatigue Load and Failure – cont… 4.2 – Fatigue Load and Failure – cont…
1st Case – Continuously bending the steel wire 2nd Case – Vehicle Axle
Wire
Wireisisbend
bendfrom
fromthe
thetop
top
Stress : Bending stress; σ ↓↓
Top Stress : Bending Stress σ and Shear Stress τ
Top of the wire is sufferedtoto
of the wire is suffered
“Tension”
“Tension”(+σ)
(+σ) Torsion shear stress: is cause when power
↓↓
Meanwhile
from the engine is transmit to the tire.
Meanwhilethethebottom
bottomisissuffered
sufferedtoto Torque are required to overcome tire
“Compression”
“Compression”(-σ) (-σ) Shaft axle is suffered to bending
and shear stress while running. friction and vehicle weight and this stress is
Graph
Graphplotting
plottingfor
foroverall
overallwire
wirebending
bending always assume as constant.
process:
process:
+ τ
σ
σa
σr
σm = 0 σa
t τm
Tension
−
Compression σ
This type of stress is known as Completely
This type of stress is known as Completely Shear Stress cause by torsion
Reverse Stress
Reverse Stress
4.2 – Fatigue Load and Failure – cont… 4.3 – Life and Fatigue Strength
• Three major fatigue life models

Fatigue
Fatiguefailure
failureofofaabolt
boltdue
duetotorepeated
repeated
unidirectional Crack
Crackoften
oftenstart
startatat weak
weakpartpartgeometries • Methods predict life in number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific level
unidirectionalbending.
bending.Fatigue
Fatiguefailure
failurestart
startwith
with geometries
small which
whichhave
havediscontinuity
discontinuityininmaterial
materialsuch
suchas
small crack that unseen with nakedeyes
crack that unseen with naked eyesandand as of loading
also difficult to detect with X-ray at the thread atatholes,
holes,keyways,
keyways,notch,
notch,fillet
filletand
andothers
others(at
(at
also difficult to detect with X-ray at the thread
root this
thislocation,
location,the
thestress
stressisishigh
highbecause
becauseofof
rootatatA,
A,propagated
propagatedacrossacrossmost
mostofofthe
thecross
cross i. Stress-life method
section high
highstress
stressconcentration)
sectionshown
shownby bythe
thebeach
beachmarks
marksatatB,B,before
before concentration) 9 Least accurate, particularly for low cycle applications
final fast fracture at C.
final fast fracture at C.
9 Most traditional, easiest to implement
ii. Strain-life method
9 Detailed analysis of plastic deformation at localized regions
9 Several idealizations are compounded, leading to
uncertainties in results
iii. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method
9 Assumes crack exists
9 Predicts crack growth with respect to stress intensity
4.3 – Life and Fatigue Strength – cont… 4.4 – Stress Life Method
Fatigue AnS-N
An S-Ndiagram
diagramplotted
plottedfrom
fromthe
theresults
resultsofofcompletely
completelyreversed
reversedaxial
axialfatigue
fatiguetest.
test.Material
Material
Fatiguestrength
strengthalso
alsohave
haveits
itsmaximum
maximumlimits.
limits. R. R Moore Test UNS
UNSG4100
G4100steel, normalized.––SS: :strength,
steel,normalized. strength,NN: :cycle
cycle
compression Sample ujian
tension
motor
Procedure
Procedureofofrotating
rotatingbeam
beamtest
test
Constant bending load is applied on test sample and

specimen
rotate it at high rpm.
motor
Stress that have been applied on first test is an
ultimate strength value Sut Endurance limit , Se or known as fatigue limit
F
Test samples are rotate until failure and the failure Low-cycle fatigue
High-cycle fatigue
number of cycle is then be record.
Rotating Beam Test
The tests are repeat with new stress that lower than
before.
Then S-N diagram graph which indicate number of
cycle (N) and Fatigue Strength (Sf) is plotted.
S-N Diagram
4.5 – Endurance Limit, Se 4.5 – Endurance Limit, Se – cont…
Basically,
Basically,the
thefatigue
fatigueendurance limitsSSe eare
endurancelimits aredetermine
determinethrough
throughthe
thetest.
test.Yet
Yetthe
thedata
dataare
arealso
alsoavailable
available
on
onthese
thesestandard:
standard:
i.i.American
AmericanSociety
SocietyofofTesting
Testingand
andMaterials
Materials(ASTM)
(ASTM)
ii.ii.American
AmericanIron
Ironand
andSteel
SteelInstitute
Institute(AISI)
(AISI)
iii. Society of Automotive Engineer (SAE)
iii. Society of Automotive Engineer (SAE)
ItItisisunrealistic
unrealistictotoexpect
expectthe
theendurance
endurancelimit
limitofofaamechanical
mechanicalororstructural
structuralmember
membertotomatch
matchthe
thevalues
values
obtained
obtainedininthe
thelaboratory
laboratory
So,
So,the
thevalues
valuesobtain
obtainfrom
fromlab
labtest
testare
areknown
knownasasRotary
Rotarybeam
beamtest
testspecimen
specimenendurance limit,SSe’e.’ However
endurancelimit, . Howeverthere
there
isisaarelation
relationexist betweenSSe’e’ and
existbetween andSSutut. .
Value
Valueofofaamechanical
mechanicalororstructural
structuralmember
membertotomatch
matchthe
thevalues
valuesobtained
obtainedininthe
thelaboratory
laboratoryafterafterconsidering
considering
other
otherfactors
factorsthat
thatinfluence
influencethe
thefatigue
fatiguelife
lifeisisknown
knownas
asendurance limits,SSe e. .
endurancelimits,
Se’ – refer to the endurance limit of the controlled laboratory specimen

Graph of endurance limits versus tensile strengths from actual test results for a large number of wrought irons and steels.
Se – refer to the endurance limit of an actual machine element subjected to any kind of loading Ratios of Se /Sut of 0.60, 0.50, and 0.40 are shown by the solid and dashed lines.
4.5 – Endurance Limit, Se – cont… 4.6 – Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
Factors
Factorsthat
thatinfluence
influencethe
thefatigue
fatiguelife
lifeand
andendurance
endurancelimits.
limits.
AssumptionofofSSe’e’ value
Assumption valuefor
forsteel
steel
For
Forstudent
studentapplication:
application:
e 0.5SSutut →→ SSutut≤≤1400
SSe’ ’ ==0.5 1400MPa
MPa[[200
200kpsi
kpsi]]
SSe’ ’ ==700
e 700MPa
MPa[[100 kpsi]] →→ SSutut>>1400
100kpsi 1400MPa
MPa
For
Forreal
realengineering
engineeringpractice:
practice:
e 0.4SSutut →→ SSutut≤≤1400
SSe’ ’ ==0.4 1400MPa
MPa
SSe’ ’ ==550
550MPa
MPa[[84.1
84.1kpsi ]→ SSutut>>1400
kpsi]→ 1400MPa
MPa
e
4.6 – Endurance Limit Modifying Factors – cont… 4.6 – Endurance Limit Modifying Factors – cont…
Surface
SurfaceCondition
ConditionModification Factor,kkaa
ModificationFactor,
AAMarin
MarinEquation
Equationisistherefore
thereforewritten
writtenthe
theendurance limitSSeeas:
endurancelimit as:
The surface modification factor depends on the quality of the finish of the actual part surface
and on the tensile strength of the part material. The data can be represented by:
Se = kakbkckdkekfSe’ ka = a S but
where Sut is the ultimate strength and a and b value are to be found using below table
Where,
Where, TABLE 4-1: Parameters for Marin surface modification factor.
SSe’ =’ =rotary beam test endurance limit
e rotary beam test endurance limit
kka ==surface
surfacecondition
conditionmodification
modificationfactor
factor
Factor a Exponent
a Surface Finish
kkb ==size modification factor b
b size modification factor Sut, kpsi Sut, MPa
kkc ==load modification factor
c load modification factor Ground 1.34 1.58 -0.085
kkd ==temperature
temperature modification
modificationfactor
factor
d
kke ==reliability factor
e reliability factor
Machine or cold drawn 2.70 4.51 -0.265
kkf ==miscellaneous effect modification factor
f miscellaneous effect modification factor Hot-rolled 14.4 57.7 -0.718
As-forged 39.9 272 -0.995
Surface
SurfaceCondition
ConditionModification Factor,kkaa
ModificationFactor, Size Factor,kkbb
SizeFactor, - depends by the types of the load
EXAMPLE 1 Size factor for ROTATING ROUND bar is given by below equation :
A steel has a minimum ultimate strength of 520 MPa and a machined ⎧ (d / 0.3)−0.107 = 0.879d −0.107 0.11 ≤ d ≤ 2 in
surface. Estimate ka. ⎪ − 0.157 where
⎪ 0.91d 2 < d ≤ 10 in
kb = ⎨ − 0.107
d – effective dimension
⎪( d / 7.62) = 1.24d −0.107 2.79 ≤ d ≤ 51 mm
Solution ⎪ 1.51d −0.157 51 < d ≤ 254 mm
⎩
From Table 4–1, a = 4.51 and b =−0.265. Then,
For NONCIRCULAR CROSS SECTION , or NONROTATING ROUND BAR, the effective dimension de is:
Answer ka = 4.51(520)−0.265 = 0.860 D
de= 0.370d h de = 0.808 (hb)1/2
~~there
thereisisno
nosize
sizeeffect,
effect,so
sosize factorkkbb==1.0
sizefactor 1.0
Size Factor,kkbb
SizeFactor, Loading Factor,kkc c
LoadingFactor,
EXAMPLE 2
A steel shaft loaded in bending is 32 mm in diameter, abutting a filleted shoulder 38 mm in When
Whenfatigue
fatiguetests
testsare
arecarried
carriedout
outwith
withrotating
rotatingbending,
bending,axial
axial
diameter. The shaft material has a mean ultimate tensile strength of 690 MPa.
(push-pull),
(push-pull), and torsional loading, the endurancelimits
and torsional loading, the endurance limitsdiffer
differ
Estimate the Marin size factor kb if the shaft is used in
(a) A rotating mode. withSSutut..Here
with Hereare
arethe
thevalues
valuesof
ofthe
theload
loadfactor
factoras
as
(b) A nonrotating mode.
Solution
(a)
⎛ d ⎞
−0.107
⎛ 32 ⎞
−0.107 ⎧ 1 Bending
kb = ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ = 0.858 ⎪
⎝ 7.62 ⎠ ⎝ 7.62 ⎠ kc = ⎨0.85 Axial
⎪0.59 Torsion
(b) de = 0.37d = 0.37(32) = 11.84 mm
⎩
−0.107
⎛ 11.84 ⎞
kb = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.954
⎝ 7.62 ⎠ ** If there is a combination of loads, use kc = 1
Temperature Factor,kkdd
TemperatureFactor, Temperature Factor,kkdd
TemperatureFactor,
If Se’ is known at room temperature, then use kd = ST / SRT .If not, compute the ultimate strength at the
EXAMPLE 3
elevated temperature obtained by using the factor from below table, then use kd = 1 A 1035 steel has a tensile strength of 70 kpsi and is to be used for a part that sees 450°F in service.
Estimate the Marin temperature modification factor and (Se)450◦ if
(a) The room-temperature endurance limit by test is (Se )70◦ = 39.0 kpsi
(b) Only the tensile strength at room temperature is known.
Effect of Operating
Temperature on the Tensile
Solution
Strength of Steel.*
(a) Interpolating from previous Table gives :
⎛ 450 − 400 ⎞
(ST = tensile strength at k d = (ST / S RT )450o = 1.018 + (0.995 − 1.018)⎜ ⎟ = 1.007
operating temperature; ⎝ 500 − 400 ⎠
Thus, (Se)450◦ = kd (Se )70◦ =1.007(39.0) = 39.3 kpsi
SRT = tensile strength at
room temperature; 0.099 ≤
(b) Since the rotating-beam specimen endurance limit is not known at room temperature, we determine the
ˆσ ≤ 0.110)
ultimate strength at the elevated temperature first, which the ultimate strength at 450° is
(Sut )450◦ = (ST /SRT )450◦(Sut )70◦= 1.007(70) = 70.5 kpsi
Then, (Se)450◦ = 0.5 (Sut )450◦ = 0.5(70.5) = 35.2 kpsi
Reliability Factor,kkee
ReliabilityFactor, Miscellaneous-Effects Factor,kkf f
Miscellaneous-EffectsFactor,
the
thereliability
reliabilitymodification,
modification,kkeefactor
factorisiswritten
writtenas
as ke = 1 − 0.08 zα kkf factor is intended to account for the reduction in endurance limit due to all other
f factor is intended to account for the reduction in endurance limit due to all other
effects
effectssuch
suchas,as,Corrosion,
Corrosion,Electrolytic
ElectrolyticPlating,
Plating,Metal
MetalSpraying,
Spraying,Cyclic
CyclicFrequency,
Frequency,and
and
where zα values can be determined from Table A–10 in Appendix A. Table below gives other
othermore.
more.
reliability factors for some standard specified reliabilities.
However
Howeverthetheactual valuesofofkkf fare
actualvalues arenot
notalways
alwaysavailable.
available.IfIfthis
thisfactor
factorisisnot
notimportant,
important,
assume
assume; ;
kkf ==1.0
1.0
f
ItItisisreally
reallyintended
intendedas
asaareminder
reminderthat
thatthis
thisfactor
factormust
mustbe
beaccounted
accountedininreal
realengineering
engineering
practice.
practice.
Reliability Factors ke Corresponding to 8% Standard Deviation of the Endurance Limit

4.7 – Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity 4.7 – Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity – cont…
σ • Any discontinuity in a machine part alter a stress

distribution in the neighbourhood of the AAtheoritical orgeometric
theoriticalor geometricstress
stressconcentration
concentrationfactor
factorKKt t––isis
Stress discontinuity used
usedto
torelate
relatethe
theactual
actualmaximum
maximumstress
stressat
atthe
thediscontinity
discontinityto to
distribution
• Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, and the
thenominal
nominalstress.
stress.
σ0= F/A0 the regions in which they occur are called areas of
σmax stress concentration.
σ max τ max
A A0 =
d (w-d )t
A • Existence of irregularities or discontinuities,
Kt = or K ts =
such as holes, grooves, or notches, in a part
σo τo
increases the theoretical stresses significantly in
the immediate at nearby region of the discontinuity.
Stress
trajectories
where
F F F F Kt : is used for normal stresses
B A = wt B
Kts : is used for shear stresses
w σ Regular feature Changes in cross section
• Kt or Kts depends on geometry of the part

σ= F/A
F F F F • The analysis of geometric shapes is a difficult problem and not many solutions can be found
σmax > σ0 > σ • Kt or Kts for a variety of geometries may be found in Appendix A Tables A-15 and A-16
notch hole
Department of Material and Engineering Design, Load lines at several types of bar 27 Department of Material and Engineering Design, 28
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, that has been suffered by axial force Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
4.7 – Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity – cont… 4.7 – Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity – cont…
For Notch sensitivity q is defined by the equation :

Forvariable
variableloading
loadingcases
casesthat
thatcause
causefatigue,
fatigue,some
somematerials
materialsarearenotnotfully
fully
sensitive
sensitive to the presence of notches and hence, for these, a reducedvalue
to the presence of notches and hence, for these, a reduced value
ofKKt can
of canbebeused.
used.For
Forthese
thesematerials,
materials,the
themaximum
maximumstress
stressis,
is,ininfact,
fact, K f −1 K fs − 1
t
q= or qshear =
Kt −1 K ts − 1
σ max = K f σ o or τ max = K fsτ o where q is usually between 0 ~ 1.
thenKKf f==11→→material
IfIfqq==00, ,then materialhas
hasno
nosensitivity
sensitivityto
tonotches
notchesat
atall.
all.
IfIfqq==11, ,then
thenKKf =K
f =Kt →→material
t materialhas
hasfull
fullnotch
notchsensitivity.
sensitivity.
where
Kf is a reduced value of Kt and also known as
In analysis or design work :
fatigue stress-concentration factor.
Find Kt from geometry of the part Specify the material Find q Solve for Kf
σ0 is the nominal stress.
K f = 1 + q(K t − 1) or K fs = 1 + qshear (K ts − 1)
Notch sensitivity q Notch sensitivity q for torsion load
for bending and axial load
Figure 4–1 Figure 4–2

Notch-sensitivity charts for steels and UNS A92024-T wrought aluminum alloys subjected to reversed bending or Notch-sensitivity curves for materials in reversed torsion. For larger notch radii, use the values of q shear
reversed axial loads. For larger notch radii, use the values of q corresponding to the r = 0.16-in (4-mm) ordinate. corresponding to r = 0.16 in (4 mm).
• If there is any doubt about the true value of q, it is always safe to use Kf = Kt . EXAMPLE 4
• The notch sensitivity of the cast irons is very low, varying from 0 to about 0.20, A steel shaft in bending has an ultimate strength of 690 MPa and a shoulder with a fillet radius of 3 mm
depending upon the tensile strength. To be on the conservative side, it is connecting a 32-mm diameter with a 38-mm diameter. Estimate Kf using:
(a) Figure 4-1.
recommended that the value q = 0.20 be used for all grades of cast iron. (b) Equations (6–33) and (6–35).
• Figure 4–1 has as its basis the Neuber equation, which is given by
Kt − 1 Solution
K f = 1+ From Fig. A–15–9, using D/d = 38/32 = 1.1875, r/d = 3/32 = 0.09375, we read the graph to find Kt = 1.65.
1+ a / r
(a) From Fig. 4–1, for Sut = 690 MPa and r = 3 mm, q = 0.84. Thus, from Eq.
• where a is defined as the Neuber constant and is a material constant.
• Then notch sensitivity equation become q = 1 Kf = 1 + q (Kt − 1)
a = 1 + 0.84(1.65 − 1)
1+ = 1.55
r
• For steel, with Sut in kpsi, the Neuber constant can be approximated by a third-order (b) From below Eq. with Sut = 690 MPa = 100 kpsi,
polynomial fit of data as a = 0.246 - 3.08(10-3 )100 + 1.51(10-5 )100 2 - 2.67(10-8 )1003
-3 -5 2 -8 3
9Bending or Axial: a = 0.246 - 3.08(10 )Sut + 1.51(10 )S - 2.67(10 )S ut ut
= 0.0622 in = 0.313 mm
Kt −1 1.65 − 1
9Torsion: a = 0.190 - 2.51(10-3 )Sut + 1.35(10-5 )S2ut - 2.67(10-8 )S3ut Substituting this into next Eq. with r = 3 mm gives K f = 1+ = 1+ = 1.55
1+ a / r 0.313
1+
3
4.8 – Fatigue Strength 4.8 – Fatigue Strength – cont…

Sut, MPa
Fatigue stress Sf
S-N Diagram 490 560 630 700 770 840 910 980 1050 1120 1190 1260 1330 1400
Sut
(log f ) / 3
S f = S ut N
fSut Figure 4–3
Fatigue strength fraction, f,
of Sut at 103 cycles for
S f = aN b
Se = Se’ = 0.5Sut .
Low cycle,
Finite life
( f Sut ) 2 High cycle,
Se If Sut < 70 kpsi (490 MPa),
a= Finite life
Se let f = 0.9
High Cycle,
1 ⎛ f Sut ⎞
b = − log⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Infinite Life
3 ⎝ Se ⎠
100 103 106
Department of Material and Engineering Design, Number of stress cycle (N) 35 Department of Material and Engineering Design, 36
4.8 – Fatigue Strength – cont… 4.8 – Fatigue Strength – cont…
EXAMPLE 5
Solution
Given a 1050 HR steel, estimate (c) With S’f = 385 MPa,
(a) From Table A–20, Sut = 620 MPa.
(a) the rotating-beam endurance limit at 106 cycles.
∴ Se’ = 0.5(630) = 310 MPa 1/ b 1 / − 0.0785
(b) the endurance strength of a polished rotating-beam specimen corresponding to 104 cycles to failure ⎛ S' f ⎞ ⎛ 385 ⎞
(c) the expected life of a polished rotating-beam specimen under a completely reversed stress of 385 MPa.
N = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ 917 ⎠
(b) From Fig. 4–3, for Sut = 620 MPa, f .= 0.86.
Fatigue stress Sf
Sut = 63.3(103 ) cycles
fSut
a=
[0.86(620)] 2
= 917
Sf 310
1
b = − log
[0.86(620 )] = −0.0785
Se 3 310
S ' f = 917 N −0.0785 = 917(10 4 ) −0.0785 = 445 MPa

100 103 104 106
Number of stress cycle (N)
4.9 – Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses 4.9 – Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses
Fluctuating stresses in machinery often take the form of sinusoidal pattern In periodic patterns exhibiting a single maximum and single minimum of force,
because of the nature of the nature of some rotating machinery. the shape of the wave is not important.
Other patterns some quite irregular do occur. The peaks on both sides (maximum, minimum) are important.
Fmax and Fmin in a cycle can be used to characterize the force pattern.
A steady component and an alternating component can be constructed as

follows:
Fmax + Fmin Fmax − Fmin

Fm = Fa =
2 2
where Fm is the midrange steady component of force, and Fa is the amplitude of the
alternating component of force.
4.9 – Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses – cont… 4.9 – Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses – cont…
Stress
Some σa
Somestress-time
stress-timerelations:
relations: σr
9 Stress Range
σa
σmax
σm 9 Mean (Midrange Stress)
Stress
(R>0 )
σmin
Time
Time
(d) sinusoidal fluctuating stress 9 Stress Amplitude
(a) fluctuating stress with highfrequency ripple (Alternating Stress)
Stress
(R =0)
Stress
σa
σr 9 Stress Ratio
Time σmax σa σm
σmin = 0 Time
(b) nonsinusoidal fluctuating stress (e) repeated stress 9 Amplitude Ratio
Stress
Stress
(R =-1)
σmax
Time σa
Time σr
σm = 0 σa
σmin
(c) nonsinusoidal fluctuating stress (f) Completely reversed sinusoidal stress
4.9 – Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses – cont… 4.9 – Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses – cont…
For
Foraacase
casethat
thatinvolved
involvedfluctuating
fluctuatingbending
bendingstress
stressor
orfluctuating
fluctuatingshear
shear
stress
stressin
inthe
thepresent
presentofofaanotch,
notch,the
theequation
equationfor
foramplitude
amplitudeand
andmean
meanstress
stress
have
havebecome:
become:
σ a = K f σ ao and σ m = K f σ mo
τ a = K fsτ ao and τ m = K fsτ mo
4.10 – Combination of Loading Modes 4.11 – Factor of Safety
5 theories of fatigue failure
For
Foraacase
casethat
thatinvolved
involvedcombinations
combinationsof ofdifferent
differenttypes
typesof
ofloading,
loading,such
suchas
as
combined
combinedbending,
bending,torsion,
torsion,and
andaxial.
axial. σa σm 1 2
⎛ nσ a ⎞ ⎛ nσ m ⎞
2
Soderberg + = Asme-elliptic ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ =1
Se Sy n ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Se ⎠ ⎝ S y ⎠
2
(σ a ) axial ⎤
σa=
' ⎡
[
⎢( K f ) bending (σ a ) bending + ( K f ) axial 0.85 ⎥ + 3 ( K fs ) torsion (τ a ) torsion ] 2
⎣ ⎦ σa σm 1 Sy
Modified-Goodman + = Larger static yield σa +σm =
Se Sut n n
σ 'm = [( K f ) bending (σ m ) bending + ( K f ) axial (σ m ) axial ] 2

[
+ 3 ( K f ) torsion (τ m ) torsion ] 2
2
For
Fortorsion
torsion(shear)
(shear)load loadonly.
nσ a ⎛ nσ m ⎞ only.
Gerber +⎜ ⎟ =1 Use
Usethethesame
sameequations
equationsas asapply
applyforforσσmm≥≥ 0,0,
S e ⎜⎝ S ut ⎟⎠ except replace σmm and σa a withττmmand
except replace σ and σ with andττa a, ,use
use
kkc ==0.59 forSSe e, ,replace
0.59for replaceSSututwith
withSSsusu==0.67
0.67SSutut
c
and replace S wih S = 0.577
and replace Sy wih Ssy = 0.577Sy . S .
y sy y
4.11 – Factor of Safety – cont… 4.11 – Factor of Safety – cont…
Figure 4–4 Table 4–1 Amplitude and Steady Coordinates of Strength and Important Intersections in
First Quadrant for Modified Goodman and Langer Failure Criteria
Load line which

intersection with fatigue
criterion
Load line which

intersection with static
Larger criterion
Intersection of static
and fatigue criterion
4.11 – Factor of Safety – cont… 4.11 – Factor of Safety – cont…

Table 4–2 Amplitude and Steady Coordinates of Strength and Important Intersections in Table 4–3 Amplitude and Steady Coordinates of Strength and Important Intersections in
First Quadrant for Gerber and Langer Failure Criteria First Quadrant for ASME-Elliptic and Langer Failure Criteria
Load line which Load line which

intersection with fatigue intersection with fatigue
criterion criterion
Load line which Load line which

intersection with static intersection with static
Larger criterion Larger criterion
Intersection of static Intersection of static

and fatigue criterion and fatigue criterion
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 4 – Fatigue Design Failure of Theories
Other Examples of Relevant Fatigue Exercise
Example 6-8 – page 298

“Fatigue additional notes”
From Engineering Design text book (Shigley-Ninth Edition)

BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 5 – Gears

At the end of this topic, the students would be able to apply and
appreciate the knowledge to:
BDA 31203 Notes – Mechanical Component Design
9 recognize types of gear that available and know the function

Week 5
9 identify nomenclature of spur gear

Chapter 5
9 construct a gear
Gears – Part I
9 perform load and power calculations analytically as applied to
a gears components.

BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 5 – Gears BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 5 – Gears
In this chapter (part 1), generally we will learn:-

learn:-
• 5.1 - Introduction ¾ To transmit power, torque and speed ⇒ ideally, power is constant
• 5.2 - Types of Gears
¾ To reduce and increase speed and torque
• 5.3 - Nomenclature of Spur Gear
• 5.4 - Construction of Gear ¾ To increase efficiency and reliability of a system (no slip) compare
• 5.5 - Forming of Gear Teeth using other mechanism such as belt and pulley or chain and
• 5.6 - Tooth Systems sprocket.
• 5.7 - Gear Ratio
• 5.8 - Gear Train Advantages: Disadvantages:
• 5.9 - Contact Ratio – Exact velocity ratio – High cost in manufacturing
• 5.10 - Interference – May transfer large power (requires special tools)
• 5.11 - Force Analysis (Spur Gear) – High efficiency
• 5.12 - Force Analysis (Bevel Gear) – Vibration & noise
– Reliable
• 5.13 - Force Analysis (Helical Gear) – Lubricant required
– Compact
Gear manufacturing video
5.2 – Type of Gears 5.2 – Type of Gears – cont…
SPUR GEAR
• Spur Gear
• Helical Gear • have teeth parallel to the axis of
rotation.
• Bevel Gear • used to transmit rotary motion
between parallel shafts.
• Worm Gear
• the simplest gear.
5.2 – Type of Gears – cont… 5.2 – Type of Gears – cont…
HELICAL GEAR BEVEL GEAR
are essentially conically shaped.

• have teeth inclined to the axis of
rotation. Used to transmit rotary motion between
intersecting shafts. The angle between the
• Not make much noise during
shafts can be anything except zero or 180
meshing.
degrees ⇒ eg. Differential
• Inclined tooth also develops thrust
Bevel gear may be classified as follow:-
loads and bending couples.
9 Straight bevel gears
• Sometimes used to transmit motion 9 Spiral bevel gears
between nonparallel shafts. 9 Zerol bevel gears
9 Hypoid gears
9 Spiroid gears

DIFFERENTIAL STRAIGHT BEVEL GEAR
• Usually used for pitch line velocities up

to 1000 ft/min (5 m/s) when noise level
is not an important consideration.
• Available in many stock sizes and less

expensive to produce than other bevel
gears.
SPIRAL BEVEL GEAR ZEROL BEVEL GEAR
• have teeth that are both curved • Have teeth which are curved along
along their (the tooth's) length; and their length, but not angled.
set at an angle, analogously to the
way helical gear teeth are set at an • Permissible axial thrust load are not
angle compared to spur gear teeth. large as those for the spiral bevel
gear
• Recommended for higher speeds
and where the noise level is an
important consideration.
HYPOID AND SPIROID GEARS WORM GEARS
• Hypoid gear - Similar to bevel Used to transmit rotary motion between

gears but with the relatively nonparallel and not intersecting shafts.
small shafts offset.
• Spiroid gear – larger shaft Spiroid Worm is a gear that resembles a screw. It is
offset, the pinion begins to Ring gear a species of helical gear, but its helix angle
resemble a tapered worm is usually somewhat large and its body is
Hypoid usually fairly long in the axial direction.
The worm can always drive the gear.

Spiral gear
However, if the gear attempts to drive the
worm, it may or may not succeed.
5.2 – Type of Gears – cont… 5.3 – Nomenclature of Spur Gear
RACK & PINION
A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought

of as a sector gear with an infinitely large radius of
curvature.
Torque can be converted to linear force by

meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the
rack moves in a straight line.
Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to

convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the
left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s).
5.3 – Nomenclature of Spur Gear – cont… 5.3 – Nomenclature of Spur Gear – cont…
• Pitch circle – is a theoretical circle • Module (m) – is the ratio of the pitch
upon which all calculations are diameter to the number of teeth.
usually based.
Dp
• Pitch diameter (Dp) – is a diameter m= (mm)
of pitch circle N
• Circular pitch (pc)– is the distance, • Addendum (a) – is a radial distance
from a point on one tooth to a between the top land and the pitch
corresponding point on an adjacent circle.
tooth (measured on the pitch circle). 1
a=m ; (mm or inch)
πD p π Pd
pc = ; (mm or inch)
N Pd • Dedendum (b) – is the radial
distance from the bottom land to the
• Diametral pitch (Pd) – is the ratio of pitch circle.
the number of teeth on the gear to N 1.25
the pitch diameter. Pd = (Teeth per inch) b = 1.25m ; (mm or
inch)
Pd This is a commonly used sizes for spur gear
Dp tooth. Refer tooth system for more info.
5.3 – Nomenclature of Spur Gear – cont… 5.4 – Construction of Gear
• Whole Depth (ht) – is the radial It is necessary that you actually be able to draw the teeth on a pair of meshing gear to obtain an understanding of the
problem involved in the meshing of the mating teeth.
distance from the bottom land to the
pitch circle. First – Draw the circle of gear layout
ht = a + b (mm or inch) i) Calculate each pitch circle

N1 N2
d1 = = mN1 d2 = = mN 2
Pd Pd
• Clearance circle – is a circle that is d1 + d 2
Where center distance of the gear is, CD =
tangent to the addendum circle of 2
the mating gear. ii) Draw the pitch circle, d1 & d2
iii) Draw line ab
• Clearance (c) – is the amount by
iv) Draw line cd through point P at an angle φ to the
which the dedendum in a given gear common tangent ab. This line is also known as
exceeds the dum of its mating gear. pressure line, generating line or line of action.
c =b−a (mm or inch) v) Next, on each gear, draw a circle tangent to the
pressure line which known as base circle
or radius of base gear is, rb = r cos φ
• Backlash – is the amount by which
vi) Then, draw the addendum and dedendum circle
the width of a tooth space exceeds
the thickness of the engaging tooth for addendum diameter, d a = d + 2a
measured on the pitch circles. for dedendum diameter, d b = d − 2b
5.4 – Construction of Gear – cont… 5.4 – Construction of Gear – cont…

Second - Construct an involute curve
i) Divide the base circle into a number of equal
vii) Trim the involute line at the needed range
parts and construct radial lines OA0, OA1, OA2,
between addendum and dedendum.
OA3, OA4, etc.
viii) Finally, array the complete tooth according to
ii) Beginning at A1, construct perpendicular line
the required number.
A1B1, A2B2, A3B3 etc.
ix) Repeat the step (i) to the step (viii) to draw
where distance A1B1 = A1A0, A2B2 = 2A1B1,
the other tooth at the other mating gear.
A3B3 = 3A1B1 etc.
iii) Then draw a curve at each end point of the
perpendicular line to construct the involute
curve. Make sure the involute curve has exceed
the addendum circle.
iv) To draw a tooth, we must know the thickness.
Therefore the tooth thickness is half the
distance of the circular pitch which measured on
pitch circle.
pc πm π
t t= = = (mm or inch)
2 2 2 Pd
v) From tooth thickness we can determine the
angle needed, α to make a mirror line between
αo it. 180 ⋅ t o
α= ( )
π d
vi) Then the involute is mirror to another
Department of Material and Engineering Design, halve at previous mirror line. 21 Department of Material and Engineering Design, 22
5.5 – Forming of Gear Teeth 5.6 – Tooth Systems
Milling • Is a standard that specifies the relationships involving addendum, dedendum, working
• Gear teeth may be cut with a milling cutter shaped to conform to depth, tooth thickness and pressure angle.
the tooth space.
Shaping • Planned to attain interchangeability.

• May be generated with either a pinion cutter or rack cutter.
• Pinion cutter reciprocates along the vertical axis and slowly fed
into the gear blank to the required depth. Shaping – Pinion cutter Table 5-1 Standard and Commonly Used Tooth Systems for Spur Gears
• Rack cutter reciprocates into the gear blank and roll slightly on Tooth Sysem Pressure Angle Addendum Dedendum
their pitch circle. φ, deg a b
Hobbing Full Depth 20 1/Pd or 1m 1.25/Pd or 1.25m

• Is simply a cutting tool that is shaped like a worm. 1.35/Pd or 1.35m
• Both the hob and the blank must be rotated when the hob fed 22½ 1/Pd or 1m 1.25/Pd or 1.25m
slowly across the face of the blank.
1.35/Pd or 1.35m
Shaping – Rack cutter
Finishing 25 1/Pd or 1m 1.25/Pd or 1.25m
• Shaving or burnishing is needed to diminish error after cutting 1.35/Pd or 1.35m
until the surface become smooth.
Stub 20 0.8/Pd or 0.8m 1/Pd or 1m
• Grinding and lapping are used for hardened gear teeth after heat
treatment.
University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor. Hobbing University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor.
5.6 – Tooth Systems 5.7 – Gear Ratio
• The gear ratio is a number, usually expressed as a decimal,

representing how many turns of the input gear cause one revolution of
the output gear. Gear ratio is suggested max. 1:10.
Table 5-2 Tooth Sizes in General Uses
Diametral Pitch • Also known as a Speed ratio.

Coarse 2, 2¼, 2½, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16
Fine 20, 24, 32, 40, 48, 64, 80, 96, 120, 150, 200 • It can be a relationship between the numbers of teeth on two gears that
are meshed or two sprockets connected with a common roller chain, or
Modules the circumferences of two pulleys connected with a drive belt.
Preffered 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50
Next Choice 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18, • Consider a pinion (input) driving gear (output), speed ratio is given by:
22, 28, 36, 45
ni N o d o To where N = number of teeth

= = = n = gear speed (rev/min)
d = pitch diameter (mm or in)
no N i d i Ti T = torque (Nm or Ib-in)
5.8 – Gear Train 5.8 – Gear Train – cont…
• Consist of multiple gears in the train, as shown in the two figures below : • To calculate overall gear or speed ratio from multiple gearing system
To ni 1
Overall Gear Ratio; mG -O = = =
Ti no e
Final where TF = Torque at the first gear

gear TL = Torque at the final gear
nF = speed of the first gear (rev/min)
nL = speed of the last gear (rev/min)
e = train value
N 2 N3 N5
n6 = n2 where N = number of teeth
n = gear speed (rev/min)
N3 N 4 N6
First
gear
n where
• Train value, e= L • nL = speed of the last gear
nF • nF = speed of the first gear
5.8 – Gear Train – cont… 5.8 – Gear Train – cont…

Motor Example 5-1 Motor Example 5-1
5 Hp 5 Hp
2000 rpm Fill the table below:- 2000 rpm Fill the table below:-
Pitch Speed Torque Pitch Speed Torque
Component Component
Diameter (in) (rpm) (ib-in) Diameter (in) (rpm) (ib-in)
Pd = 4 teeth/in Pd = 4 teeth/in
motor - motor - 2000 157.5
2 (Pulley) - 2 (Pulley) - 2000 157.5
3 (Pulley) - 3 (Pulley) - 1200 262.5
4 (Bevel Gear) 4 (Bevel Gear) 4.5 1200 262.5

Pd = 4 teeth/in Pd = 4 teeth/in
5 (Bevel Gear) 5 (Bevel Gear) 9.5 568.4 554.2
6 (Spur Gear) 6 (Spur Gear) 5 568.4 554.2
Pd = 6 teeth/in 8 (Worm Gear) Pd = 6 teeth/in 8 (Worm Gear) 0.5 236.8 1330.1

Train nL 19.7
Department of Material and Engineering Design, Train value, e = ? 29 Department of Material and Engineering Design, e= = = 0.00985 30
value, nF 2000
5.9 – Contact Ratio 5.9 – Contact Ratio – cont…
rb (gear)
Base circle (gear) ra (gear)
Dedendum circle (gear)
Clearance circle (gear)
eL
ine Pitch circle (gear)
s su r
Pre
Addendum circle (gear)
Addendum circle (pinion)

L ab
act
ont
e of C
L in Pitch circle (pinion)
• On an involute profile gear tooth, the contact point starts closer to one gear, and as the gear
Clearance circle (pinion)
spins, the contact point moves away from that gear and toward the other. ra (pinion) rb (pinion)
• If you were to follow the contact point, it would describe a straight line that starts near one
Dedendum circle (pinion)
gear and ends up near the other. Base circle (pinion)
• This means that the radius of the contact point gets larger as the teeth engage. motion
5.9 – Contact Ratio – cont… 5.10 – Interference

• Interference – the contact of portions
• contact ratio (CR) is a number that indicates the average number of pairs of
of tooth profiles that are not conjugate
teeth in contact.
• Occur when first gear contact at the tip
• In general gear arrangement, the number of teeth in contact (CR) determine the
smooth transmission → CR must be 1.2 or more to reduce teeth impact as well of the driven tooth touch the flank of
as noise level. the driving tooth before the involute
portion of the driving tooth comes
within the range (below the base circle
Lab
CR = of gear 2).
pc cos φ
Base circle
where
Lab = length of the line of action
pc = circular pitch
φ = pressure angle
2 2 2 2
ra1 − rb1 + ra 2 − rb 2 − CD sin φ
CR = • Causing the involute tip or face of the
pc cos φ where
ra = addendum circle radius driven gear tends to dig out the
Department of Material and Engineering Design, rb = base circle radius 33 Department of Material and Engineering Design, noninvolute flank of the driver. 34
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, CD = center distance of the gear Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
5.10 – Interference – cont… 5.11 – Force Analysis (Spur Gear)
• To avoid interference – ones has to calculate smallest number of pinion teeth can
exist without interference is NP where NP is:-
2k ⎛ m + m 2 + (1 + 2m ) sin 2 φ ⎞
NP = ⎜ G 2 ⎟ For spur pinion
(1 + 2mG ) sin φ ⎝ ⎠
G G
Where:
2k k = 1 (for full depth teeth)

NP = 2 For spur pinion that operate with a rack k = 0.8 (for stub teeth)
sin φ mG = mating gear ratio
φ = pressure angle
2k cosψ ⎛ m + m 2 + (1 + 2m ) sin 2 φ ⎞
NP = ⎜ G t ⎟ For helical pinion
(1 + 2mG ) sin 2 φt ⎝ ⎠
G G
Where:
ψ = helix angle
2k cosψ
NP = For helical pinion that operate with a rack
φt = tangential pressure angle
sin 2 φt (refer slide 44)
5.11 – Force Analysis (Spur Gear) – cont… 5.11 – Force Analysis (Spur Gear) – cont…
Gear r
F 32 F32
3 Tb3 Fb3 t
F 32 English unit SI unit
n3 φ n2
b
Ta2
πdn πdn
b 3 t
F a2 a V= V=
12 60
r
F a2 2
φ
φ
2 Fa2
Wt = 33000
H 60000 H
F23 F32 d2 Wt =
n2
a
φ (c) V πdn
Ta2
Pinion Gear force have been resolved into V = pitch-line velocity, ft/min V = pitch-line velocity, mm/s
a tangential and radial components.
(a) Wt = transmitted load, Ibf Wt = transmitted load, kN
Fa2 2 T d = gear diameter, in d = gear diameter, mm
Shows a pinion mounted Wt = F32t =
on a shaft a rotating d /2 n = gear speed, rev/min n = gear speed, rev/min
clockwise at n2 rev/min (b)
and driving a gear on a
Free body diagrams of the forces and moments Wr = F32r = Wt tan φ H = power, hp H = power, kW
shaft b at n3 rev/min
acting upon two gears of a simple gear train.
r W
Department of Material and Engineering Design, W = F32 = t 37 Department of Material and Engineering Design, 38
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, kosφ Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
5.11 – Force Analysis (Spur Gear) – cont… 5.11 – Force Analysis (Spur Gear) – cont…
Example 5-2 Solution 5-2
The pitch diameters for gears 2 and 3 are :

Pinion 2 in this figure runs at 1750 rev/min
and transmits 2.5 kW to idle gear 3. The d2 = mN2 = 2.5(20) = 50 mm
teeth are cut on the 20o full-depth system d3 = mN3 = 2.5(50) = 125 mm
and have a module of m = 2.5 mm. Draw a
free body diagram of gear 3 and show all The transmitted load to be :
the forces that act upon it.
60000 H 60000 ( 2 .5)
Wt = = = 0 .546 kN
πd 2 n π (50 )(1750 )
From above statement, it can be

Thus, the tangential force F23 = 0.546 kN, as
t
summarizes that below are the info given : shown in free body diagram figure, Therefore
n = 1750 rpm
F23r = F23r tan 20 o = 0.546 tan 20 o = 0.199 kN
H = 2.5 kW
and so
φ = 20o FREE BODY
DIAGRAM F23t 0.546
F23 = = = 0.581 kN
m = 2.5 cos 20o cos 20o
5.11 – Force Analysis (Spur Gear) – cont… 5.12 – Force Analysis (Bevel Gear)
Solution 5-2 – cont…
Since gear 3 is idler, it transmits no power (torque) to its shaft, and so the tangential reaction of
Pinion pitch angle :
gear 4 on gear 3 is also equal to Wt. Therefore
F43t = 0.546 kN F43r = 0.199 kN F43 = 0.581 kN NP

tan γ =
The shaft reactions in the x and y directions are NG
Fbx3 = −( F23t + F43r ) = −(−0.546 + 0.199) = 0.347 kN
Fby3 = −( F23r + F43t ) = −(0.199 − 0.546) = 0.347 kN

Gear pitch angle :
The resultant shaft reaction is NG

Fb 3 = 0.347 + 0.347 = 0.491 kN
tan Γ =
NP
Terminology of bevel gears
5.12 – Force Analysis (Bevel Gear) – cont… 5.13 – Force Analysis (Helical Gear)
Transmitted load :
y
T Normal circular pitch pn = pt cosψ
Wt = Represent a
rav x portion of top
pt
Wt
view of a helical
Axial pitch px =
where rack
tanψ
• T is the torque
• rav is the pitch radius at the midpoint W φ rav
• Wt is also known as tangential force Since pnPn = π, the normal Pn =

Pt
Lines ab and cd are the centerlines of two adjacent
helical teeth taken on the same pitch plane. The angle
diametral pitch is cosψ
ψ is the helix angle. The distance ac is the transverse
Radial Force : circular pitch pt in the plane of rotation (usually called
the circular pitch). Since φn is a pressure angle in the normal
Wr = Wt tan φ cos γ z direction, φt pressure angle in the direction of
Wa rotation (transverse pressure angle) and ψ is
Wr
γ the helix angle, these angle are related by the
Axial Force : equation:
Wa = Wt tan φ sin γ tan φn

cosψ =
tan φt
5.13 – Force Analysis (Helical Gear) – cont… 5.13 – Force Analysis (Helical Gear) – cont…
Example 5-3 Solution 5-3 – cont…
A stock helical gear has a normal pressure angle of 20o, a helix angle of 25o and a pn = pt cosψ = 15.71cos 25o = 14.24 mm
transverse module of 5.0 mm and has 18 teeth. Find:
(a) The pitch diameter
pt 15.71
(b) The transverse, the normal and the axial pitch px = = = 33.69 mm
tanψ tan 25o
(c) The normal module
(d) The transverse pressure angle
pn 14.24
(c) mn = = = 4.53 mm or mn = mt cosψ = 5 cos 25o = 4.53 mm
π π
Solution 5-3
⎛ tan φn ⎞ ⎛ tan 20o ⎞
(a) d = Nmt = 18(5) = 90 mm (d) φt = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 21.88o
o ⎟
⎝ cosψ ⎠ ⎝ cos 25 ⎠
(b) pt = πmt = π (5) = 15.71 mm
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 5 – Gears
5.13 – Force Analysis (Helical Gear) – cont…
3 components of total (normal) tooth force W are :
Wr = W sin φn
Wt = W cos φn cosψ
Wa = W cos φn sinψ
where
• W = total force
• Wv = radial component
• Wt = tangential component, also called
transmitted load
• Wa = axial component, also called thrust load
• φn = normal pressure angle
Department of Material and Engineering Design,

• ψ = helix angle 47
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 5 – Gears (Part II)


and appreciate the knowledge to:
Week 7 & 8
9 analyses and design of spur and helical gears to resist
Chapter 5 bending failure of the teeth as well as pitting failure of
Gears – Part II tooth surfaces.

BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 5 – Gears (Part II) BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 5 – Gears (Part II)
GEAR FAILURE
In this chapter, generally we will learn:-
learn:-
• 5.14 - Introduction
• 5.15 - Lewis Bending Equation Teeth Bending Tooth Surface
• 5.16 - Surface Durability Failure Pitting Failure
Occur when significant tooth stress Occur when significant contact
• 5.17 - AGMA Stress Equations equals or exceeds either the yield stress equals or exceeds the
strength or bending endurance strength. surface endurance strength.
• 5.18 - AGMA Strength Equations
• 5.19 - Safety Factors SF and SH Gear Standard and Quality
• AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association)
• BGA (British Gear Association)
• JGMA (Japanese Gear Manufacturers Association)
• EUROTRANS (European Committee of Associations of Manufacturers of Gears and Transmission Parts)
5.14 – Introduction – cont… 5.15 – Lewis Bending Equation

Example of Gear Catalog
Source: KHK Stock Gears Website: http://www.qtcgears.com/RFQ/SpurGears.htm
In gear selection, Allowable
torque is important criteria you • If power is transmitted between mating gears,
need to know. Why? How to
calculate it?
there are transmitted force W t and radial force W r.
• Maximum stress in a gear tooth is assume occurs
at point a as shown in the figure.
• Bending stress in gear tooth according to Lewis
(1892):
W t Pd
σ= (U.S. customary units)
FY
Where;
t Wt = transmitted force (Ibf or N)
W
σ= (SI units)
Pd = diametral pitch (teeth per inch)
FmY m = module (mm)
F = width of gear tooth (inch or mm)
Y = Lewis form factor (dimensionless)
Department of Material and Engineering Design, 5 Department of Material and Engineering Design, (refer Table 5-3) 6
5.15 – Lewis Bending Equation – cont… 5.15 – Lewis Bending Equation – cont…
Table 5-3: Values of the Lewis Form Factor Y
Number of
Y
Number
Y Dynamic Effects, Kv US customary units SI units
Teeth of Teeth
(Velocity in feet per (Velocity in meters
12 0.245 28 0.353 (These Values are for a Normal Pressure Angle • Present when a pair of minute) per second)
13 0.261 30 0.359 of 20o, Full Depth Teeth, and a Diametral Pitch gears is driven at
14 0.277 34 0.371 of Unity in the Plane of Rotation) moderate or high speed Cast iron, cast 600 + V 3.05 + V
Kv = Kv =
15 0.290 38 0.384 and noise is generated. profile
600 3.05
Lewis Form Factor, Y also can be calculate by
16 0.296 43 0.397 • Gear under dynamic 6.1 + V
using this formula:- Cut or milled 1200 + V Kv =
17 0.303 50 0.409 loading; Kv =
profile
1200 6.1
2xP
18 0.309 60 0.422
Y=
19 0.314 75 0.435 3 50 + V 3.56 + V
K vW t Pd Hobbed or
Kv = Kv =
20 0.322 100 0.447 Where; σ= (U.S. customary
units)
shaped profile
50 3.56
21 0.328 150 0.460 x = distance refer figure slide 6
FY
P = diametral pitch (teeth per inch) Shaved or 78 + V 5.56 + V
22 0.331 300 0.472
K Wt Kv = Kv =
σ= v
ground profile
24 0.337 400 0.480
(SI units) 78 5.56
Interpolation for Y value is needed if number of
26 0.346 Rack 0.485 teeth is not in the table.
FmY ** Where V is the pitch line velocity
5.15 – Lewis Bending Equation – cont… 5.15 – Lewis Bending Equation – cont…
Example Solution
Solution5-4
5-4- -cont…
Example5-4
5-4 cont…
A stock spur gear is available having a module of 3mm, a 38-mm face, 16 teeth, and a The pitch diameter is, D p = mN = 3(16) = 48 mm
pressure angle of 20o with full-depth teeth. The material is AISI 1020 steel in as-rolled
condition. Use a design factor of nd = 3 to rate the power output of the gear
So the pitch velocity is, V = πdn = π (0.048)(20) = 3.02 m/s
corresponding to a speed of 20 rev/s and moderate applications.
6.1 + V 6.1 + 3.02
Velocity factor is found to be, Kv = = = 1.5
6.1 6.1
Solution
Solution5-4
5-4 mFYσ allow
So the transmitted force is, Wt = where Y = 0.296 for 16 teeth
Kv
The term moderate applications seems to imply that the gear can be rated by using the
yield strength as a criterion of failure. From table A-20 in appendix, we find Sut = 380 MPa 0.003(0.038)0.296(68.7)106
and Sy = 210 MPa. A design factor of 3 means that the allowable bending stress is
Wt = = 1545.5 N
1.5
Sy 210
σ allowable = = = 70.0 MPa The power that can be transmitted is, H = W tV = 1545.5(3.02) = 4667 W
nd 3 This is a rough estimation, and that this approach must not be used for important application
5.16 – Surface Durability 5.16 – Surface Durability – cont…
Because a gear tooth experiences into and out engagement ⇒ causes contact Surface Compressive stress (Hertzian stress), σC
stress ⇒ wear and pitting 1/ 2
9 Wear depends on surface hardness ⎡ K W t ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
σ c = −C p ⎢ ν ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟⎥
Pitting ⇒ small particles are removed due to high contact stress in gear ⎣ F cos φ ⎝ r1 r2 ⎠⎦
Where;
Prolong operation after pitting
Cp = elastic coefficient
⇒ roughen (deteriorate) the teeth surface and Kν = dynamic or velocity factor
causing failure Wt = transmitted force (Ibf or N)
F = width of gear tooth (inch or mm)
To prevent pitting ⇒ computed contact stress in the gear must not exceed the φ = Pressure angle d P sin φ
allowable contact stress given by manufacturer. r1 = radii of curvature on the pinion profile ⇒ r1 =
2
d G sin φ
r2 = radii of curvature on the gear tooth profile ⇒ r2 =
Other factors can also be included in the contact stress calculation, namely: 2
reliability factor, velocity factor, size factor, etc.
Sign is negative because σC is a compressive stress.
5.16 – Surface Durability – cont… 5.16 – Surface Durability – cont…

Table 5-4: Elastic Coefficient Cp, psi ( MPa )
AGMA defines an elastic coefficient ,Cp by the equation
Gear Material and Modulus of Elasticity EG,
1/ 2 Ibf/in2 (MPa)*
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ Pinion Pinion Steel Malleable Nodular Cast Iron Aluminum Tin Bronze
1 Material Modulus of Iron Iron Bronze
Cp = ⎢ ⎥
psi ( MPa ) Elasticity EP 30 x 106 25 x 106 24 x 106 22 x 106 17.5 x 106 16 x 106
⎢ ⎛ 1 −ν P2 1 −ν G2 ⎞ ⎥ psi (MPa)* (2 x 105) (1.7 x 105) (1.7 x 105) (1.5 x 105) (1.2 x 105) (1.1 x 105)
⎢ π ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎥
EG ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
Steel 30 x 106 2300 2180 2160 2100 1950 1900
⎢⎣ ⎝ E P (2 x 105) (191) (181) (179) (174) (162) (158)
6
Malleable 25 x 10 2180 2090 2070 2020 1900 1850
Where; iron (1.7 x 105) (181) (174) (172) (168) (158) (154)
Nodular 24 x 106 2160 2070 2050 2000 1880 1830
νP &νG = Poisson’s ratio for pinion and gear iron (1.7 x 105) (179) (172) (170) (166) (156) (152)
Cast iron 22 x 106 2100 2020 2000 1960 1850 1800
(1.5 x 105) (174) (168) (166) (163) (154) (149)
EP & EG = Modulus of Elasticity for pinion and gear
6
Aluminum 17.5 x 10 1950 1900 1880 1850 1750 1700
bronze (1.2 x 105) (162) (158) (156) (154) (145) (141)
Tin bronze 16 x 106 1900 1850 1830 1800 1700 1650
Value of Cp may be computed directly from above equation or obtained from Table 5-4 (1.1 x 105) (158) (154) (152) (149) (141) (137)
Poisson’s ratio = 0.30
* When more exact values for modulus of elasticity are obtained from roller contact test, they may be used.
5.16 – Surface Durability – cont… 5.16 – Surface Durability – cont…
Example Solution
Solution5-5
5-5- -cont…
Example5-5
5-5 cont…
1/ 2
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
The pinion of Examples 5-4 is to be mated with a 50-tooth gear manufactured of ASTM 1
Calculated the elastic coefficient as Cp = ⎢ ⎥ = 150927.3
No. 50 cast iron. Using the tangential load of 1700N, estimate the factor of safety of the ⎢ ⎛ 1 − (0.292) 2 1 − (0.211) 2 ⎞ ⎥
⎢ π ⎜⎜ + ⎟ ⎥
drive based on the possibility of a surface fatigue failure. ⎣ ⎝ 207(10 )
9
100(109 ) ⎟⎠ ⎦
Solution From Example 5-4, the pinion pitch diameter is dP = 48 mm.

Solution5-5
5-5
From Table A-5 The gear pitch diameter is, d G = mN G = 3(50) = 150 mm
EP = 207 GPa
EG = 100 GPa Then the radii curvature of the tooth profiles at the pitch point.
νP = 0.292
48 sin 20 150 sin 20
νG = 0.211 rP = = 8.2 mm rG = = 25.7 mm
2 2
5.16 – Surface Durability – cont… 5.17 – AGMA Stress Equation
Solution
Solution5-5
5-5- -cont…
cont… 2 fundamental stress equations
• Bending stress Where ;
Wt = tangential transmitted load (ibf or N)
The face width is given as F = 38 mm. Use Kν = 1.5 from example 5-4. Substituting all ⎧ t Pd K m K B (U.S.
Ko = overload factor
these values to calculate contact stress as: ⎪⎪W K o K v K s F J
customary
units) Kv = dynamic factor
σ =⎨ Ks = size factor
⎡ 1.5(1700) ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
1/ 2
⎪W t K o K v K s 1 Km KB Pd = transverse diameteral pitch
σ c = −150927.3 ⎢ o ⎜
+ ⎟⎥ = −511.5 MPa (SI units)
⎩⎪
F = face width (in or mm)
⎣ 0.038 cos 20 ⎝ 0.0082 0.0257 ⎠⎦ Fmt J Km = load distribution factor
KB = rim thickness factor
The surface endurance strength of cast iron can be estimated from S c = 2.206 H B MPa J = geometry factor for bending strength
mt = transverse metric module
∴ S c = 2.206(262) = 578 MPa
• Pitting resistance (contact stress)
From table A24, ASTM No. 50 cast iron ⇒ HB = 262
Where ;
Km C f
σ c = C p W t Ko Kv K s
(U.S. Cp = elastic coefficient (√ ibf/in2 or √ N/mm2)
2 2 customary or
loss _ of _ function _ load S ⎛ 578 ⎞ Cf = surface condition factor (still not been
n= = =⎜ ⎟ = 1.28
C
d pF I SI units) establish) used Cf = 1
imposed _ load σ ⎝ 511.5 ⎠
2
C
dp = pitch diameter of the pinion (in or mm)
I = geometry factor for pitting resistance
5.17 – AGMA Stress Equation – cont… 5.17 – AGMA Stress Equation – cont…
Overload Factor, Ko Dynamic Factor, Kv

Used to account for inaccuracies in the manufacture and meshing of gear teeth in action.
• Is intended to make allowance for all externally applied loads in excess of the
nominal tangential load, Wt in a particular application. AGMA has define a set of quality numbers (Qv) to specify the tolerances for gears of
various sizes manufactured to a specified accuracy.
• Similar factors such as application factor or service factor
¾ Qv = 3 to 7 ⇒ for most commercial-quality gears
Table 5-5: Overload Factors, Ko
¾ Qv = 8 to 12 ⇒ for precision quality
Driven Machine
Dynamic factor equation :
Power Source Uniform Moderate shock Heavy shock
Generator, Machine tool main drive, Ore crusher, rolling mill, power ⎧⎛ A + V ⎞ B where ;
⎪⎜ ⎟
Centrifugal multi-cylinder compressor shovel, single cylinder
V in ft/min
compressor, pure
liquid mixer
or pump, liquid + solid
mixer
compressor or pump, punch
press ⎪⎪⎜⎝ A ⎟⎠ A = 50 + 56(1 − B)
Kv ⎨
Uniform Electric motor, steam turbine, gas
turbine 1.00 1.25 1.75 ⎪⎛ A + 200V ⎞
B B = 0.25(12 − Qv ) 2 / 3
⎪⎜⎜ ⎟ V in m/s
Light shock Multi cylinder internal combustion
1.25 1.50 2.00 ⎪⎩⎝ A ⎟
engine with many cylinder
⎠ ⎧[A + (Q − 3] 2 ft/min
Single cylinder internal combustion
Medium shock 1.50 1.75 2.25 ⎪ v
engine
Maximum velocity, (at the end point of the Qv curve) ; (Vt )max =⎨
[A + (Qv − 3] 2 m/s
⎪
Department of Material and Engineering Design, 19 Department of Material and Engineering Design, ⎩ 200 20
Size Factor, Ks
The size factor reflects nonuniformity of material properties due to size. It depends upon
¾ Tooth size
¾ Diameter of part
¾ Ratio of tooth size to diameter of part
¾ Face width
¾ Area of stress pattern
¾ Ratio of case depth to tooth size
¾ Hardenability and heat treatment
AGMA size factor equation :
0.0535
⎛F Y ⎞
( )
0.0535
K s = 1.192⎜⎜ ⎟
(U.S.
⎟ customary K s = 0.904 Fm Y (SI units)
⎝ Pd ⎠ units)
If Ks is less than 1, use Ks = 1

Figure 5-1: Dynamic factor Kv
Load Distribution Factor, Km Load Distribution Factor, Km (cont…)

The load modification factor modified the stress equations to reflect nonuniform where
distribution of load across the line of contact.
⎧1 for uncrowned teeth
Cmc ⎨
The ideal is to locate the gear “midspan” between two bearings at the zero slope place
⎩0.8 for crowned teeth
when the load is applied.
Examples of crowned teeth
However this is not always possible. The following procedure is applicable to:
¾ Net face width to pinion pitch diameter ratio F / d ≤ 2 ⎧ F
⎪10d − 0.025 F ≤ 1 in
¾ Gear elements mounted between the bearings ⎪ d and F must
⎪ F
¾ Face widths up to 40 in C pf =⎨ − 0.0375 + 0.0125 F 1< F ≤ 17 in be in US
⎪10d customary
¾ Contact, when loaded, across the full width of the narrowest member ⎪ F units (in)
2
⎪10d − 0.1109 + 0.0207 F − 0.000228 F 17 < F ≤ 40 in
Face load distribution factor : ⎩
K m = Cmf = 1 + Cmc (C pf C pm + Cma Ce ) for values of
F
< 0.05 ,
F
= 0.05 is used.
10d 10d
Load Distribution Factor, Km (cont…) Load Distribution Factor, Km (cont…)
⎧1 for straddle-mounted pinion with S1/S < 0.175 Cma = A + BF + CF 2

C pm ⎨
⎩1 .1 for straddle-mounted pinion with S1/S ≥ 0.175
Table 5-6: Empirical Constants A, B, and C for Face Width F in Inches
Condition A B C
Open Gearing 0.247 0.0167 -0.765(10-4)
Commercial, enclosed units 0.127 0.0158 -0.930(10-4)
Precision, enclosed units 0.0675 0.0128 -0.926(10-4)
Extra precision enclosed gear units 0.00360 0.0102 -0.822(10-4)
Figure 5-2: Definition of distances S and S1 used in evaluating Cpm
Load Distribution Factor, Km (cont…) Load Distribution Factor, Km (cont…)
for gearing adjusted at assembly, or compatibility

⎧ 0.8
Ce = ⎨ is improved by lapping, or both
⎩ 1 for all other conditions
Figure 5-3: Mesh alignment factor Cma

Rim-Thickness Factor, KB Rim-Thickness Factor, KB (cont…)

Rim thickness factor adjusts the estimate bending stress for the thin-rimmed gear.
If the rim thickness is not sufficient to provide full support for the tooth root, the location of
bending fatigue failure may be through the gear rim rather than at the tooth fillet.
Rim thickness factor :
⎧ 2.242
⎪1.6 ln mB < 1.2
KB = ⎨ mB
⎪1
⎩ mB ≥ 1.2
where mB is a function of the backup ratio
tR
mB = Figure 5-4: Rim thickness factor KB
ht
Bending-Strength Geometry Factor, J Bending-Strength Geometry Factor, J – cont…
Used Fig. 5-5 to obtain

the geometry factor J
for spur gears having a
20o pressure angle and
full-depth teeth. Use
Fig. 5-6 and 5-7 for
helical gears having a
20o normal pressure
angle and face contact
ratios of mF = 2 or
greater. For other
gears, consult the
AGMA standard.
Figure 5-5: Spur-gear geometry factors J. Figure 5-6: Helical-gear geometry factors J.
Bending-Strength Geometry Factor, J – cont… Surface-Strength Geometry Factor, I

Also known as pitting-resistance geometry factor by AGMA
For both spur and helical gears:- For helical gear
⎧ cos φt sin φt mG mN =
pN and p N = pn cos φn
external gears
⎪⎪ 2m mG + 1 0.95Z
I =⎨ N
cos φt sin φt mG where
⎪ internal gears
⎪⎩ 2mN mG − 1 PN = Normal base pitch
Pn = Normal circular pitch
where:
φn = Normal pressure angle
mN = Load sharing ratio ( = 1 for spur gear)
Z = Length line of action in transverse plane.
mG = Gear ratio (never less than 1) (distance Lab in slide chapter 9 page 35)
φt = Transverse pressure angle

[ ] [ ]
1/ 2 1/ 2
Z = (rP + a ) − rb2 P + (rG + a ) − rb2 G − (rP + rG )sin φt
2 2
r P,G = pitch radius (pinion or gear)

Figure 5-7: J factor multipliers for use with Fig. 10-6 to find J. a = addendum
Department of Material and Engineering Design, 33 Department of Material and Engineering Design, rb P,G = base circle radius r = r cos φ 34
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, b t
University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor. University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor. (pinion or gear)
5.18 – AGMA Strength Equation 5.18 – AGMA Strength Equation – cont…
AGMA introduced 2 types of strength: Equation for allowable bending stress:
1) St - Gear bending strength (Allowable bending stress number) ⎧ St YN

⎪⎪ S K K (U.S. customary units)
(refer Figs. 5-8, 5-9, 5-10 and Tables 5-7, 5,8)
σ all ⎨ F T R
S Y
⎪ t N (SI units)
2) Sc - Contact fatigue strength (Allowable contact stress number) ⎪⎩ S F Yθ YZ
(refer Fig. 5-11 and Tables 5-9, 5,10, 5-11)
where
Both allowable stress numbers (strength) are for: St = Gear bending strength, Ibf/in2 (MPa) (refer Figs. 5-8, 5-9, 5-10 and Tables 5-7, 5,8)
9 Unidirectional loading YN = Stress cycle factor for bending stress (refer Figs. 5-12)
9 10 million stress cycles Kt (Yθ) = Temperature factor
9 99 % reliability KR (YZ) = Reliability factor (refer Tables 5-12)
SF = AGMA factor of safety, stress ratio
5.18 – AGMA Strength Equation – cont… 5.18 – AGMA Strength Equation – cont…
Equation for contact bending stress:
⎧ Sc Z N CH
⎪⎪ S KT K R
(U.S. customary units)
σ c ,all ⎨ H
S Z N ZW
⎪ c (SI units)
⎪⎩ S H Yθ YZ
where
Sc = Contact fatigue strength, Ibf/in2 (MPa) (refer Fig. 5-11 and Tables 5-9, 5,10, 5-11)
ZN = Stress cycle life factor (refer Figs. 5-13)
CH (ZW) = Hardness ratio factors for pitting resistance (used for gear only) (refer Figs. 5-14 & 5-15)
Kt (Yθ) = Temperature factor

KR (YZ) = Reliability factor (refer Tables 5-12) Figure 5-8: Allowable bending stress number for through-hardened steels. The SI equations are
St = 0.533HB + 88.3 MPa, grade 1, and St = 0.703 HB + 113 MPa, grade 2.
SH = AGMA factor of safety, stress ratio (Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 and 2101-D04.)
Figure 5-10: Allowable bending

stress number for nitriding steels
gears St. The SI equations are :
St = 0.594HB + 87.76 MPa,

Nitralloy grade 1,
St = 0.784HB + 114.81 MPa,
Nitralloy grade 2,
St = 0.7255HB + 63.89 MPa,
2.5% chrome grade 1,
St = 0.7255HB + 153.63 MPa,
2.5% chrome grade 2
St = 0.7255HB + 201.91 MPa,
2.5% chrome grade 3.
(Source: ANSI/AGMA
2001-D04 and 2101-D04.)
Figure 5-9: Allowable bending stress number for nitrided through-hardened steels gears (i.e., AISI 4140, 4340) St.
The SI equations are St = 0.568HB + 83.8 MPa, grade 1, and St = 0.749 HB + 110 MPa, grade 2.
(Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 and 2101-D04.)
Table 5-7: Repeatedly Applied Bending Strength St at 107 Cycles and 0.99 Reliability for Steel Gears
Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04
Table 5-8: Repeatedly Applied Bending Strength St for Iron and Bronze Gears at 107 Cycles and 0.99 Reliability
Minimum Allowable Bending Stress Number, St2 Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04
Material Surface psi (MPa) Allowable Bending

Hardness
Designation Heat Treatment Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Material Material Heat Treatment Typical Minimum Stress Number, St
Steel Through-hardened See Fig. 5-8 See Fig. 5-8 See Fig. 5-8 - Designation Surface Hardness psi (MPa)
Flame or induction 45 000 (310) 55 000 (380) - ASTM A48 Class 20 As cast - 5000 (35)
hardened with type gray cast
Class 30 As cast 174 HB 8500 (58)
A pattern iron
Class 40 As cast 201 HB 13 000 (90)
Flame or induction 22 000 (151) 22 000 (151) -
hardened with type ASTM A536 Grade 60-40-18 Annealed 140 HB 22 000 - 33 000 (151 - 227)
B pattern ductile
(nodular) Grade 80-55-06 Quenched and tempered 179 HB 22 000 - 33 000 (151 - 227)
Carburized and 55 000 (380) 65 000 or (448 or 75 000 (517)
Iron Grade 100-70-03 Quenched and tempered 229 HB 27 000 - 40 000 (186 - 275)
hardened 70 0006 482)
Grade 120-90-02 Quenched and tempered 269 HB 31 000 - 44 000 (213 - 275)
Nitrided (through- 83.5 HR15N See Fig. 5-9 See Fig. 5-9 -
hardened steels) Bronze Sand cast Minimum tensile 5700 (39)
strength 40 000 psi
Nitralloy 135M, Nitrided 87.5 HR15N See Fig. 5-10 See Fig. 5-10 See Fig. 5-10
Nitralloy N, and ASTM B-148 Heat treated Minimum tensile 23 600 (163)
2.5% chrome Alloy 954 strength 90 000 psi
(no aluminum)
Figure 5-11: Contact-fatigue

strength Sc at 107 cycles and 0.99
Table 5-9: Nominal Temperature Used in Nitriding and Hardnesses Obtained
reliability for through-hardened steel
Source: Darle W. Dudley, Handbook of Practical Gear Design, rev. ed., McGraw-Hill. New York, 1984
gears. The SI equations are :
Temperature Hardness, Rockwell
Sc = 2.22HB + 200 MPa, grade 1, Before C Scale
Steel Nitriding, oF
Nitriding, oF
and
Case Core
Nitralloy 135 1150 975 62 - 65 30 - 35
Sc = 2.41HB + 237 MPa, grade 2. Nitralloy 135M 1150 975 62 - 65 32 - 36
(Source: ANSI/AGMA Nitralloy N 1000 975 62 - 65 40 - 44

2001-D04 and 2101-D04.)
AISI 4340 1100 975 48 - 53 27 - 35
AISI 4140 1100 975 49 - 54 27 - 35
31 Cr Mo V 9 1100 975 58 - 62 27 - 33
Table 5-10: Repeatedly Applied Contact Strength Sc at 107 Cycles and 0.99 Reliability for Steel Gears
Table 5-11: Repeatedly Applied Contact Strength Sc for Iron and Bronze Gears at 107 Cycles and 0.99 Reliability
Minimum Allowable Contact Stress Number, Sc2 Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04
Material Surface psi (MPa) Allowable Contact

Hardness
Designation Heat Treatment Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Material Material Heat Treatment Typical Minimum Stress Number, Sc
Steel Through-hardened See Fig. 5-11 See Fig. 5-11 See Fig. 5-11 ─ Designation Surface Hardness psi (MPa)
Flame or induction 50 HRC 170 000 (1172) 190 000 (1310) ─ ASTM A48 Class 20 As cast - 50 000 – 60 000 (344 – 415)
hardened 54 HRC 175 000 (1206) 195 000 (1344) ─ gray cast
Class 30 As cast 174 HB 65 000 – 75 000 (448 – 517)
iron
Carburized and 180 000 (1240) 225 000 (1551) 275 000 (1896) Class 40 As cast 201 HB 75 000 – 85 000 (517 – 586)
hardened
ASTM A536 Grade 60-40-18 Annealed 140 HB 77 000 – 92 000 (530 – 634)
Nitrided (through- 83.5 HR15N 150 000 (1035) 163 000 (1123) 175 000 (1206) ductile
hardened steels) 84.5 HR15N 155 000 (1068) 168 000 (1158) 180 000 (1240) (nodular) Grade 80-55-06 Quenched and tempered 179 HB 77 000 – 92 000 (530 – 634)
Iron Grade 100-70-03 Quenched and tempered 229 HB 92 000 – 112 000 (634 – 772)
2.5% chrome Nitrided 87.5 HR15N 155 000 (1068) 172 000 (1186) 189 000 (1303)
(no aluminum) Grade 120-90-02 Quenched and tempered 269 HB 103 000 – 126 000 (710 – 868)
Nitralloy 135M Nitrided 90.0 HR15N 170 000 (1172) 183 000 (1261) 195 000 (1344) Bronze Sand cast Minimum tensile 30 000 (206)
strength 40 000 psi
Nitralloy N Nitrided 90.0 HR15N 172 000 (1186) 188 000 (1296) 205 000 (1413)
ASTM B-148 Heat treated Minimum tensile 65 000 (448)
2.5% chrome Nitrided 90.0 HR15N 176 000 (1213) 196 000 (1351) 216 000 (1490) Alloy 954 strength 90 000 psi
(no aluminum)
Stress Cycle Factor for Bending Stress, YN Stress Cycle Life Factor, ZN
Figure 5-13:
Pitting resistance stress-cycle
Figure 5-12: factor ZN.
Repeatedly applied bending (Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04)
strength stress-cycle factor YN.
(Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04)
Hardness Ratio Factor, CH Hardness Ratio Factor, CH

• Pinion is subjected to more cycles of contact stress (due to smaller size)
• The hardness-ratio factor is used only for gear to adjust the gear surface strength due to different
condition of pinion and gear hardness and size;
Hardness Ratio Factor, Hardness ⎛ H B (P) ⎞
⎜ ⎟
CH Ratio ⎜H ⎟
⎝ B (G) ⎠
Both pinion and gear are H B (P) A’ = 0
through hardened
C H = 1 + A' (mG − 1) < 1.2
H B (G)
See figure 10-14 (slide 50)
H B (P) ⎛ H B (P) ⎞
Surface hardened pinion is 1.2 ≤ ≤ 1.7 A' = 8.98(10 −3 )⎜ ⎟ − 8.29(10 −3 )
H B (G) ⎜ H B (G) ⎟
mated with through hardened ⎝ ⎠
gear
A’ = 0.00698
H B (P)
> 1.7 Figure 5-14:
H B (G)
Hardness ratio factor CH
Surface hardened pinions with (through-hardened steel).
hardnesses of 48 Rockwell C C H = 1 + B ' (450 − H BG ) B’ = 0.00075 exp [ 0.0112 fP ] (Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04)
scale or harder mated with See figure 10-15 (slide 51)
through hardened gears (180- where fP is the surface finish of the pinion expressed
400 Brinell) as root-mean-square roughness Ra in µ in.
Hardness Ratio Factor, CH Reliability Factor, KR (YZ) Temperature Factor, KT (Yθ)
Table 5-12: Realibility Factor KR (YZ) temperatur e ≤ 250 o F (120 o C)

KR (YZ)
Reliability
K T = Yθ = 1
0.9999 1.50
0.999 1.25
0.99 1.00 For higher temperature, heat exchangers may be

used to ensure that operating temperatures are
0.90 0.85 considerably below this value.
0.50 0.70
Figure 5-15:
Hardness ratio factor CH
(surface-hardened steel pinion).
(Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04)
5.19 – Safety Factors SF and SH Roadmap of Gear Analysis
Refer also roadmap given in the Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design book (9th edition):
Safety factor SF guarding against bending failure:
• Roadmap of spur gear bending equations based on AGMA standards in U.S. customary units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-
fully corrected bending strength S t YN /( K T K R ) D04) – Figure 14-17 page 766
SF = =
bending stress σ • Roadmap of spur gear wear equations based on AGMA standards in U.S. customary units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04)
– Figure 14-17 page 767
• Roadmap of spur gear bending equations based on AGMA standards in SI units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04) – Figure
B-1 page 1061
Safety factor SH guarding against pitting failure:
• Roadmap of spur gear wear equations based on AGMA standards in SI units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04) – Figure B-2
fully corrected contact strength S c Z N C H /( K T K R ) page 1062
SH * = = • Roadmap summary of principal straight-bevel gear wear equations and their parameters in U.S. customary units.
contact stress σc (ANSI/AGMA 2003-B97). – Figure 15-14 page 801
• Roadmap summary of principal straight-bevel gear bending equations and their parameters in U.S. customary units.
(ANSI/AGMA 2003-B97). . – Figure 15-15 page 802
* Important: • Roadmap summary of principal straight-bevel gear wear equations and their parameters based on AGMA standards
in SI units. – Figure B-3 page 1063
When deciding whether bending or wear is the threat to function, compare SF with S2H. For
• Roadmap summary of principal straight-bevel gear bending equations and their parameters based on AGMA
crowned gears compare SF with S3H.
standards in SI units. – Figure B-4 page 1064
Roadmap of Gear Analysis (Spur Gear Bending) Roadmap of Gear Analysis (Spur Gear Wear)
AGMA standards in U.S. customary units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04) AGMA standards in U.S. customary units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04)
Slide 47 Slide 48 Slide 49
(Gear only)
Slide 38 ~ 42 Slide 43 ~ 46
N
dP = P
πdn N
dP = P
πdn
V= Gear V= Gear
Pd 12 bending S YN Pd 12 contact Sc Z N CH
endurance σ all = t (slide 36) endurance σ c, all = (slide 37)
strength S F KT K R 33000 H strength S H KT K R
33000 H equation W = t
equation
Wt = Slide 29, 30 1 if T < 250o F
V 1
1 if T < 250o F
V
Slide 13, 14 Slide 23
Slide 23 Slide 52 Slide 52
Gear Gear
Pd K m K B ⎛ t K C ⎞
bending
stress
σ = W t Ko Kv Ks (slide 18) contact
stress
σ c = Cp ⎜⎜W K o K v K s m f ⎟⎟ (slide 18) Gear only
equation
F J
equation
⎝ dP F I ⎠
Wear
Bending
S t YN /( K T K R ) S c Z N C H /( K T K R )
Slide 19 factor of SF = (slide 53) Slide 19 factor SH = (slide 53)
safety σ Slide 34 of σc
Slide 20, 21 Slide 31 (Spur Gear) Slide 20, 21 safety
Slide 22 Slide 32, 33 (Helix gear) Slide 22
Remember when deciding whether bending or wear is the threat to function, compare SF with S2H. Remember when deciding whether bending or wear is the threat to function, compare SF with S2H.
For crowned gears compare SF with S3H. For crowned gears compare SF with S3H.
Examples Examples – cont…
Example
Example5-6
5-6 Solution
Solution5-6
5-6
A 17-tooth 20o pressure angle spur pinion rotates at 1800 rev/min and transmits 4 hp to a 52-tooth There will be many term to obtain, so use roadmap in slide 54 & 55 as guides to what is needed:
disk gear. The diametral pitch is 10 teeth/in, the face width 1.5 in, and the quality standard is No. 6.
d P = N P / Pd = 17 / 10 = 1.7 in 0.8255
The gears are straddle-mounted with bearings immediately adjacent. The pinion is grade 1 steel with ⎛ 59.77 + 801.1 ⎞
a hardness of 240 Brinell tooth surface through-hardened core. The gear is steel, through-hardened Kv = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.377
d G = 52 / 10 = 5.2 in ⎜ 59.77 ⎟
also, grade 1 material, with a Brinell hardness of 200, tooth surface and core. Poisson’s ratio is 0.30, ⎝ ⎠
JP=0.30, JG=0.40, and Young’s modulus is 30(106) psi. The loading is smooth because of motor and πd P n P π (1.7)1800 To determine the size factor, Ks , the Lewis form
load. Assume a pinion life of 108 cycles and a reliability of 0.90, and use YN=1.3558N -0.0178, V= = = 801.1 ft/min factor is needed. From table 5-3, with NP = 17 teeth,
12 12
ZN=1.4488N -0.023. The tooth profile is uncrowned. This is a commercial enclosed gear unit. YP = 0.303. Interpolation for the gear with NG = 52
teeth yields YG = 0.412. Thus, with F = 1.5 in ,
33000 H 33000(4)
Wt = = = 164.8 ibf
a) Find the factor of safety of the gears in bending. V 801.1 0.0535
⎛ 0.303 ⎞⎟
b) Find the factor of safety of the gears in wear. Assuming uniform loading, Ko = 1. To evaluate Kv , (K s )P = 1.192⎜⎜ 1.5 + ⎟
= 1.043
with a quality number Qv = 6, ⎝ 10 ⎠
c) By examining the factors of safety, identify the threat to each gear and to the mesh.
B = 0.25(12 − 6) 2 / 3 = 0.8255 ⎛ 0.412 ⎞⎟
0.0535
(K s )G = 1.192⎜⎜ 1.5 + ⎟
= 1.052
A = 50 + 56(1 − 0.8255) = 59.77 ⎝ 10 ⎠
Examples – cont… Examples – cont…
Solution
Solution5-6
5-6––cont…
cont… Solution
Solution5-6
5-6––cont…
cont…
The load distribution factor Km is determined where 5 Assuming constant thickness gears, the rim From table 5-4 (slide 14), CP = 2300 psi. Form figure 5-13 (slide 48) ;
terms are needed: They are thickness factor KB = 1. The speed ratio is
Next, the terms of gear endurance strength need to
C mc = 1 (uncrowned)
mG = NG / NP = 52 / 17 = 3.059.
be calculate. From table 5-7 (slide 41) for grade 1 (Z N )P = 1.4488 (10 8 ) −0.023 = 0.948
(C ) = 1.5 /[10(1.7)] − 0.0375 + 0.0125(1.5) = 0.0695
The load cycle factors given in the problem through-hardened steel with HB(P) = 240 and (Z N )G = 1.4488 (10 8 / 3.059 ) − 0.023 = 0.973
pf P
statement, with N (pinion) = 108 cycles and HB(G) = 200 select figure 5-8 (slide 38) ;
(C ) = 0.05 − 0.0375 + 0.0125(1.5) = 0.0313 N (gear) = 108 / mG = 108 / 3.059 cycles are:
(S t )P
pf G
= 77 .3( 240 ) + 12 ,800 = 31,350 psi For the hardness ratio factor CH, the hardness
C pm = 1 (Bearing immediately adjacent) ratio is HB(P) / HB(G) = 240/200 = 1.2. Then, from
C ma = 0.15 (Commercia l enclosed gear unit)
(YN ) P = 1.3558 (10 ) 8 −0.0178
= 0.977 (S t )G = 77 .3( 200 ) + 12 ,800 = 28 , 260 psi slide 49
Ce = 1 (YN ) G = 1.3558 (10 8 / 3.059 ) − 0.0178 = 0.996
Similarly, from table 5-10 (slide 45), use figure 10-11 A' = 8 .98 (10 −3 )(1 .2 ) − 8 .29 (10 −3 ) = 0 .00249
(K m )P = 1 + C mc ( C pf C pm + C ma C e ) From table 5-12 (slide 52), with a reliability of 0.9, (slide 43)
KR = 0.85, From slide 56, the temperature and ∴ C H = 1 + 0 .00249 (3 .059 − 1) = 1 .005
= 1 + 1[ 0 . 0695 (1) + 0 . 15 (1)]
surface condition factor; KT = 1 & Cf = 1. From slide (S c )P = 322 ( 240 ) + 29 ,100 = 106 , 400 psi
= 1 . 22
34, with mN = 1 for spur gears; (S c )G = 322 ( 200 ) + 29 ,100 = 93 ,500 psi
(K m )G = 1 . 18
cos 20 sin 20 3.059
o o
Department of Material and Engineering Design, I= = 0.121 59 Department of Material and Engineering Design, 60
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, 2 3.059 + 1 Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
Solution Gear tooth bending ⎛ S Z C / KT K R ⎞

Solution5-6
5-6––cont…
cont… Solution
Solution5-6
5-6––cont…
cont… ( S H ) G = ⎜⎜ c N H ⎟⎟
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 1 . 18 (1) ⎞ ⎝ σc ⎠G
(σ ) G = 164 . 8 (1)(1 . 377 )(1 . 052 ) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
(a) Pinion tooth bending ⎝ 1 . 5 ⎠ ⎝ 0 . 40 ⎠ ⎛ 93,500 ( 0 .973 )(1 .005 ) / 1( 0 .85 ) ⎞
⎛ S Z / KT K R ⎞ =⎜ ⎟
= 4695 psi ( S H ) P = ⎜⎜ c N ⎟
⎟ 69496
σc ⎝ ⎠
⎛ P K K ⎞ ⎝ ⎠P
(σ ) P = ⎜ W t K o K v K s d m B ⎟ = 1.55
⎝ F J ⎠P ⎛ 28 , 260 ( 0 .996 ) / 1( 0 .85 ) ⎞ ⎛ 106 , 400 ( 0 .948 ) / 1( 0 .85 ) ⎞
(S F )G = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜
⎝ 4695 ⎠ 70 ,360 ⎟⎟
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 1 .22 (1) ⎞ ⎝ ⎠ (c) Threat Comparison (tooth bending or wear)
= 164 .8 (1)(1 .377 )(1 .043 ) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 .5 ⎠ ⎝ 0 .30 ⎠ = 7.05 = 1.69
= 6417 psi Bending Wear
(b) Pinion tooth wear FOS FOS Threat
Gear tooth wear ( SF ) ( SH )2
1/ 2
⎛ S Y / KT K R ⎞ ⎛ K Cf ⎞
(S F ) P = ⎜ t N ⎟ (σ c ) P = ⎜⎜ W t K o K v K s m ⎟ ⎡ 1 .18 1 ⎤
1/ 2
1.692 =
⎝ σ ⎠P ⎝ d P F I ⎟⎠ P (σ c ) G = 2300 ⎢164 .8(1)1 .377 (1 .052 ) Pinion 5.62 wear
1 .7 (1 .5) 0 .121 ⎥⎦
2.86
⎛ 31,350 ( 0 .977 ) / 1( 0 .85 ) ⎞ 1/ 2 ⎣
=⎜ ⎟ ⎡ 1 .22 1 ⎤ 1.552 =
⎝ 6417 ⎠ = 2300 ⎢164 .8(1)1 .377 (1 .043 ) ⎥ = 69 , 496 psi Gear 7.05 wear
⎣ 1 .7 (1 .5) 0 .121 ⎦ 2.39
= 5.62
= 70 ,360 psi
Example
Example5-7
5-7 Solution
Solution5-7
5-7
All of the parameters in this example are the same as in example 5-6 with the exception that we are
A 17-tooth 20o normal pitch-angle helical pinion with a right hand helix angle of 30o rotates at 1800 using helical gears. Thus, several terms will be the same as example 5-6. The reader should verify that
rev/min and transmits 4 hp to a 52-tooth helical gear. The normal diametral pitch is 10 teeth/in, the the following terms remain unchanged: Ko = 1, YP = 0.303, YG = 0.412, mG = 3.059, (Ks)P = 1.043,
face width 1.5 in, and the set has a quality number of 6. The gears are straddle-mounted with (Ks)G = 1.052, (YN)P = 0.977, (YN)G = 0.996, KR = 0.85, KT = 1, Cf = 1, CP = 2300 √psi, (St)P = 31,350 psi,
bearings immediately adjacent. The pinion and gear are made from a through-hardened steel with (St)G = 28,260 psi, (Sc)P = 106,380 psi, (Sc)G = 93,500 psi, (ZN)P = 0.948, (ZN)G = 0.973 and CH = 1.005
surface and core hardnesses of 240 Brinell on the pinion and surface and core hardnessess of 200
Brinell on the gear. The transmission is smooth, connecting an electric motor and a centrifugal For helical gears, the transverse diametral pitch;
pump. Assume a pinion life of 108 cycles and a reliability of 0.90, and use the upper curve in Figs. 33000 H 33000(4)
10-12 and 10-13. Pt = Pn cosψ = 10(cos 30 o ) = 8.660 teeth/in Wt = = = 142.7 ibf
V 925
Thus the pitch diameters are dP = NP / Pt =
a) Find the factor of safety of the gears in bending. 17 / 8.660 =1.963 in and dG = 52 / 0.8660 = As in previous example; for the dynamic factor,
b) Find the factor of safety of the gears in wear. 6.005 in. The pitch line velocity and B = 0.8255 and A = 59.77. Thus
c) By examining the factors of safety, identify the threat to each gear and to the mesh. transmitted force are:
0.8255
⎛ 59.77 + 925 ⎞
πd P n P π (1.963)1800 Kv = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.404
V= = = 925 ft/min ⎜ 59.77 ⎟
12 12 ⎝ ⎠
Solution
Solution5-7
5-7––cont…
cont… Solution
Solution5-7
5-7––cont…
cont…
The geometry factor I for helical gears requires a Then the surface strength geometry factor The load sharing ratio : The load-distribution factor Km is estimated :
little work. First, the transverse pressure angle is
given by : ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ 0.2952 ⎞ C mc = 1 (uncrowned)
Z = (0.9815 + 0.1) 2 − 0.9048 2 + m N = ⎜ N ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.6895
⎝ 0.95Z ⎠ ⎝ 0.95(0.4507 ) ⎠ (C ) =
1. 5
− 0.0375 + 0.0125(1.5) = 0.0577
⎛ tan φ n ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ tan 20 (3.004 + 0.1) 2 − 2.769 2 10(1.963)
o pf P
−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 22.80 o
φt = tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ cos 30 o ⎟ The surface strength geometry factor :
⎝ cosψ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ − (0.9815 + 3.004) sin 22.80 o (C )
pf G = 0.05 − 0.0375 + 0.0125(1.5) = 0.0313
⎛ sin 22.80 o cos 22.80 o ⎞⎛ 3.06 ⎞
= 0.5924 + 1.4027 - 1.544.4 = 0.4507 in I =⎜ ⎟⎜ = 0.195
The radii of the pinion and gear are rP = 1.963 / 2 = ⎜ 2(0.6895) ⎟⎝ 3.06 + 1 ⎟⎠ C pm = 1 (Bearing immediately adjacent)
⎝ ⎠
0.9815 in and rG = 6.004 / 2 = 3.002 in. The
Since the first two terms are less than 1.5444, the C ma = 0.15 (Commercia l enclosed gear unit)
addendum is a = 1 / Pn = 1 / 10 = 0.1, and the base From slide 32, The geometry factors JP’ = 0.45 and
equation for Z stands. The normal base pitch pN is Ce = 1
circle radii of the pinion and gear are given by: JG’ = 0.54. Also from slide 33, the J-factor multipliers
π are 0.94 and 0.98, correcting JP’ and JG’ to: (K m )P = 1 + C mc ( C pf C pm + C ma C e )
(rb ) P = rP cos φt = 0.9815(cos 22.80 o ) = 0.9048 in ( p N ) = p n cos φ n = cos φ n
PN
J P = 0.45(0.94) = 0.423 = 1 + 1[ 0 . 0577 (1) + 0 . 15 (1)]
(rb ) G = rG cos φt = 3.002(cos 22.80 o ) = 2.767 in π
= cos 20 o = 0.2952 in J G = 0.54(0.98) = 0.529 = 1 . 208
10 (K m )G = 1 . 181
Solution Gear tooth bending

Solution5-7
5-7––cont…
cont… Solution
Solution5-7–
5-7–cont…
cont… ⎛ S Z C / KT K R ⎞
( S H ) G = ⎜⎜ c N H
⎛ 8 . 66 ⎞ ⎛ 1 . 181 (1) ⎞ σc ⎟⎟
(σ ) G = 142 . 7 (1)(1 . 404 )(1 . 052 ) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠G
(a) Pinion tooth bending ⎝ 1 . 5 ⎠ ⎝ 0 . 529 ⎠
⎛ S Z / KT K R ⎞ ⎛ 93,500 ( 0 .973 )(1 .005 ) / 1( 0 .85 ) ⎞
= 2717 psi ( S H ) P = ⎜⎜ c N ⎟ =⎜ ⎟
σc ⎟ ⎝ 47 ,888 ⎠
⎛ P K K ⎞ ⎝ ⎠P
(σ ) P = ⎜ W t K o K v K s d m B ⎟ ⎛ 28 , 260 ( 0 .996 ) / 1( 0 .85 ) ⎞ = 2 .2 5
⎝ F J ⎠P (S F )G = ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ 106 , 400 ( 0 .948 ) / 1( 0 .85 ) ⎞
⎝ 2717 ⎠ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎛ 8 .66 ⎞ ⎛ 1 .208 (1) ⎞ ⎝ 48 , 230 ⎠ (c) Threat Comparison (tooth bending or wear)
= 142 .7 (1)(1 .404 )(1 .043 ) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 1 2 .2
⎝ 1 .5 ⎠ ⎝ 0 .423 ⎠ = 2.46
= 3445 psi Bending Wear
(b) Pinion tooth wear FOS FOS Threat
Gear tooth wear ( SF ) ( SH )2
⎛ S Y / KT K R ⎞ 1/ 2
(S F ) P = ⎜ t N ⎟ ⎛ K Cf ⎞ 1/ 2
⎝ σ ⎠P (σ c ) P = ⎜⎜ W t K o K v K s m ⎟ ⎡ 1.181 1 ⎤ 2.462 =
d P F I ⎟⎠ P (σ c ) G = 2300 ⎢142 .7 (1)1.404 (1.052 )
⎝ ⎣ 1.963(1.5) 0.195 ⎥⎦ Pinion 10.5
6.05
wear
⎛ 31,350 ( 0 .977 ) / 1( 0 .85 ) ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ 1/ 2
= 47,888 psi
⎝ 3445 ⎠ ⎡ 1 .208 1 ⎤ 2.252 =
= 2300 ⎢142 .7 (1)1 .404 (1 .043 ) ⎥ Gear 12.2 wear
= 1 0 .5 ⎣ 1 .963 (1 .5) 0 .195 ⎦ 5.05
= 48 , 230 psi
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 6 – Shaft Design

• select suitable material for shaft design
Week 9
• perform load, stress, and power calculations analytically as applied to
a shaft components.
Chapter 6 • design a shaft with some consideration on static and fatigue failure.
Shaft Design • do tolerance analysis and specify appropriate tolerances for shaft
design applications

BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 6 – Shaft Design BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 6 – Shaft Design
What is shaft?!
• 6.1 - Introduction ~a rotating member,
usually of circular cross
• 6.2 - Shaft Materials section
• 6.3 - Shaft Layout
What it is used for?!
• 6.4 - Shaft Design for Stress
~to transmit power or
• 6.5 - Deflection Considerations motion
• 6.6 - Limits and Fits ~It provides the axis of
rotation, or oscillation, of
elements such as gears,
pulleys, flywheels, cranks
and the like, and controls
the geometry of their
motion.
6.1 – Introduction – cont… 6.1 – Introduction – cont…
What is axle?!
What is spindle?!
An axle is a nonrotating member A spindle is a short shaft. Terms
that carries no torque and such as lineshaft, headshaft,
stub shaft, transmission shaft,
countershaft, and flexible shaft
are names associated with
What it is used for?!
special usage.
is used to support rotating
wheels, pulleys and etc.
Tapered roller bearings used in a
mowing-machine spindle. This design
Train wheels are affixed to a straight represents good practice for situations
axle, such that both wheels rotate in where one or more torque-transfer
unison. elements must be mounted outboard.
6.1 – Introduction – cont… 6.2 – Shaft Materials
Considerations for Shaft Design

• Many shafts are made from low carbon, cold-drawn or hot-rolled steel, such as ANSI
• Material Selection 1020-1050 steels.
• Geometric Layout • A good practice is to start with an inexpensive, low or medium carbon steel for the first
time through the design calculations.
• Stress and strength
• Deflection primarily controlled by geometry, not material.
– Static strength
• Stress controlled by geometry, not material.
– Fatigue strength
• Strength controlled by material property.
• Deflection and rigidity
– Bending deflection • Shafts usually don’t need to be surface hardened unless they serve as the actual journal
of a bearing surface.
– Torsional deflection
– Slope at bearings and shaft-supported elements • Cold drawn steel typical for d < 3 in.
– Shear deflection due to transverse loading of short shafts • Hot rolled steel common for larger sizes. Should be machined all over.
• Vibration due to natural frequency
6.2 – Shaft Materials – cont… 6.3 – Shaft Layout
• For low production - turning is the suitable process (minimum material removal may be
design goal). • Issues to consider for
• For High production - Forming or casting is common where minimum material may be shaft layout
design goal. Cast iron may be specified if the production quantity is high, and the gears – Axial layout of
are to be integrally cast with the shaft. components
• Stainless steel may be appropriate for some environments – e.g. Involved in food – Supporting axial
processing. loads
– Providing for torque
transmission
– Assembly and
Disassembly
6.3 – Shaft Layout – cont… 6.3 – Shaft Layout – cont…
Axial
AxialLayout
LayoutofofComponents
Components Various
Variousmethod
methodtotoattach
attachelement
elementon
onshaft.
shaft.
clamp snap ring
collar
y Axial loads must be key taper pin
hub
supported through a shaft
hub
bearing
bearing to the bearing step
frame.
y Generally best for press
step step
step
only one bearing to fit press

axial fit
carry axial load to clearance
sheave
shoulder frame frame
sprocket
y Allows greater gear
tolerances and
prevents binding Assembly/Disassembly → progressively smaller diameter toward the ends
Axial clearance → to allow machinery vibration
Keys/pins/rings → to secure rotating elements ( gear, pulley, etc)
Common
Commonshaft
shaft
loading
loadingmechanism:
mechanism:
• Significant detail is required
to completely specify the
geometry needed to
fabricate a shaft.
• The geometry of a shaft is
generally that of a stepped
cylinder.
• The use of shaft shoulders is
an excellent means of axially
locating the shaft elements
and to carry any thrust
loads.
Common
Commontorque
torquetransfer
transferelements:
elements: Pins:
Pins:
• Keys
• Splines
• Setscrews
Round pins Taper pins Split tubular
• Pins spring pins
• Press or shrink fits - Pins are used for axial positioning and for the transfer of torque or thrust or both.
- Some pins should not be used to transmit very much torque
• Tapered fits
- Weakness – will generate stress concentration to the shaft
Keys
Keysand
andkeyseats:
keyseats: Spline
Splineshaft
shaftand
andHub:
Hub:
- Used when large amounts of torque are to be transferred

Keys are used to transmit torque from a component to the shaft. - Stress concentration is generally quite moderate
Locational
Locationaldevice:
device: Nut
Nutand
andWasher:
Washer:
• Nut and washer

• Sleeve
• Shaft shoulder
• Ring and groove
• Setscrew
• Split hub or tapered two-pieces hub
• Collar and screw
• Pins
Sleeve:
Sleeve: Shaft
Shaftshoulder
shoulder: :
is a tube or enclosure used to couple two mechanical components together, or

to retain two components together; this permits two equally-sized appendages The use of shaft shoulders is an excellent
to be connected together via insertion and fixing within the construction. means of axially locating the shaft
elements and to carry any thrust loads.
Example:
(a) Choose a shaft configuration to support and locate the two gears and two bearings.
(b) Solution uses an integral pinion, three shaft shoulders, key and keyway, and sleeve.
Spring
Springloaded
loadedRetaining
RetainingRing
Ring: : Set
SetScrew
Screw: :
is a type of screw generally used
• Most popular used because give an economical to secure an object within another
solution to some problem. object. The set screw passes
through a threaded hole in the
• “Bowed” retaining rings provide restoring forces to
outer object and is tightened
the components being held.
against the inner object to prevent
• Flat retaining rings allow small amounts of axial it from moving relative to the outer
motion of the held component. object.
Split
SplitHub
Hub: : Collar
Collarand
andScrew
Screw: :
• is a simple, short ring fastened over a rod or shaft
• found in many power transmission applications -

most notably motors and gearboxes.
• used as mechanical stops, locating components,

and bearing faces. The simple design lends itself to
easy installation - no shaft damage.
• Since the screws compress the collar, a uniform

distribution of force is imposed on the shaft, leading
to a holding power that is nearly twice that of set
screw collars.
6.4 – Shaft Design for Stress 6.4 – Shaft Design for Stress – cont…
Critical
CriticalLocation
Location: : Critical
CriticalLocation
Location: :
• It is not necessary to evaluate the stresses in a shaft at every point; a few • Resultant moments are obtained by summing moments as vectors at points of
potentially critical locations will be adequate. interest along the shaft. In situations where a bearing is located at the end of the
shaft, stresses near the bearing are often not critical since the bending moment is
• Critical locations will usually be on the outer surface, at axial locations where the
small.
bending moment is large, where the torque is present, and where stress
concentrations exist. • Axial stresses on shafts due to the axial components transmitted through helical
gears or tapered roller bearings will almost always be negligibly small compared
• Most shafts will transmit torque through a portion of the shaft. Typically the torque
to the bending moment stress. They are often also constant, so they contribute
comes into the shaft at one gear and leaves the shaft at another gear. The torque
little to fatigue.
is often relatively constant at steady state operation.
• Consequently, it is usually acceptable to neglect the axial stresses induced by the
• The bending moments on a shaft can be determined by shear and bending
gears and bearings when bending is present in a shaft. If an axial load is applied
moment diagrams. Since most shaft problems incorporate gears or pulleys that
to the shaft in some other way, it is not safe to assume it is negligible without
introduce forces in two planes, the shear and bending moment diagrams will
checking magnitudes.
generally be needed in two planes.
6.4 – Shaft Design for Stress – cont… 6.4 – Shaft Design for Stress – cont…
Shaft
ShaftStresses
Stresses: : Shaft
ShaftStresses
Stresses: :
• The fluctuating stresses due to bending and torsion are given by: - • Combining bending and shear stresses accordance to the von Misses stress
at two stress element are given by: -
M ac M mc Ta c T c
σa = K f ; σm = K f τ a = K fs ; τ m = K fs m ⎡⎛ 32 K f M a ⎞ 2 ⎛ 16 K fsTa ⎞ 2 ⎤
1/ 2
I I J J
σ 'a = (σ + 3τ )
2 2 1/ 2
= ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 3⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ πd ⎝ πd ⎠ ⎥⎦
a a 3 3
Under many conditions, the axial components F is either zero or so small that it can be neglected. ⎠
• Assuming a solid shaft with round cross section, appropriate geometry terms
can be introduced for c, I, and J resulting in 1/ 2
⎡⎛ 32 K f M m ⎞ 2 ⎛ 16 K fsTm ⎞ 2 ⎤
32 M a 32 M m 16Ta 16T σ 'm = (σ + 3τ )
2 2 1/ 2
= ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 3⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ πd ⎝ πd
m m 3 3
σa = K f ; σm = K f τ a = K fs ; τ m = K fs 3m ⎠ ⎠ ⎥⎦
πd 3
πd 3 πd 3
πd
Shaft
ShaftStresses
Stresses: : DE-Goodman
DE-Goodman: :
Fatigue failure curve on the modified Goodman diagram
1 16 ⎧ 1 ⎫
[
= 3 ⎨ 4( K f M a ) 2 + 3( K fsTa ) 2
n πd ⎩ S e
] 1/ 2
+
1
[
4( K f M m ) 2 + 3( K fsTm ) 2 ] 1/ 2
⎬
Sut ⎭
Equation for the minimum diameter
1/ 3
⎛ 16n ⎧ 1 ⎫⎞
d = ⎜⎜
π
[ 2
⎨ 4( K f M a ) + 3( K fsTa )
2
] 1/ 2
+
1
[
4( K f M m ) 2 + 3( K fsTm ) 2 ] 1/ 2
⎬ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎩ e
S Sut ⎭⎠
This criteria does not guard against yielding, so required separate check for possibility of static
failure (yield occur) in the first load cycle.
DE-Gerber
DE-Gerber: : DE-ASME
DE-ASMEElliptic
Elliptic: :
Fatigue failure curve on the Gerber diagram Fatigue failure curve on the ASME Elliptic diagram
where
1/ 2
⎧ 2 1/ 2 ⎫
1 16 ⎡⎢ ⎛ K f M a ⎞ ⎛ K fsTm ⎞ ⎤
2 2 2 2
1 8 A ⎪ ⎡ ⎛ 2 BS e ⎞ ⎤ ⎪ ⎛ K fsTa ⎞
⎟ + 3⎜⎜
⎛ K f Mm ⎞
⎟ + 4⎜ ⎟ + 3⎜ ⎟ ⎥
= ⎨1 + ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ A = 4( K f M a ) 2 + 3( K fsTa ) 2 = 4⎜
n πd 3 S e ⎪ ⎢ ⎜⎝ ASut ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎪ n πd 3 ⎢ ⎜⎝ S e ⎟⎠ ⎝ S e ⎟⎠ ⎜ S
⎝
⎟
⎠
⎜ S ⎟ ⎥
⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎭ ⎣ y y
B = 4( K f M m ) 2 + 3( K fsTm ) 2 Equation for the minimum diameter

Equation for the minimum diameter 1/ 3
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ K M ⎞2 ⎛ K T ⎞2 ⎛ K M ⎞2 ⎛ K T ⎞2 ⎤ ⎫
1/ 2
1/ 3 ⎪16 n ⎢4⎜ f a ⎟ + 3⎜ fs a ⎟ + 4⎜ f m ⎟ + 3⎜ fs m ⎟ ⎥ ⎪⎬
⎛ ⎧ 2 1/ 2 ⎫ ⎞ d =⎨
⎜ 8nA ⎪ ⎡ ⎛ 2 BS e ⎞ ⎤ ⎪ ⎟ This criteria does not guard against
⎪ π ⎢ ⎜⎝ S e ⎟⎠ ⎜ S ⎟
⎝ e ⎠
⎜ S
⎝
⎟
⎠
⎜ S ⎟ ⎥
⎝ y ⎠ ⎦ ⎪
d =⎜ ⎨1 + ⎢1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎬ ⎟ yielding, so required separate check for
⎩ ⎣ y
⎭
⎜ πS e ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ASut ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪ ⎟
possibility of static failure (yield occur)
in the first load cycle.
⎝ ⎩ ⎭⎠ This criteria takes yielding into account, but is not entirely conservative, so also required
separate check for possibility of static failure (yield occur) in the first load cycle.
DE-Soderberg
DE-Soderberg: : Check
Checkfor
foryielding
yielding: :
Fatigue failure curve on the Soderberg diagram Always necessary to consider static failure, even in fatigue situation
•Soderberg criteria inherently guards against yielding
⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
1 16
=
n πd 3
[ 2
⎨ 4( K f M a ) + 3( K fsTa )
2
] 1/ 2
+
1
[
4( K f M m ) 2 + 3( K fsTm ) 2 ] 1/ 2
⎬
•ASME-Elliptic criteria takes yielding into account, but is not entirely conservative
•Gerber and modified Goodman criteria require specific check for yielding
⎪⎩ e
S S yt ⎪⎭
Sy
Factor of safety ny =
Equation for the minimum diameter
σ 'max
1/ 3
⎛ 16n ⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪ ⎞
[ ] 1
[ ]
where
d =⎜ ⎬ ⎟⎟ σ 'max = (σ 'a2 +σ 'm2 )
1/ 2 1/ 2
4( K f M a ) 2 + 3( K fsTa ) 2 + 4( K f M m ) 2 + 3( K fsTm ) 2
⎜ π ⎨⎪ S e
1/ 2
⎝ ⎩ S yt ⎪⎭ ⎠
1/ 2
⎡⎛ 32 K f ( M a + M m ) ⎞ 2 ⎛ 16 K fs (Ta + Tm ) ⎞ 2 ⎤
This criteria inherently guards against yielding, so it is not required to check for possibility of = ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 3⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
static failure (yield occur) in the first load cycle. ⎢⎣⎝ πd 3 ⎠ ⎝ πd 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Example
Example6-1
6-1: :
For a rotating shaft with constant bending and torsion, the bending stress is
completely reversed and the torsion is steady. Therefore
At a machined shaft shoulder the small diameter d is 28 mm, the large diameter
D is 42 mm, and the fillet radius is 2.8 mm. The bending moment is 142.4 Nm
and the steady torsion moment is 124.3 Nm. The heat-treated steel shaft has an
ultimate strength of Sut = 735 MPa and a yield strength of Sy = 574 MPa. The
reliability goal is 0.99.
(a) Determine the fatigue factor of safety of the design using each of the
fatigue failure criteria described in this section.
σm = 0 τa = 0
(b) Determine the yielding factor of safety.
These will simply drops out some of previously terms.
Solution
Solution6-1
6-1: :
S e ' = 0.5(735) = 367.5 MPa k a = 4.51(735) −0.265 = 0.787
−0.107
M a = 142.4 Nm ⎛ 28 ⎞
M m = 0 Nm S e = (0.787)(0.87)(0.814)(367.5) = 205 MPa kb = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.87
⎝ 7.62 ⎠
Ta = 0 Nm Tm = 124.3 Nm Applying Eq. DE-Goodman criteria gives k c = k d = k f = 1.0
1 16 ⎧ 1 ⎫
a) Determine the fatigue factor of safety of the design: = [
⎨ 4( K f M a )
n πd 3 ⎩ S e
2
] 1/ 2
+
1
[
3( K fsTm ) 2 ] 1/ 2
⎬ ke = 0.814
Sut ⎭
D 42 q = 0.85 (figure 4-1)
[
⎧ 4(1.58(142.4)) 2 ] [3(1.39(124.3)) ] ⎫
1/ 2 1/ 2
r = 2.8 2
= = 1.50 Kt = 1.68 (figure A-15-9) 16 ⎪ ⎪
d 28 qs = 0.92 (figure 4-2) = ⎨ + ⎬
Sut = 0.735 GPa π (0.028)3 ⎪⎩ 205 x106 735 x10 6
⎪⎭
Kts = 1.42 (figure A-15-8)
r 2.8
= = 0.10
d 28 K f = 1 + 0.85(1.68 − 1) = 1.58 = 232004(2.195 x10 −6 + 0.407 x10 −6 ) = 0.604
K fs = 1 + 0.92(1.42 − 1) = 1.39 ∴n = 1.65
Similarly, apply same technique for other failure criteria, Estimating

EstimatingStress
StressConcentrations
Concentrations
∴ n = 1.87 DE-Gerber • Stress analysis for shafts is highly dependent on stress concentrations.
∴n = 1.88 DE-ASME Elliptic
• Stress concentrations depend on size specifications, which are not known
the first time through a design process.
∴n = 1.56 DE-Soderberg • Standard shaft elements such as shoulders and keys have standard
proportions, making it possible to estimate stress concentrations factors
b) Determine the Yield factor of safety : before determining actual sizes.
2 2
⎛ 32(1.58)(142.4) ⎞ ⎛ 16(1.40)(124.3) ⎞
σ 'max = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ π (0.028) 3 ⎟⎟ = 125.4 Table 6–1
⎝ π (0.028)
3
⎠ ⎝ ⎠ First Iteration Estimates
for Stress-Concentration
Sy 574 Factor Kt and Kts
∴ ny = = = 4.58
σ 'max 125.4
6.4 – Shaft Design for Stress – cont… 6.5 – Deflection Considerations
Reducing
ReducingStress
StressConcentration
ConcentrationatatShoulder
ShoulderFillet
Fillet • Shaft subject to bending produces deflection (δ or y)
• Deflection analysis at even a single point of interest requires complete
• Bearings often require relatively sharp fillet radius at shoulder
geometry information for the entire shaft.
• If such a shoulder is the location of the critical stress, some manufacturing techniques • Deflection of the shaft, both linear and angular should be checked at
are available to reduce the stress concentration
gears and bearings.
(a) Large radius undercut into shoulder
(b) Large radius relief groove into back of shoulder
(c) Large radius relief groove into small diameter of shaft Table 6–2
Typical Maximum
Ranges for Slopes and
Transverse Deflections
6.5 – Deflection Considerations –cont… 6.6 – Limits and Fits
• Deflection analysis is straightforward, but lengthy and tedious to carry out 3 types of fitting
manually.
Interference Fits.
• Each point of interest requires entirely new deflection analysis. An interference fit is the condition that exist when,
Clearance Fits. due to the limits of the
dimensions, mating parts
• Consequently, shaft deflection analysis is almost always done with the No interference occur.
must be pressed together.
assistance of software.
• Options include specialized shaft software, general beam deflection software,
and finite element analysis software.
• Some popular methods to solve the integration problem for beam deflection:-
Transition Fits.
9 Superposition The fit can have either
9 The moment-area method Refer in text book clearance or interference.
chapter 4 page 147
9 Singularity functions
9 Numerical integration
6.6 – Limits and Fits – cont… 6.6 – Limits and Fits – cont…
Definitions applied to a cylindrical fit.
Capital letters always refer to the hole; Table 6–3
lowercase letters are used for the shaft. Descriptions of Preferred
Fits Using the Basic
Hole System
D = basic size of hole Source: Preferred Metric Limits
d = basic size of shaft and Fits, ANSI B4.2-1978.
δu = upper deviation See also BS 4500.
δl = lower deviation
δF = fundamental deviation
D = tolerance grade for hole
d = tolerance grade for shaft
Note that these quantities are all deterministic.

Thus, for the hole,
Dmax = D + ∆D Dmin = D
For shafts with clearance fits c, d, f, g, and h,

dmax = d + δF dmin = d + δF − ∆d
For shafts with interference fits k, n, p, s, and u,

dmin = d + δF dmax = d + δF + ∆d
6.6 – Limits and Fits – cont… 6.6 – Limits and Fits – cont…
Table A–12
Table A–11
A Selection of International Tolerance Grades—Metric Series Fundamental
(Size Ranges Are for Over the Lower Limit and Including the Deviations for
Upper Limit. All Values Are in Millimeters) Shafts—Metric Series
(Size Ranges Are for
Source: Preferred Metric Limits and Fits, ANSI B4.2-1978. See also BSI 4500.
Over the Lower Limit
and Including the
Upper Limit.
All Values Are in
Millimeters)
Source: Preferred Metric Limits
and Fits , ANSI B4.2-1978. See
also BSI 4500.
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 6 – Shaft Design
6.6 – Limits and Fits – cont…
Example
Example6-2
6-2: :
Find the shaft and hole dimensions for a loose running fit with a 34-mm basic size.
Solution
Solution6-2
6-2: :
From Table 6–3, the ISO symbol is 34H11/c11. From Table A–11, we find that tolerance
grade IT11 is 0.160 mm. The symbol 34H11/c11 therefore says that ∆D = ∆d = 0.160 mm.
Using Eq. (Dmax = D + ∆D) for the hole, we get
Dmax = 34 + 0.160 = 34.160 mm Dmin = D = 34.000 mm
The shaft is designated as a 34c11 shaft. From Table A–12, the fundamental deviation is
δF = −0.120 mm. Using Eq. “for shaft with clearance fits”, we get the shaft dimensions
dmax = d + δF = 34 + (−0.120) = 33.880 mm
dmin = d + δF − ∆d = 34 + (−0.120) − 0.160 = 33.720 mm
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 7 – Bearings

9 recognize types of available bearings and know the function

Week 10
9 identify nomenclature of ball bearing

Chapter 7
9 select suitable bearing and know how to apply it
Bearings
9 perform load and bearing life calculations analytically

BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 7 – Bearings BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 7 – Bearings
• Bearing acting as a support and allow rotational and sliding motion in mechanism.
• 2 types of bearing: sliding & rolling
• 7.2 - Bearing Types
• 7.3 - Bearing Mounting and Enclosure
• 7.4 - Bearing Life
sliding rolling
• 7.5 - Bearing Load Life at Rated Reliability
• Sliding friction is the resistance that takes place when one object slides against
• 7.6 - Relating Load, Life, and Reliability another. Sliding friction can be reduced by using smooth machined surface and
lubrication.
• 7.7 - Combined Radial and Thrust Loading
• Another way to eliminate sliding friction is the introduction of rolling elements (ball,
• 7.8 - Lubrication roller), because rolling elements have smallest contact surface that produces low
friction value (0.001 - 0.005)
• 7.9 - Appendix
7.1 – Introduction – cont… 7.2 – Bearing Types
• It as been designed to take pure radial load, pure axial load or combination of Nomenclature
NomenclatureofofBall
BallBearing
Bearing Width
these load. Today, all machines use this bearing such as in vehicle engine, shaft, (B)
fan, bicycle and many more. Outer ring

• Among the famous bearing manufacturer are:
– SKF (Sweden) Inner ring
4 essential parts of a bearing:
– NTN (Jepun)
• outer ring
– Timken (USA)
• inner ring Outside
• For more information, please refer to book and catalogue from the bearing Bore (d)
• balls or rolling element diameter
manufacturer company. (D)
• Bearing standard :- • seperator
– ISO (International Standard Organization) Separator
– ABMA (American Bearing Manufacturers Association)
Face
7.2 – Bearing Types – cont… 7.2 – Bearing Types – cont…
Various
Varioustypes
typesofofball
ballbearings
bearings Various
Varioustypes
typesofofroller
rollerbearings
bearings
Straight roller bearing

Deep Groove ball bearing Shielded ball bearing
Double row Needle roller bearing
Angular Contact ball bearing Tapered roller bearing

Sealed ball bearing
Spherical roller thrust bearing
Self-Aligning ball bearing Trust ball bearing Tapered roller thrust bearing
7.2 – Bearing Types – cont… 7.3 – Bearing Mounting & Enclosure
Bearing
BearingCharacteristics
Characteristics
A common bearing mounting.
Mounting for a washing machine spindle.
An alternative method of bearing mounting

in which the both inner races are backed up
against the shaft shoulder. Disadvantage –
Department of Material and Engineering Design, 9 Department of Material and Engineering Design, may destroy the bearing if shaft expand 10
when temperature rise during operation.
7.4 – Bearing Life 7.5 – Bearing Load Life at Rated Reliability
Commonly life used term is bearing life and measures are L10 life (number of revolution) Application factor (assume af = 1 if not given)
• Number of revolutions of the inner ring (outer ring stationary) until the first tangible
evidence of fatigue
C10 ( LR nR 60)1/ a = a f FD ( LD nD 60)1/ a
• Number of hours of use at a standard angular speed until the first tangible
evidence of fatigue Catalog load rating, Desired speed, rpm
ibf or kN
Fatigue criterion used by the Timken Company Laboratories Rating life, hours Desired life, hours
• Spalling or pitting of an area of 6.45 mm2 (first evidence of fatigue failure) Rating speed, rpm Desired radial load,
• useful life may extend considerably beyond this point ibf or kN
Rating life, (LR) where :-

a = 3 for ball bearing See
• Is a term certified by the ABMA and used by most manufacturers a = 10/3 for roller bearing Table 7.1 Data for Bearing Manufacturer.
• Is defined as the number of revolutions (or hours at constant speed) that 90 Table 7.2 Equivalent Radial Load Factor.
1/ a
percent of a group of bearings will achieve or exceed before the failure criterion
⎛ L n 60 ⎞ Table 7.3 Deep-Groove and Angular-Contact Ball
develops
C10 = a f FD ⎜⎜ D D ⎟⎟
Bearings Catalog.
Solving for C10 gives
• The term minimum life, L10 life and B10 life are also used as synonym
⎝ LR nR 60 ⎠
Table 7.4 Cylindrical Roller Bearings Catalog.
7.5 – Bearing Load Life at Rated Reliability – cont… 7.6 – Relating Load, Life and Reliability
Example
Example7-1
7-1 • It is always the desired
parameters (load, speed
Consider SKF, which rates its bearings for 1 million revolutions. Timken for example, uses 90(106) and reliability) is not the
revolutions. If you desire a life of 5000 hour at 1725 rev/min with a load of 2 kN with a reliability of 90 manufacturer’s test
percent, for which catalog rating would you search in a SKF catalog? parameter or catalog
entry.
Solution
Solution7-1
7-1
• To used the catalog data
to comply with the desired
parameters, one needs to
1/ a
1
determine equivalent
⎛ L n 60 ⎞ ⎡ 5000(1725)60 ⎤ 3 catalog load rating by
C10 = a f FD ⎜⎜ D D ⎟⎟ = 2⎢ ⎥⎦ = 16.05 kN using next formula.
⎝ LR nR 60 ⎠ ⎣ 106
Constant reliability contours. Point A represents the catalog rating C10
at X = L / L10 = 1. Point B is on the target reliability design line RD,
with load of C10. Point D is a point on the desired reliability contour
exhibiting the design life XD = LD / L10 at the design load FD.
7.6 – Relating Load, Life and Reliability – cont… 7.6 – Relating Load, Life and Reliability – cont…
Reliability
Reliabilityfor
forbearing
bearingisisgiven
givenby
bythe
theequation:
equation:
1/ a
⎡ xD ⎤
C10 = a f FD ⎢ 1/ b ⎥ ⎛ ⎧ a
⎫ ⎞⎟
b Overall Reliability
⎛ a f FD ⎞
⎣ x0 + (θ − x0 )(ln(1 / RD )) ⎦ ⎜
⎜ ⎪ x D ⎜⎜ C ⎟⎟ − x 0 ⎪ ⎟
• Shaft generally have 2 bearings. Often
these bearings are different.
⎪ ⎪ ⎟
R = exp⎜ − ⎨ ⎝
10 ⎠
where:- ⎬ • If the individual reliability for each
af = Application factor (assume af = 1 if not given) ⎜ ⎪ θ − x0 ⎪ ⎟ individual bearing is RA and RB, therefore
⎜ ⎪ ⎪ ⎟⎟ overall bearing reliability, R is
FD = Desired radial load, ibf / kN ⎜ ⎩ ⎭ ⎠
L 60LD n D ⎝ R = RA RB
xD = Dimensionless desired life = =
L10 60LR n R
where:- x0 ⎫
RD = Desired reliability ⎪
af = Application factor (assume af = 1 if not given)
θ⎬ = Weibull parameters
= 3 (for ball bearing) FD = Desired radial load, ibf / kN
b ⎪⎭
a See (refer table 6-1).
= 10/3 (for roller bearing) Table 7.1 Data for Bearing Manufacturer. L 60LD n D
a xD = Dimensionless desired life = =
Table 7.2 Equivalent Radial Load Factor. L10 60LR n R
x0 ⎫ See
⎪
Table 7.3 Deep-Groove and Angular-Contact Ball RD = Desired reliability
θ ⎬ = Weibull parameters (refer table 6-1). Bearings Catalog. Table 7.1 Data for Bearing Manufacturer.
a = 3 (for ball bearing)
Table 7.2 Equivalent Radial Load Factor.
b ⎪⎭
Table 7.4 Cylindrical Roller Bearings Catalog. a = 10/3 (for roller bearing)
Table 7.3 Deep-Groove and Angular-Contact Ball
Bearings Catalog.
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Table 7.4 Cylindrical Roller Bearings Catalog.
7.6 – Relating Load, Life and Reliability – cont… 7.6 – Relating Load, Life and Reliability – cont…
Example
Example7-2
7-2 Example
Example7-3
7-3
The design load on a ball bearing is 1840N and an application factor of 1.2 is appropriate. The speed of Based on example 7-2, choose the suitable dimension for Single-Row 02-Series Deep-Groove Ball
the shaft s to be 300 rev/min, the life to be 30 kh with a reliability of 0.99. What is the C10 catalog entry Bearings from table 7-3 and calculate the new reliability.
to be sought (or exceeded) when searching for a deep-groove bearing in a SKF catalog?
Solution
Solution7-3
7-3
Solution
Solution7-2
7-2
• Calculate result, C10 = 29.7 kN
L 60 LD n D 60(30000)(300) • The closest, C10 on the Single-Row 02-Series Deep-Groove Ball Bearings catalog that suitable to
xD = = = = 540
L10 60 LR n R 10 6 hold 29.77 kN load is 30.7 kN.
• Therefore, the selected bearing size is:-
Thus, the design life is 540 times the L10 life. For a ball bearing, a = 3, thus from previous equation. OD = 80 mm , Bore = 40 mm & Width = 18 mm
⎛ ⎧ 1.483
⎞
⎜ 540⎛ (1.2)(1.84) ⎞ − 0.02 ⎫
3
1/ 3 ⎟
⎡ 540 ⎤ ⎜ ⎪ ⎪ ⎜ ⎟ ⎪ ⎟
C10 = (1.2)(1.84) ⎢ = 29.7 kN ⎝ 30.7 ⎠ ⎪
1 / 1.483 ⎥ • And the new reliability is R = exp⎜ − ⎨ ⎬ ⎟ = 0.9914
⎣ 0.02 + (4.439)(ln 1 / 0.99) ⎦ ⎜ ⎪ 4.439 ⎪ ⎟
⎜ ⎪ ⎪⎭ ⎟
⎝ ⎩ ⎠
7.7 – Combined Radial and Thrust Loading 7.7 – Combined Radial and Thrust Loading – cont…
Equivalent
Equivalentradial
radialload
load
• Ball bearing is capable to resist radial load, thrust load or
combine of these loading. Fe = X iVFr + Yi Fa
• However, the capability of ball bearings to withstand the thrust
load had certain limits and not good enough such as thrust where
Fa - axial thrust • X and Y value need to be
bearing or tapered roller bearing. Fr - radial load select from table 7-2
Xi - radial load factor (table 7-2)
• While the straight roller bearing is just capable to withstand large Yi - thrust load factor (table 7-2) • Table 7-2 list X1, Y1 and X2, Y2
V
radial load compare than ball bearing. - rotation factor
as a e function based on the
⎧= 1.0 - Inner ring rotates ratio of the thrust component to
⎪
V = ⎨= 1.2 - Outer ring rotates the bearing static load catalog
• ABMA has come out guidelines to determine equivalent radial ⎪= 1.0 - Self aligning bearing
load for ball bearing that acts with thrust load as follow: ⎩ rating Fa / C0.
7.7 – Combined Radial and Thrust Loading – cont… 7.7 – Combined Radial and Thrust Loading – cont…
Example Solution
Solution7-4
7-4––cont…
Example7-4
7-4 cont…
An SKF 6210 angular-contact ball bearing has an axial load Fa of 1780 N and a radial load Fr of 2225 N
applied with the outer ring stationary. The basic static load rating C0 is 19,800 N and the basic load Fe = X 2VFr + Y2 Fa = 0.56(1)2225 + 1.527(1780) = 3964N
rating C10 is 35,150 N. Estimate the L10 life at a speed of 720 rev/min.
With LD = L10 and FD = Fe, solving for L10 gives:

Solution
Solution7-4
7-4
a 3
Fa 1780 1780 60 LR nR ⎛ C10 ⎞ 106 ⎛ 35150 ⎞
V = 1 and = = 0.090 . .
Fa
= = 0.8 > 0.285 L10 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 16139.5 h
C0 19800 (VFr ) 1(2225) 60nD ⎝ Fr ⎠ 60(720) ⎝ 3964 ⎠
Interpolate for e in Table 7-2 Thus, interpolate for Y2 :
Fa / C0 e Fa / C0 Y2
0.084 0.28 0.084 1.55
0.090 e from which e = 0.285 0.090 Y2 from which Y2 = 1.527
0.110 0.30 0.110 1.45 ** See more example on bearing analysis – example 7-5 & 7-6
7.8 – Lubrication 7.9 – Appendix

Purpose of Lubrication
• To provide a film of lubricant between the sliding and rolling surfaces
• To help distribute and dissipate heat
Table 7-1 : Data for Bearing Manufacturer
• To prevent corrosion of the bearing surfaces
• To protect the parts from the entrance of foreign matter Rating life, Rating life, Weibull Parameter
Manufacturer
revolution X0 θ b
Rules of selecting grease and oil as a lubricant
1. Timken 90(10)6 0 4.48 1.5
Use Grease When Use Oil When
1. The temperature is not over 200OF. 1. Speed are high. 2. SKF and most
2. The speed is low. 2. Temperatures are high. bearing (10)6 0.02 4.459 1.483
manufacturer
3. Unusual protection is required from the entrance 3. Oil tight seals are readily employed.
of foreign matter.
4. Simple bearing enclosures are desired. 4. Bearing type is not suitable for grease
lubrication.
5. Operation for long periods without attention is 5. The bearing is lubricated from a central
desired supply which is also used for other machine
parts.
7.9 – Appendix – cont… 7.9 – Appendix – cont…
Table 7-2 : Equivalent Radial Load Factors for Ball Bearings Table 7-3 : Dimensions and Load Ratings for Single-Row 02-Series Deep-Groove and Angular-Contact Ball Bearings.
dS
dH
Shaft and housing shoulder

diameter, dS and dH, should be
adequate to ensure good
bearing support.
* use 0.014 if Fa / C0 < 0.014
7.9 – Appendix – cont… 7.9 – Appendix – cont…
Table 7-4 : Dimensions and Basic Load Ratings for Cylindrical Roller Bearings.
Table 7-5 : Bearing-Life Recommendations for Various Classes of Machinery
Types of Application Life, k hour

Instruments and apparatus for infrequent use Up to 0.5
Aircraft engines 0.5 – 2
Machines for short or intermittent operation where service interruption is of 4–8

minor importance
Machine for intermittent service where reliable operation is of great importance 8 – 14
Machines for 8-h service that are not always fully utilized 14 – 20
Machines for 8-h service that are fully utilized 20 – 30
Machines for continuous 24-h service 50 – 60
Machines for continuous 24-h service where reliability is of extreme importance 100 - 200
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 7 – Bearings
7.9 – Appendix – cont…
Table 7-6 : Load Application Factor
Types of Application Load Factor

Precision gearing 1.0 – 1.1
Commercial gearing 1.1 – 1.3
Application with poor bearing seals 1.2
Machinery with no impact 1.0 – 1.2
Machinery with light impact 1.2 – 1.5
Machinery with moderate impact 1.5 – 3.0

CHAPTER 7 – Bearings
More Examples on Bearing Analysis
Example 7-5
The second shaft on a parallel-shaft 18.7 kW foundry crane speed reducer contains a helical gear with a
pitch diameter of 206 mm. Helical gear transmit components of force in the tangential, radial and axial
direction. The components of the gear force transmitted to the second shaft are shown in figure below, at
point A. The bearing reactions at C and D, assuming simple-support, are also shown. A ball bearing is to
be selected for location C to accept the thrust, and a cylindrical roller bearing is to be utilized at location D.
The life goal of the speed reducer is 10 kh, with a reliability factor for the ensemble of all four bearings
(both shaft) to equal or exceed 0.96. The application factor is to be 1.2.
i) Select the roller bearing for location D.
ii) Select the ball bearing (angular contact) for location C, assuming the inner ring rotates.
Solution
The torque transmitted is T =2.648 (0.103) = 0.2727 kNm. The speed at the rated power is
2π n
P = Tω = T
60
60 P 9.55 P 9.55(18.7)
∴n = = = = 655 rpm
2πT T 0.2727
The radial load at D is (1324 2 + 474 2 )0.5 = 1406 N,
1
and the radial load at C is (1587 2 + 1324 2 )0.5 = 2067 N.
The individual bearing reliabilities, if equal, must be at least 4 0.96 = 0.98985 = 0.99 .
The dimensionless design life for both bearings is :
L 60 LD n D 60(10000)655
xD = = = = 393
L10 60 LR n R 10 6
(a) Selection of roller bearing at D. (Info obtained af = 1.2 and a = 10/3)
1
⎡ ⎤a 3
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤ 10
393
⎥ = 1.2(1406) ⎢ ⎥ = 16.0 kN
xD
C10 = a f FD ⎢
⎢ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎥
1/ b
⎢⎣ x0 + (θ − x 0 )⎜⎝ ln R D ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
⎢
⎣⎢
(
0.02 + (4.439) ln 1
0.99
)1 / 1.483 ⎥
⎦⎥
The absence of a thrust component makes the selection procedure simple. Choose a 02-25 mm series, or a
03-25 mm series cylindrical roller bearing from Table 7-4.
(b) Selection of angular contact ball bearing at C. (Info obtained af = 1.2 and a = 3). The ball bearing at C
involves a thrust component. This selection procedure requires an iterative procedure. Assuming
Fa / (V Fr) > e.
i) Choose Y2 from table 7-2

ii) Find C10
iii) Tentatively identify a suitable bearing from Table 7-3, note C0
iv) Using Fa / C0 enter Table 7-2 to obtain a new value of Y2.
v) Find C10
vi) If the same bearing obtained, stop.
vii) If not, take next bearing and go to step iv.
As a first approximation, take the middle entry from Table 7-2:
X2 = 0.56 Y2 = 1.63
With V = 1 and Fe = X 2VFr + Y2 Fa = 0.56(1.0)(2067) + 1.63(1531) = 3.65 kN
1
⎡ ⎤3
393
C10 = 1.2(3650 ) ⎢ ⎥ = 53.1 kN
⎣⎢
(
⎢ 0.02 + ( 4.439) ln 1
0.99
)
1 / 1.483
⎥
⎦⎥
From Table 7-3, angular contact bearing 02-60 mm has C10 = 55.9 kN. C0 is 35.5 kN. Step 4 becomes,
with Fa in kN,
Fa 1.531
= = 0.0431
C 0 35.5
2
F 1531
Which makes e from Table 7-2 approximately 0.24. Now a
= = 0.74 , which is greater
than 0.24, so we find Y2 by interpolation: VFr 1.0(2067)
0.042 0.24 0.042 1.85
0.043 e from which e ≈ 0.24 0.043 Y2 from which Y2 = 1.84
0.056 0.26 0.056 1.71
Therefore Fe = X 2VFr + Y2 Fa = 0.56(1.0)(2067) + 1.84(1531) = 3.97 kN
The prior calculation for C10 changes only in Fe, so
3.97
C10 = (53.1) = 57.8 kN
3.65
From Table 7-3, angular contact bearing 02-65 mm has C10 = 63.7 kN and C0 is 41.5 kN. Again,
Fa 1.531
= = 0.0369
C 0 41.5
F 1531
Making e approximately 0.23. Now from before a
= = 0.74 , which is greater than 0.23,
so we find Y2 again by interpolation: VFr 1.0(2067)
0.028 0.22 0.028 1.99
0.0369 e from which e ≈ 0.23 0.0369 Y2 from which Y2 = 1.90
0.042 0.24 0.042 1.85
Therefore Fe = X 2VFr + Y2 Fa = 0.56(1.0)(2067) + 1.90(1531) = 4.065 kN
The prior calculation for C10 changes only in Fe, so
4.07
C10 = (53.1) = 59.2 kN
3.65
From Table 7-3, angular contact bearing 02-65 mm is still selected, so the iteration is complete.
3
Example 7-6
The figure shown is a geared countershaft with an overhanging pinion at C. Select an angular contact ball
bearing from table 7-3 for mounting at O and a 02-series cylindrical roller bearing for mounting at B. The
force on gear A is FA = 2700 N, and the shaft is to run at a speed of 480 rev/min. Specify the bearings
required, using an application factor of 1.4, a desired life of 50,000 hour, and a combined reliability goal of
0.90. All dimension stated are in millimeter.
500
400
O
FC
250 20o
z
Gear 3 B
600 D
2
Gear 4
FA
250 D x
20o
Solution
FBD
Oy
Oz
TA = (FA cos 20o)(0.3)
FC sin 20o
FA sin 20o
FA cos 20o FC cos 20o

Bz
By TC = (FC cos 20o) (0.125)
Solution of the static problem gives force of bearings against the shaft at O as RO = -1740j + 2100k N, and
at B as RB = 1420j – 7270k. N.
60LR nR = 106
LD = 50 khours
nD = 480 rpm
FD at O = [(-1740)2 + (2100)2]1/2 = 2727.2 N
FD at B = [(1420)2 + (-7270)2]1/2 = 7407.4 N
4
For a combined reliability goal of 0.90, use 0.90 = 0.95 for the individual bearings.
At O (angular contact ball bearing)
60 LD n D 60(50000)(480)
xD = = = 1440
60 LR n R 10 6
1/ 3
⎡ 1440 ⎤
∴C10 = (1.4)(2727.2) ⎢ 1 / 1.483 ⎥
= 50.6 kN
⎣ 0.02 + (4.439)(ln 1 / 0.95) ⎦
∴ Suitable size; bore = 60 mm, OD = 110 mm, width = 22 mm
At B (cylindrical roller bearing)
60 LD n D 60(50000)(480)
xD = = = 1440
60 LR n R 10 6
3 / 10
⎡ 1440 ⎤
∴C10 = (1.4)(7407.4) ⎢ 1 / 1.483 ⎥
= 106.1 kN
⎣ 0.02 + (4.439)(ln 1 / 0.95) ⎦
∴ Suitable size; bore = 85 mm, OD = 150 mm, width = 28 mm
5
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 8 – Nonpermanent Joints

9 recognize types of available bolt and screw

Week 11, 12 & 13
9 know bolt / screw thread standards and definition

Chapter 8
9 perform load and stress calculations that acting on bolt / screw
Nonpermanent Joints
9 select suitable application of bolt / screw
Prepared by: Mohd Azwir bin Azlan

BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 8 – Nonpermanent Joints BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 8 – Nonpermanent Joints
• The fundamental operation in manufacture is the creation of shape - this includes
• 8.2 - Thread Standards and Definitions
assembly, where a number of components are fastened or joined together either
• 8.3 - The Mechanics of Power Screws
permanently by welding (Chapter 9) or detachably (nonpermanent) by screws, nuts and
• 8.4 - Threaded Fasteners
bolts and so on.
• 8.5 - Joints : Fastener Stiffness
• Since there is such a variety of shapes in engineering to be assembled, it is hardly
• 8.6 - Joints : Member Stiffness
surprising that there is more variety in demountable fasteners than in any other machine
• 8.7 - Bolt Strength
element.
• 8.8 - Tension Joints : The External Load
• Fasteners based upon screw threads are the most common, so it is important that their
• 8.9 - Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
performance is understood, and the limitations of the fastened assemblies are
• 8.10 - Statically Loaded Tension Joint with Preload
appreciated.
• 8.11 - Gasketed Joints
• Bolts, screws and nuts are common fastener used to join between one part to another.
• 8.12 - Fatigue Loading of Tension Joints
This type of joining is a temporary connection in which it is easy to open again.
• 8.13 - Bolted and Riveted Joints Loaded in Shear
8.1 – Introduction – cont… 8.1 – Introduction – cont…
• Although the bolts and screws have very similar functions, but there are differences in the • There are many types of bolts are available in the market. Figure 8-2 below shows the
application. types of bolts that are commonly used.
• Bolt used where it thread is designed to get through and past the hole in the part to be
connected and then tied with a nut at the end of the bolt.
• While the screws are used where it thread is designed to bind the connection with the
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)
internal threaded screw. Figure 8-1 shows the difference in application of bolts and screws. Figure 8-2: Several types of bolt (a) Carriage, (b) Elevator, (c) Countersunk, (d) Plow, (e) Track, (f) Stud, (g) Stove, (h) Stove.
• Then, screws also can be further categorized into several types according to it use i.e.,
machine screws, sheet metal & lag screw and set screw. Figure 8-3, 8-4 and 8-5 shows the
types of screws have been categorized according to it application.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Figure 8-1: Several types of fastener
Figure 8-3: Type of machine screw: (a) Flat, (b) Button, (c) Fillister, (d) Flat Fillister, (e) Round, (f) Socket.
8.1 – Introduction – cont… 8.2 – Thread Standards and Definitions

• Pitch – distance between adjacent thread
forms measured parallel to the thread axis.
• Major diameter (d) – largest diameter of
screw thread.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) • Minor or root diameter – smallest diameter of
screw thread.
Figure 8-4: Several types of metal & lag screw; (a) Round head, (b) Elliptical
• Lead – distance parallel to the screw axis
head, (c) Countersunk head, (d) Phillips head, (e) Lag screw.
when the nut moves one turn. A double-
threaded screw has a lead equal a twice the
Figure 8-6: Terminology of screw threads. Sharp vee pitch (figure 8-7b), a triple-threaded screw
threads shown for clarity; the crests and roots are actually has a lead equal to 3 times pitch (figure 8-7c),
flattened or rounded during the forming operation.
and so on.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Figure 8-5: Several types of set screw; (a) Headless flat point, (b) Square head cup point,
(c) Hex socket head, cone point, (d) Fluted socket head, dual point,
(e) Full-dog point, (f) Half-dog point.
Department of Material and Engineering Design, 7 Department of Material and Engineering Design, Figure 8-7: Single, double & triple threaded screw 8
8.2 – Thread Standards and Definitions – cont… 8.2 – Thread Standards and Definitions – cont…
• All threads are made according to the right-hand rule unless otherwise noted. 1) Metric thread (Table 8-1) Major diameter (mm),
2α = 60° Standard thread is RH (Right Handed)
• All threads size on bolt and screw were followed according to the inch series or
Specifications: e.g.: M12 x 1.75 or MJ12 x 1.75
metric series standard. M = Basic Metric, J = greater root radius for fatigue applications; 12 = nominal major diameter (mm); 1.75 = pitch (mm)
• Inch series referred to the American standard where it has been approved by Great
Britain, Canada and United States. Threaded that have been produced according to
this standard is also known as “Unified threads”. Two major series are: UN and UNR 2) The American National (Unified) thread (Table 8-2)
Thread standards is used mainly in the US and GB.
• For threaded that have been produced
Series designation used UN or UNR Figure 8-9: Regular or Flat Thread
according to metric standard is known
UN (regular thread), UNR (greater root radius for fatigue applications)
as “M series”. Specifications: e.g.: 5/8”-18 UN, UNC, UNF, UNR, UNRC, UNRF
• Metric bolt designation determined by: 5/8” = nominal major diameter (inch) ; 18 = Number of threads per inch (N)
UN = Unified, F = fine, C = Coarse, R = Round Root
M12 x 1.75
pitch 3) Square and The ACME Threads Figure 8-10: Rounded Thread
Nominal diameter (mm) Square and Acme threads are used when the threads are intended to transmit power.
Used mainly in power screws Table 8-3 gives preferred pitches for ACME threads.
Figure 8-8: Basic profile for metric M and MJ threads.
Coarse series UNC

Thread series Material grade
• General assembly Threads per inch
• Frequent disassembly
• Not good for vibrations
¼-20 x ¾ in UNC-2 Grade 5 Hex head bolt
• The “normal” thread to specify
Fine series UNF

length Class fit Head type
• Good for vibrations Nominal diameter
• Good for adjustments
• Automotive and aircraft Metric Pitch Head type
Extra Fine series UNEF
• Good for shock and large vibrations M12 x 1.75 ISO 4.8 Hex head bolt
• High grade alloy
• Instrumentation
Nominal diameter
• Aircraft Material class
79
5
CHAPTER 8 – Nonpermanent Joints 16 CHAPTER 8 – Nonpermanent Joints
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design
Nominal Coarse – Pitch Series Fine – Pitch Series
Coarse Series – UNC Fine Series - UNF
Major
Diameter Nominal
Tensile Stress Minor Diameter Tensile Stress Minor Diameter Size Minor Minor
d (mm) Pitch p (mm) Pitch p (mm) Major Threads per Tensile Stress Threads per Tensile Stress
Area At (mm2) Area Ar (mm2) Area At (mm2) Area Ar (mm2) Designation Diamater Diameter
Diameter in Inch N Area At in2 Inch N Area At in2
1.6 0.35 1.27 1.07 Area Ar in2 Area Ar in2
2 0.40 2.07 1.79 0 0.0600 80 0.001 80 0.001 51
2.5 0.45 3.39 2.98
1 0.0730 64 0.002 63 0.002 18 72 0.002 78 0.002 37
3 0.5 5.03 4.47
2 0.0860 56 0.003 70 0.003 10 64 0.003 94 0.003 39
3.5 0.6 6.78 6.00
4 0.7 8.78 7.75 3 0.0990 48 0.004 87 0.004 06 56 0.005 23 0.004 51
5 0.8 14.2 12.7 4 0.1120 40 0.006 04 0.004 96 48 0.006 61 0.005 66
Table 8-1 Table 8-2 5 0.1250 40 0.007 96 0.006 72 44 0.008 80 0.007 16
6 1 20.1 17.9
Diameter and 8 1.25 36.6 32.8 1 39.2 36.0 Diameter and 6 0.1380 32 0.009 09 0.007 45 40 0.010 15 0.008 74
10 1.5 58.0 52.3 1.25 61.2 56.3 8 0.1640 32 0.014 0 0.011 96 36 0.014 74 0.012 85
Areas of Coarse- Areas of Unified
12 1.75 84.3 76.3 1.25 92.1 86.0 10 0.1900 24 0.017 5 0.014 50 32 0.020 0 0.017 5
Pitch and Fine- Screw Threads
14 2 115 104 1.5 125 116 12 0.2160 24 0.024 2 0.020 6 28 0.025 8 0.022 6
Pitch Metric 16 2 157 144 1.5 167 157 UNC and UNF*.
¼ 0.2500 20 0.031 8 0.026 9 28 0.036 4 0.032 6
Threads. 20 2.5 245 225 1.5 272 259 0.3125 18 0.052 4 0.045 4 24 0.058 0 0.052 4
24 3 353 324 2 384 365
⅜ 0.3750 16 0.077 5 0.067 8 24 0.087 8 0.080 9
30 3.5 561 519 2 621 596
0.4375 14 0.106 3 0.093 3 20 0.118 7 0.109 0
36 4 817 759 2 915 884
½ 0.5000 13 0.141 9 0.125 7 20 0.159 9 0.148 6
42 4.5 1120 1050 2 1260 1230
48 5 1470 1380 2 1670 1630 0.5625 12 0.182 0.162 18 0.203 0.189
56 5.5 2030 1910 2 2300 2250 ⅝ 0.6250 11 0.226 0.202 18 0.256 0.240
64 6 2680 2520 2 3030 2980 ¾ 0.7500 10 0.334 0.302 16 0.373 0.351
72 6 3460 3280 2 3860 3800 ⅞ 0.8750 9 0.462 0.419 14 0.509 0.480
80 6 4340 4140 1.5 4850 4800 1 1.0000 8 0.606 0.551 12 0.663 0.625
90 6 5590 5360 2 6100 6020 1¼ 1.2500 7 0.969 0.890 12 1.073 1.024
100 6 6990 6740 2 7560 7470 1½ 1.5000 6 1.405 1.294 12 1.581 1.521
110 2 9180 9080
79
5 79
5
16 CHAPTER 8 – Nonpermanent Joints 16 CHAPTER 8 – Nonpermanent Joints
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design
Tensile Stress Area

• The tensile stress area, At , is the area of an unthreaded rod with the same
Figure 8-11
tensile strength as a threaded rod.
(a) Square thread
(b) Acme thread
• It is the effective area of a threaded rod to be used for stress calculations.
• The diameter of this unthreaded rod is the average of the pitch diameter
and the minor diameter of the threaded rod. Table 8-3: Preferred Pitches for Acme Threads
d, in 1\4 5\16 3\8 1\2 5\8 3\4 7\8 1 11\4 13\4 2 21\2 3
p, in 1\16 1\14 1\12 1\10 1\8 1\6 1\6 1\5 1\5 1\4 1\4 1\3 1\2
8.3 – The Mechanics of Power Screw 8.3 – The Mechanics of Power Screw – cont…
• A power screw is a device in machinery to change angular

motion into linear motion and usually to transmit power.
• Thread usually of square or ACME profile
• More specifically, power screw are used:
9 to lift weight – jack for cars
9 to exert large forces – home compactor or a press Figure 8-14: Force diagrams; (a) lifting the load; (b) lowering the load
Figure 8-12a: The Joyce worm-

• Imagine a single thread of the screw is unrolled
gear screw jack.
• Then one edge of the thread will form of a right
triangle with the base is the circumference of the
mean thread diameter circle with a high is a lead.
• Angle λ is the lead angle of the thread.
Figure 8-13: Portion of Power Screw

Figure 8-12b: Some applications of power screw
8.3 – The Mechanics of Power Screw – cont… 8.3 – The Mechanics of Power Screw – cont…
• Since the normal force N, is not interested, eliminate it from the equation.
• To raise a load, a force PR acts to the right, and to lower the load, PL acts to the left.
• Then, divide the numerator and the denominator of these equations by cos λ and use
• The friction force is the product of the coefficient of friction f with the normal force N, the relation tan λ = l / πdm.
and act oppose the motion.
• Finally, noting that the torque is the product of the force P and the mean radius dm/2,
• The system is equilibrium under the action of these forces and hence, for raising the
load:
Torque required for raising the load
∑ Fx = PR − N sin λ − fN cos λ = 0
TR to overcome thread friction and to
raise the load
TR =
Fd m
2
⎛ l + π fd m ⎞
⎜
⎜ π d − fl ⎟
⎝ m
⎟
⎠
∑F y = − F − fN sin λ + N cos λ = 0
Torque required for lowering the load ⎛ π fd m − l ⎞
• In a similar manner, for lowering the load; Fd m
TL = ⎜ ⎟
TL to overcome part of the thread
friction in lowering the load 2 ⎜ π d + fl
⎝ m
⎟
⎠
∑ Fx = − PL − N sin λ + fN cos λ = 0
where,
∑F y = − F + fN sin λ + N cos λ = 0 F = force

dm = mean screw diameter
l = lead distance
Department of Material and Engineering Design, 19 Department of Material and Engineering Design, f = coefficient of friction 20
If the lead is large or the friction is low, the load will lower itself by causing the screw to If f > fcr then the thread is self-locking in that the nut cannot undo by itself, it needs to
spin without any external effort. In such cases the torque TL will be negative or zero. be unscrewed by a definite negative torque; Clearly self-locking behavior is essential
When a positive torque is obtained from this equation, the screw is said to be self for threaded fasteners.
locking Car lifting jacks would not be of much use if the load fell as soon as the operating
handle was released.
Condition for Self Locking: π fd m > l If f < fcr then the thread is overhauling in that the nut will unscrew by itself under the
action of the load unless prevented by a positive tightening torque.
Dividing both sides of the above inequality by π d m and recognizing that l π dm = tan λ , Fl
If we let f = 0 , we obtain T0 = which is the torque,
we get f > tan λ 2π
required to raise the load.
The critical coefficient of friction for the lead concerned, T0 Fl
The efficiency is therefore e= =
If f = fcr the nut is on the point of moving down the thread without any torque applied. T R 2π T R
• For ACME or other threads, the normal thread load is inclined to The following stresses should be checked on both the
the axis because of the thread angle 2α and the lead angle λ. nut and the screw:
• Since lead angle is small, this inclination can be neglected. 16T
1. Shearing stress in screw body. τ =
• Just consider angle α, which increase the frictional force. πd r3
• For raising the load:
F 4F
Fd m ⎛ l + π fd m sec α ⎞ 2. Axial stress in screw body σ = =
TR = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ A πd r2
Figure 8-15: Normal thread force 2 ⎝ π d m − fl sec α ⎠
is increased because of angle α
3. Thread bearing stress
• An additional component of torque is often needed to
account for the friction between a collar and the load. F 2F
σB = − =−
• If fc is the coefficient of collar friction, assuming the load is πd m nt p / 2 πd m nt p
concentrated at the mean collar diameter dc Figure 8-17:
Ff c d c Geometry of square thread useful in finding bending
TC = where nt is the number of engaged threads. and transverse shear stresses at the thread root
2
Department of Material and Engineering Design, Figure 8-16: Thrust collar
23 Department of Material and Engineering Design, 24
University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor. has frictional diameter, dc University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor.
Stresses in Threads of Power Screws

4. Bending stress at root of thread.
( p / 4) 6F Consider stress element at the top of the root “plane”

Mc ⎛ Fp ⎞
σ b = = ⎜ ⎟ =
I ⎝ 4 ⎠ ( π d r n t )( p / 2 ) 3 πd r nt p
12
5. Transverse shear stress at center of root of thread (due to bending)
3V 3 F 3F
τ = = =
2A 2 πd r nt ( p / 2) πd r nt p
Transform to von Mises stress
Thread Deformation in Screw-Nut Combination Table 8-4: Screw bearing Pressure pb.
• Power screw thread is in compression, causing elastic shortening of screw Screw

Material
Nut
Material
Safe pb, MPa Notes
thread pitch. Steel Bronze 17.2 – 24.1 Low speed

Steel Bronze 11.0 – 17.2 ≤ 50 mm/s
• Engaging nut is in tension, causing elastic lengthening of the nut thread pitch. Cast iron 6.9 – 17.2 ≤ 40 mm/s
• Consequently, the engaged threads cannot share the load equally. Some Steel Bronze 5.5 – 9.7 100-200 mm/s
Cast iron 4.1 – 6.9 100-200 mm/s
experiment shows that: Steel Bronze 1.0 – 1.7 ≥ 250 mm/s
9 the first engaged thread carries 0.38 of the load

9 the second engaged thread carries 0.25 of the load Table 8-5: Coefficients of friction f for Threaded Pairs.
9 the third engaged thread carries 0.18 of the load Screw Nut Material
9 the seventh engaged thread is free of load Material
Steel Bronze Brass Cast Iron
Steel, dry 0.15 - 0.25 0.15 - 0.23 0.15 - 0.19 0.15 - 0.25
• To find the largest stress in the first thread of a screw-nut combination, use Steel, machine oil 0.11 - 0.17 0.10 - 0.16 0.10 - 0.15 0.11 - 0.17
0.38F in place of F, and set nt = 1. Bronze 0.08 - 0.12 0.04 - 0.06 - 0.06 - 0.09
Example
Example8-1
8-1
Table 8-6: Thrust Collar friction coefficient, fc.
Combination Running Starting A square thread power screw has a major diameter of 32 mm and a pitch of 4 mm with
Soft steel on cast iron 0.12 0.17 double threads. The load of 6.4 kN used in this application. If f = fc =0.08, dc=40mm,
Hard steel on cast iron 0.09 0.15 determine;
Soft steel on bronze 0.08 0.10 a) thread depth, thread width, pitch diameter, minor diameter and lead.
Hard steel on bronze 0.06 0.08
b) the torque required to raise and lower the load.
c) the efficiency during lifting the load.
Coefficients of friction around 0.1 to 0.2 may be expected for common materials under d) the body stresses, torsional and compressive.
conditions of ordinary service and lubrication.
e) the bearing stress.
f) the thread bending stress at the root of the thread.
g) the Von Misses stress at the root of the thread.
h) the maximum shear stress at the root of the thread.
Solution
Solution8-1
8-1 Fd m ⎛ πfd m − l ⎞ Ff c d c 6.4(30) ⎛ π (0.08)30 − 8 ⎞ 6.4(0.08)( 40)
TL = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟+
2 ⎜ πd + fl ⎟ + 2 = 2 ⎜⎝ π (30) + 0.08(8) ⎟⎠ 2
⎝ m ⎠
a) thread depth, thread width, pitch diameter, minor diameter and lead.
thread depth = thread width = p/ 2 = 4 / 2 = 2 mm ∴ T L = 9 . 77 Nm
pitch diameter; d m = d − p / 2 = 32 − 4 / 2 = 30 mm
c) the efficiency during lifting the load.
minor diameter; d r = d − p = 32 − 4 = 28 mm
Fl 6.4(8)
lead for double thread, l = np = 2(4) = 8 mm e= = = 0.311
2πTR 2π (26.18)
b) the torque required to raise and lower the load. d) the body stresses, torsional and compressive.
Fd m ⎛ l + πfd m ⎞ Ff c d c 6.4(30 ) ⎛ 8 + π (0.08)(30 ) ⎞ (6.4)(0.08) 40 Tr Td 16T 16(26.18)
TR = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟+ The body shear stress τ due to τ== 42 = 3 = = 6.07 MPa
2 ⎜ πd − fl ⎟ + 2 = 2 ⎜⎝ π (30 ) − (0.08)(8) ⎟⎠ 2 torsional moment TR J πd r πd r π (0.028)3
⎝ m ⎠
32
∴ TR = 26.18 N .m F −6400 −6400
The axial nominal stress σ is σ= = 2 = = −10.39 MPa
A πd r / 4 π (0.028)2 / 4
e) the bearing stress, σB is, with one thread carrying 0.38F. For the von Misses stress,
σB = −
2(0.38 F )
πd m (1) p
=−
2(0.38)(6400)
π (30 )(1)4
= −12.9 MPa σ '=
1
2
[(41.5 − 0) 2
+ (0 − (−10.39)) 2 + (−10.39 − 41.5) 2 + 6(6.07) 2 ]
1/ 2
= 48.7 MPa
f) the thread-root bending stress, σb with one thread carrying 0.38F is
6(0.38 F ) 6(0.38)(6400) h) the maximum shear stress
σb = = = 41.5 MPa
πd r (1) p π (28)(1)4 Note that, there are no shear stresses on the x face. This means that σx is a principal
stress. The remaining stress can be transformed by using the plane stress equation.
g) the transverse shear at the extreme of the root cross section due to bending is zero. 2
⎛σ y +σ z ⎞ ⎛σ y −σ z ⎞
However, there is a circumferential shear stress at the extreme of the root cross section σ 2,3 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ yz2
of the thread as shown in part (d) of 6.07 MPa. The three-dimensional stresses are: ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
σ x = 41.5 MPa τ xy = 0 − 10.39 ⎛ − 10.39 ⎞ 2
2
y
= ± ⎜ ⎟ + 6.07 = 2.79 MPa & - 13.18 MPa
σ y = −10.39 MPa τ yz = 6.07 MPa 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
σz = 0 τ zx = 0 ⎛ σ − σ 3 ⎞ 41.5 − (−13.18)
x ∴τ max = ⎜ 1 ⎟= = 27.3 MPa
z ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
8.4 – Threaded Fastener 8.4 – Threaded Fastener – cont…

A- BOLTS:
BOLTS
Threaded Lengths
Purpose:
to clamp two or more members
together.
Metric
Parts:
(1) Head (Square or Hexagonal)
(2) Washer (dw=1.5d)
(3) Threaded part Figure 8-18: Hexagon-head bolt
(4) Unthreaded part
Hexagon-Head Bolt
English
• Hexagon-head bolts are one of the most common for engineering applications
• Standard dimensions are included in Table A–29
• W is usually about 1.5 times nominal diameter
• Bolt length L is measured from below the head Where d is the nominal diameter
8.4 – Threaded Fastener – cont… 8.4 – Threaded Fastener – cont…

B- NUTS:
NUTS Same material as that of a screw Head Type of Bolts
Table A-
A-31 gives dimensions of Hexagonal nuts
• Hexagon head bolt
– Usually uses nut
– Heavy duty
• Hexagon head cap screw
– Thinner head
– Often used as screw (in threaded
hole, without nut)
• Socket head cap screw
End view Washer-faced, Chamfered both Washer-faced, Chamfered both – Usually more precision
regular sides, regular jam nut sides, jam nut applications
Figure 8-19: Types of hexagon-head nut – Access from the top
Good Practice:
1.First three threads of nut carry majority of load • Machine screws
2.Localized plastic strain in the first thread is likely, so nuts should not be re-used in critical – Usually smaller sizes
applications.
3.Tightening should be done such that 1 or 2 threads come out of the nut; – Slot or philips head common
4.Washers should always be used under bolt head to prevent burr stress concentration. – Threaded all the way
8.4 – Threaded Fastener – cont… 8.5 – Joints : Fastener Stiffness
When a connection is desired that can be disassembled without destructive methods

and that is strong enough to resist external tensile loads, moment loads, and shear
Machine Screws loads, or a combination of these, then the simple bolted joint using hardened steel
washers is a good solution.
Twisting the nut stretches the bolt to produce

the clamping force. This clamping force is
called the pretention or bolt preload.
This force exists in the connection after the nut
has been properly tightened.
Grip length l, includes everything being
compressed by bolt preload, including washers.
Washer under head prevents burrs at the hole
from gouging into the fillet under the bolt head. Figure 8-20:
A bolted connection loaded in tension by the
force P. Note the use of two washers. Note
how the threads extend into the body of the
connection. This is usual and is desired. l is
the grip of the connection.
8.5 – Joints : Fastener Stiffness 8.5 – Joints : Fastener Stiffness – cont…
Figure 8-21 shows another tension-loaded connection. This

joint uses cap screws threaded into one of the members. Spring Rate : The ratio between the
force applied to the member and the
• Hex-head cap screw in tapped hole used to fasten
deflection produced by that force.
cylinder head to cylinder body.
• Only part of the threaded length of the bolt contributes
to the effective grip l. The grip l of a connection is the total
thickness of the clamped material.
An alternative approach to this problem (of Figure 8-21:
Section of cylindrical pressure
not using a nut) would be to use studs. vessel. Hexagon-head caps crews
A stud is a rod threaded on both ends. The are used to fasten the cylinder Total distance between the underside of
head to the body. Note the use of the nut to the bearing face of the bolt
stud is screwed into the lower member an O-ring seal. L’G is the effective
first; then the top member is positioned length of the connection. head; includes washer, gasket thickness
and fastened down with hardened washers etc. The grip l here is the sum of
and nuts the thicknesses of both
Studs are regarded as permanent, and so members and both washers.
the joint can be disassembled merely by
removing the nut and washer.
8.5 – Joints : Fastener Stiffness – cont… 8.5 – Joints : Fastener Stiffness – cont…
Procedure to find bolt stiffness Procedure to find bolt stiffness
• Given fastener diameter d and pitch p in mm or number of threads per inch
• Washer thickness: t from Table A-32 or A-33
• Nut thickness [Fig. (a) only]: H from table A-31
8-1 8-2
(a) (b) (a) (b)
8.5 – Joints : Fastener Stiffness – cont… 8.6 – Joints : Member Stiffness

In joint under tension the members are under compression
• Stress distribution spreads from face of bolt head and nut
and the bolt under tension: kb = equivalent spring constant of
bolt composed of threaded (kt) and unthreaded (kd) parts • Model as a cone with top cut off
acting as springs in series • Called a frustum
1 1 1 Joint pressure distribution theoretical models

= +
kb kd kt Model compressed members as
if they are frusta spreading from
kd kt
kb = the bolt head and nut to the
midpoint of the grip
kd + kt
km
A E AE
kd = d ; kt = t
ld lt
Ito used ultrasonic techniques to determine pressure distribution at the member
A d At E interface. Results show that pressure stays high out to about 1.5 bolt radii.
kb =
A d l t + At l d Ito suggested the use of Rotscher’s pressure cone method for stiffness calculations
For short bolts kb= kt with a variable cone angle. This method is quite complicated.
8.6 – Joints : Member Stiffness 8.6 – Joints : Member Stiffness – cont…
The area of element is

We choose a simpler approach using a fixed cone angle.
Substituting this Eq. and integrating gives a total contraction of
Figure 7-22: Compression of a member with the equivalent elastic properties

represented by frustum of a hollow cone. Here l represents the grip length.
Each frustum has a half-apex angle of α P ( 2 t tan α + D − d )( D + d )

Integrating from 0 to t ; δ = ln
The contraction of an element of the cone of thickness dx is subjected to a compressive π Ed tan α ( 2 t tan α + D + d )( D − d )
force P is,
Pdx P π Ed tan α
dδ = Thus the stiffness of this frustum is k = =
EA δ ( 2 t tan α + D − d )( D + d )
ln
( 2 t tan α + D + d )( D − d )
8.6 – Joints : Member Stiffness – cont… 8.6 – Joints : Member Stiffness – cont…
For Members made of Aluminum, hardened steel and cast iron 25 < α < 33° From Finite element analysis results,
For α = 30° A and B from table 8.7 for standard
0 .5774 πEd washer Faces and members
k = of same material
(1 .155 t + D − d )( D + d )
ln
(1 .155 t + D + d )( D − d )
km
= A exp (Bd/l)
If the grip consists of any number of members all of the Ed
same material, two identical frusta can be added in
series. The entire joint can be handled with one
equation, Combine all frusta as springs in
series , km
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ....
k m k1 k 2 k 3 ki
dw is the washer face diameter 0 . 5774 π Ed Figure 8-23: The dimensionless plot of stiffness versus aspect ratio
km =
( )
of the members of a bolted joint, showing the relative
Using standard washer face 0 . 5774 l + 0 . 5 d accuracy of methods of Rotscher, Mischke, and
diameter of 1.5d, and with α = 30º, 2 ln 5 Motosh, compared to a finite-element analysis (FEA)
0 . 5774 l + 2 . 5 d conducted by Wileman, Choudury and Green.
Example
Example8-2
8-2
Table 8-7:
As shown in figure below, two plates are clamped by washer-faced ½ in-20 UNF x 1½ in SAE
grade 5 bolts each with a standard ½ N steel plain washer.
a) Determine the member spring rate km if the top plate is steel and the bottom plate is gray
cast iron.
b) Using the method of conical frusta, determine the member spring rate km if both plates
are steel.
c) Using Finite Element Approach to Member Stiffness, determine the member spring rate
km if both plates are steel. Compare the results with part (b)
d) Determine the bolt spring rate kb.
Solution
Solution8-2
8-2 The outer diameter of the frustum of the
steel member at the joint interface is
From Table A-32, the thickness of a standard ½ N washer is 0.095 in.
0 .75 + 2( 0 .595 ) tan 30 o = 1 . 437 in
a) As shown in figure below, the frusta extend halfway into the joint the distance k1
k2
1 The outer diameter at the midpoint of the
( 0 . 5 + 0 . 75 + 0 . 095 ) = 0 . 6725 in
2 entire joint is k3
The distance between the joint line and the 0 .75 + 2( 0 .6725 ) tan 30 = 1 . 527 in
o
dotted frusta line is

The spring rate of the steel is
0.6725 - 0.5 - 0.095 = 0.0775 in
0.5774π (30)(10 6 )0.5
k1 = = 30.80(10 6 ) Ibf/in
Thus, the top frusta consist of the steel
ln
[1.155(0.595) + 0.75 − 0.5](0.75 + 0.5)
washer, steel plate and 0.0775 in of the cast [1.155(0.595) + 0.75 + 0.5](0.75 − 0.5)
iron. Since the washer and top plate are both
steel with E = 30(10)6 psi, they can be considered a single frustum of 0.595 in thick.
b) If the entire joint is steel, therefore l = 2(0.6725) = 1.345 in gives,

For the upper cast-iron frustum
0.5774π (14.5)(10 6 )0.5 0 . 5774 π ( 30 )( 10 6 ) 0 . 5

= 285.5(10 6 ) Ibf/in = 14 . 64 (10 6 ) ibf/in
( )
k2 = km =
⎧ [1.155(0.0775) + 1.437 − 0.5](1.437 + 0.5) ⎫
ln ⎨ ⎬
⎩ [1.155(0.0775) + 1.437 + 0.5](1.437 − 0.5) ⎭ 2 ln 5
0 . 5774 (1 . 345 ) + 0 . 5 ( 0 . 5 )
0 . 5774 (1 . 345 ) + 2 . 5 ( 0 . 5 )
For the lower cast-iron frustum
c) From table 8.7, A = 0.78715, B = 0.62873.
0.5774π (14.5)(10 6 )0.5
k3 = = 14.15(10 6 ) Ibf/in ⎡ 0 . 62873 ( 0 . 5 ) ⎤
⎧ [1.155(0.6725) + 0.75 − 0.5](0.75 + 0.5) ⎫ k m = 30 (10 6 )( 0 . 5 )( 0 . 78715 ) exp ⎢ 6
⎥ = 14 . 92 (10 ) ibf/in
ln ⎨ ⎬ ⎣ 1 . 345 ⎦
⎩ [1.155(0.6725) + 0.75 + 0.5](0.75 − 0.5) ⎭
In this case, the different between results is less than 2%.
1 1 1 1
The three frusta are in series, so = + +
k m 30 . 80 (10 6 ) 285 . 5 (10 6 ) 14 . 15 (10 6 ) d) Following the procedure of slide 36, the threaded length of a 0.5-in bolt is
L T = 2 ( 0 . 5 ) + 0 . 25 = 1 . 25 in
This results in km = 9.378 (106) ibf/in
8.6 – Joints : Member Stiffness – cont… 8.7 – Bolts Strength
Bolt strength is specified by minimum proof strength Sp or minimum proof load, Fp

The length of the unthreaded portion is (refer slide 44) and minimum tensile strength, Sut
l d = 1 . 5 − 1 . 25 = 0 . 25 in • Proof load is the maximum load that a bolt can
withstand without acquiring a permanent set
The length of the unthreaded portion in grip is (refer slide 44)
• Proof strength is the quotient of proof load and
l t = 1 . 345 − 0 . 25 = 1 . 095 in tensile-stress area
The major diameter area is – Corresponds to proportional limit
⎛ 0 .5 2 ⎞
Ad =π⎜ ⎟ = 0 . 1963 in 2 – Slightly lower than yield strength
⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ – Typically used for static strength of bolt
From table 8-2 (slide 14) the tensile stress area is At = 0.1599 in. • Good bolt materials have stress-strain curve
6 that continues to rise to fracture
A d At E 0 . 1963 ( 0 . 1599 ) 30 (10 )
Therefore kb = =
A d l t + At l d 0 . 1963 (1 . 095 ) + 0 . 1599 ( 0 . 25 ) If Sp not available use Sp =0.85 Sy
6
= 3 . 69 (10 ) Ibf/in Fp = At Sp
Figure 8-24: Typical stress-strain diagram
for bolt materials
8.7 – Bolts Strength – cont… 8.7 – Bolts Strength – cont…
Table 8-8: SAE Specifications for Steel Bolts

• Grades specify material, heat treatment, strengths
– Table 8–8 for SAE grades (The SAE specifications are numbered according to
minimum tensile strength)
– Table 8–9 for ASTM designations (ASTM are mostly deals with structural)
– Table 8–10 for metric property class
• Grades should be marked on head of bolt
Table 8-8: SAE Specifications for Steel Bolts (cont…) Table 8-9: ASTM Specifications for Steel Bolts.
Table 8-9: ASTM Specifications for Steel Bolts (cont…) Table 8-9: ASTM Specifications for Steel Bolts (cont…)
Table 8-10: Metric Mechanical-Property Classes for Steel Bolts Table 8-10: Metric Mechanical-Property Classes for Steel Bolts (cont…)
8.8 – Tension Joints : The External Load 8.8 – Tension Joints : The External Load – cont…
Let us consider what happens when an external tensile load P, is applied • During bolt preload; Fi (clamping force
to a bolt connection. produced by tightening the nut before
Assuming a clamping force, (preload Fi )is applied by tightening the nut external load; P is applied)
before external force, P is applied. – bolt is stretched
– members in grip are compressed
Fi = preload • When external load P is applied

P = external tensile load – Bolt stretches an additional amount δ
Pb = portion of P taken by bolt – Members in grip uncompress same amount δ
Pm = portion of P taken by members
Fb = Pb + Fi = resultant bolt load
Fm = Pm – Fi = resultant load on the members
C = fraction of external load P carried by bolt
1-C = fraction of external load P carried by members
8.8 – Tension Joints : The External Load – cont… 8.8 – Tension Joints : The External Load – cont…
• Since External Load P is shared by bolt and members, therefore Resultant Bolt and Member Load : Fb & Fm
P = Pb + Pm
Fb = Pb + Fi = C P + Fi
Fm < 0
Fm = Pm − Fi = (1 − C ) P − Fi
• C is defined as the stiffness constant of the joint;
These results are only valid if the load on the members remains
• C indicates the proportion of external load P that the bolt will carry. A good negative, indicating the members stay in compression.
design target is around 0.2. Fi is preload; high preload is desirable in tension connections.
Table 8-11: Fi = 0.75 Fp for re-use
Computation of Bolt and Fi = 0.90 Fp for permanent joint
Member Stiffnesses. Steel
members clamped using a
½ in – 13 NC steel bolt.
8.9 – Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension 8.9 – Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension – cont…
• Best way to measure bolt preload is by relating measured bolt elongation and • Assuming a washer face diameter of 1.5d, the collar diameter is
calculated stiffness dc = (d + 1.5d)/2 = 1.25d, giving
• Usually, measuring bolt elongation is not practical
• Measuring applied torque is common, using a torque wrench
• Need to find relation between applied torque and bolt preload
Torque required to give preload Fi • Define term in brackets as torque coefficient; K
• From the power screw equations,
Table 8-12: Torque factor K
• Applying tan λ = l / π dm • Some recommended values for K for

various bolt finishes is given in Table 8–12
• Use K = 0.2 for other cases
8.9 – Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension – cont… 8.9 – Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension – cont…
Example Solution
Solution8-3
Example8-3
8-3 8-3
From Table 8-2, At = 0.373 in2.
A ¾ in-16 UNF x 2 ½ in SAE grade 5 bolt is subjected to a load P of 6 kip in a tension Fi 25

a) The preload is σ i = = = 67 . 02 kpsi
joint. The initial bolt tension is Fi = 25 kip. The bolt and joint stiffness are 6.50 and 13.8 At 0 . 373
Mlbf/in, respectively. kb 6 .5
The stiffness constant is C = = = 0 . 320
kb + km 6 . 5 + 13 . 8
(a) Determine the preload and service load stresses in the bolt. Compare these
Fb CP + Fi CP
to the minimum proof strength of the bolt. The stress under the service load is σ b = = = +σi
At At At
(b) Specify the torque necessary to develop the preload using equation T = Kfid
0 . 320 ( 6 )
(c) Specify the torque necessary to develop the preload if given f = fc = 0.15 = + 67 . 02 = 72 . 17 kpsi
0 . 373
From Table 8-8, the SAE minimum proof strength of the bolt is Sp = 85 kpsi.
The preload and service load stresses are respectively 21 and 15 percent
less than the proof strength.
8.9 – Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension – cont… 8.9 – Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension – cont…
b) The torque necessary to achieve the preload is For α = 30o
T = KF i d = 0 . 2 ( 25 x10 3 )( 0 . 75 ) = 3750 Ibf.in ⎧⎪ ⎡ 0 . 7093 ⎤ ⎡ tan 1 . 6066 o + 0 . 15 (sec 30 o ) ⎤ ⎫⎪

T = ⎨⎢ ⎥⎢ o ⎥
+ 0 . 625 ( 0 . 15 ) ⎬ 25 (10 3 )( 0 . 75 )
c) The minor diameter can be determined from the minor area in Table 8-2. Thus ⎪⎩ ⎣ 2 ( 0 . 75 ) ⎦ ⎣⎢ 1 − 0 . 15 (tan 1 . 6066 o
)(sec 30 ) ⎦⎥ ⎪⎭
= 3551 Ibf.in
4 Ar 4 ( 0 . 351 )
dr = = = 0 . 6685 in
π π
Which is 5.3% less than the value found in part (b)
Than the mean diameter can be calculated as follow
0 . 75 + 0 . 6685
dm = = 0 . 7093 in
2
The lead angle is
l 1 1
λ = tan −1 = tan −1 = tan −1 = 1 . 6066 o
πd m πd m N π ( 0 . 7093 )(16 )
8.10 – Statically Loaded Tension Joint with Preload 8.10 – Statically Loaded Tension Joint with Preload
Failure of joints occurs when ii) Joint separates
i) Bolt Yields
Let P0 be external load causing separation Fm= 0
At: Tensile stress area
σb =
Fb CP Fi
= + Fm = (1 − C ) P − Fi
At At At
(1 − C ) P0 − Fi = 0
Proof strength Fm = 0
Failure starts σb = Sp P0 Fi
n0 = =
Sp Sp S p At P P (1 − C )
a) Yielding Factor of safety: np = = =
σb (CP + Fi ) / At CP + Fi Fi
For n bolts n =
P / N (1 − C )
S p At − Fi
b) Load Factor: CP + Fi = S p At ∴ nL =
CP no : factor of safety against joint separation
Example Solution
Solution8-4
Example8-4
8-4 8-4
Figure 8-25 is a cross section of a grade 25

cast-iron pressure vessel. A total of N bolts
are to be used to resist a separating force
of 36 kip.
(a) Determine kb, km, and C

(b) Find the number of bolts required for a
load factor of 2 where the bolts may be
reused when the joint is taken apart.
(c) With the number of bolts obtained in
part (b), determine the realized load
factor for overloading, the yielding
factor of safety, and the load factor for
joint separation. Figure 8-25:
8.10 – Statically Loaded Tension Joint with Preload 8.11 – Gasketed Joints
If a full gasket is present in joint, The

gasket pressure p is:
Fm No. of
p=− bolts
Ag / N
With load factor n
Fm = (1 − C ) nP − Fi
N
p = [ Fi − nP (1 − C )]
Ag
8.11 – Gasketed Joints – cont… 8.12 – Fatigue Loading of Tension Joints
IMPORTANT: • Fatigue methods of Ch. 4 are directly applicable

1. To maintain uniformity of pressure
• Distribution of typical bolt failures is
adjacent bolts should not be placed
more than 6 nominal diameters apart – 15% under the head
on bolt circle. – 20% at the end of the thread
2. To maintain wrench clearance bolts – 65% in the thread at the nut face
should be placed at least 3 d apart.
• Fatigue stress-concentration factors for threads and fillet are given in
3. A rough rule for bolt spacing around a Table 8–13
bolt circle is
Table 8-13: Fatigue Stress-Concentration Factors Kf for Threaded Elements
π Db
3≤ ≤6
Nd
where Db is the diameter of the bolt
circle and N is the number of bolts.
8.12 – Fatigue Loading of Tension Joints – cont… 8.12 – Fatigue Loading of Tension Joints – cont…
Endurance Strength for Bolts Fatigue Stresses
• Bolts are standardized, so endurance strengths are known by experimentation, • With an external load on a per bolt basis fluctuating
including all modifiers. between Pmin and Pmax,
• In thread-rolling the amount of Table 8-14: Full Corrected Endurance Strengths for Bolts
and Screws with Rolled Threads* • The alternating stress experienced by a bolt is
cold-work and strain
strengthening is unknown to the
designer; therefore, fully
corrected (including Kf) axial
endurance strength is reported in
Table 8-14.
• The midrange stress experienced by a bolt is
• Fatigue stress-concentration factor
Kf is also included as a reducer of
the endurance strength, so it
should not be applied to the bolt
stresses.
Typical Fatigue Load Line for Bolts Typical Fatigue Load Line for Bolts
Typical load line starts Next, find the strength components Sa of the fatigue
from constant preload, failure locus. These depend on the failure Criteria.
then increases with a
constant slope ¾ Goodman Equation of a typical
Se fatigue load line:
Sa Sm Sa = Se − Sm
On the designer’s + =1 S ut
fatigue diagram, Se Sut
σa
shown in Figure 8-26, Sa = (S m − σ i )
¾ Gerber σ m −σi
the load line is . 2 ⎛S ⎞
2
Sa ⎛ Sm ⎞ S a = S e − ⎜⎜ m ⎟ Se
⎟
+⎜ ⎟ =1 ⎝ S ut ⎠ S a (σ m − σ i )
High Preload is Se ⎝ Sut ⎠ ∴ Sm = +σi
especially important σa
in fatigue. σi is a ¾ ASME-
ASME-Elliptic 2
constant the load line 2 2 ⎛S ⎞
⎛ Sa ⎞ ⎛ Sm ⎞ Sa = Se 1 − ⎜ m ⎟
at Fi/At has a unit ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1 ⎜ Sp ⎟
⎝ ⎠
slope, r = 1.0 Figure 8-26: Designer’s fatigue diagram showing a
⎝ Se ⎠ ⎝ Sp ⎠
Goodman failure locus and how a load line is 89 90
Department of Material and Engineering Design, Department of Material and Engineering Design,
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, used to define failure and safety in preloaded Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor. bolted joints in fatigue. University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor.
Typical Fatigue Load Line for Bolts Repeated Load Special Case
• Solving (a) and (b) for Goodman line intersection point, • Bolted joints often experience repeated load, where external load fluctuates
between 0 and Pmax
• Setting Pmin = 0; equation in slide 88
• Fatigue factor of safety based on

Goodman line and constant
preload load line,
Sa • With constant preload load line,
nf =
σa
• Other failure curves can be used,
following the same approach. • Load line has slope of unity for repeated load case
Repeated Load Special Case Yield Check with Fatigue Stresses

Fatigue factor of safety equations for repeated Substitute σa and σi into any of
loading, constant preload load line, with the fatigue factor of safety • As always, static yielding must be checked.
various failure curves: equations • In fatigue loading situations, since σa and σm are already calculated, it may be
convenient to check yielding with
¾ Goodman
¾ Gerber • This is equivalent to the yielding factor of safety from slide 77.
¾ ASME –
Elliptic
Solution
Solution8-5
8-5
Example
Example8-5
8-5
(a) For the symbols of Figs. 8-22 and 8-27,
h = t1 + t w = 0.6875 in
l = h + d / 2 = 1 in
D2 = 1.5d = 0.9375 in
The joint is composed of three frusta; the upper two frusta are steel and the
lower one is cast iron.
Figure 8-27
Pressure-cone frustum member model for a cap screw. For this For the upper frustrum; using Eq. in slide 49:
model the significant sizes are
⎧h + t2 2 t2 < d t = l / 2 = 0.5 in ⎫
l=⎨ (Refer to slide 43) ⎪
⎩h + D 2 t2 ≥ d D = 0.9375 in ⎬ k1 = 46.46 MIbf/in
D1 = dw + l tan α = 1.5d + 0.577l ⎪
D2 = dw = 1.5d
E = 30 Mpsi ⎭
Where l = effective grip. The solutions are for α=30o and dw=1.5d.
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Figure 8-27: Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
t = h − l / 2 = 0.1875 in ⎫ (b) Equation in slide 70 gives the preload as,

For the middle frustrum;
o ⎪
D = 0.9375 + 2(l − h) tan 30 = 1.298 in ⎬ k 2 = 197.43 MIbf/in Fi = 0.75 F p = 0.75 At S p = 0.75(0.226)(85) = 14.4 kip
E = 30 Mpsi ⎪
⎭ where from Table 8-8, Sp = 85 kpsi for an SAE grade 5 cap screw. Using Eq. in slide 77,
we obtain the load factor as the yielding factor of safety is
t = l − h = 0.3125 in ⎫ S p At 85(0.226)
For the lower frustrum; ⎪ np = = = 1.22
D = 0.9375 in ⎬ k 3 = 32.39 MIbf/in CP + Fi 0.280(5) + 14.4
Eci = 30 Mpsi ⎪
⎭
This is the traditional factor of safety, which compares the maximum bolt stress to the
Substituting these three stiffnesses gives km = 17.40 MIbf/in. The cap screw is short proof strength. Using Eq. in slide 77
and threaded all the way. Using l = 1 in for the grip and At = 0.226 in2 from Table 8-2, S p At − Fi 85(0.226) − 14.4
we find the stiffness to be kb = AtE / l = 6.78 MIbf/in. Thus the joint constant is nL = = = 3.44
CP 0.280(5)
kb 6.78
C= = = 0.280 This factor is an indication of the overload on P that can be applied without exceeding the
k b + k m 6.78 + 17.40 proof strength.
Next, using Eq. in slide 78, we have

Fi 14.4
n0 = = = 4.00
P (1 − C ) 5(1 − 0.280)
If the force P gets too large, the joint will separate and the bolt will take the entire load.
This factor guards against that event.
For the remaining factors, refer to Fig. 8-28 at next slide. This diagram contains the
modified Goodman line, the Gerber line, the proof-strength line, and the load line. The
intersection of the load line L with the respective failure lines at points C, D, and E defines
a set of strengths Sa and Sm at each intersection. Point B represents the stress state σa , Fig. 8–28: Designer’s fatigue diagram for preload bolts, drawn to scale, showing the modified Goodman line, the Gerber line, and the
σm . Point A is the preload stress σi . Therefore the load line begins at A and makes an Larger proof-strength line, with an exploded view of the area of interest. The strengths used are Sp = 85 kpsi, Se = 18.6 kpsi,
and Sut = 120 kpsi. The coordinates are;
angle having a unit slope. The angle is 45o only when both stress axes have the same A, σi = 63.72 kpsi ;
B, σa = 3.10 kpsi, σm = 66.82 kpsi ;
scale. C, Sa = 7.55 kpsi, Sm = 71.29 kpsi ;
D, Sa = 10.64 kpsi, Sm = 74.36 kpsi ;
E, Sa = 11.32 kpsi , Sm = 75.04 kpsi.
The factors of safety are found by dividing the distances AC, AD and AE by the distance Point D
AB. Note that this is the same as dividing Sa for each theory by σa. This is on the proof-strength line where S m + S a = S p
The quantities shown in the caption of Fig. 8-28 are obtained as follows: In addition, the horizontal projection of the load line AD is S m = σ i + S a
Fi 14.4 Sp −σi 85 − 63.72
Point A σi = = = 63.72 kpsi Solving Eqs. above simultaneously results in S a = = = 10.64 kpsi
At 0.226 2 2
CP 0.280(5) Sa 10.64
σa = = = 3.10 kpsi The factor of safety resulting from this is n p = = = 3.43
Point B 2 At 2(0.226) σa 3.10
σ m = σ a + σ i = 3.10 + 63.72 = 66.82 kpsi which, of course, is identical to the result previously obtained by using Eq. in slide 77.
Point C A similar analysis of a fatigue diagram could have been done using yield strength instead
This is the modified Goodman criteria. From Table 8-14, we find Se = 18.6 kpsi. Then, using of proof strength. Though the two strengths are somewhat related, proof strength is a much
Eq. in Slide 93, the factor of safety is found to be better and more positive indicator of a fully loaded bolt than is the yield strength. It is also
S e ( Sut − σ i ) 18.6(120 − 63.72) worth remembering that proof-strength values are specified in the design codes; yields
nf = = = 2.44 kpsi strengths are not.
σ a ( Sut + S e ) 3.10(120 + 18.6)
8.12 – Fatigue Loading of Tension Joints – cont… 8.13 – Bolted and Riveted Joints Loaded in Shear
We found nf = 2.44 on the basis of fatigue and the modified Goodman line, and np = 3.43
y Shear loaded joints are handled the
on the basis of proof strength. Thus the danger of failure is by fatigue, not by overproof
same for rivets, bolts, and pins
loading. These two factors should always be compared to determine where is the greatest
danger lies. y Several failure modes are possible
(a) Joint loaded in shear
Point E
For the Gerber criterion, from Eq. in slide 93, the safety factor is (b) Bending of bolt or members
nf =
1
2σ a S e
[S ut Sut2 + 4 S e ( S e + σ i ) − Sut2 − 2σ i S e ] (c) Shear of bolt
(d) Tensile failure of members
=
1
2(3.10)(18.6)
[
120 120 2 + 4(18.6)(18.6 + 63.72) − 120 2 − 2(63.73)(18.6) ] (e) Bearing stress on bolt or members
(f) Shear tear-out
= 3.65
(g) Tensile tear-out
which is greater than np = 3.43 and contradicts the conclusion earlier that the danger of
failure is fatigue. Figure 8-28 clearly shows the conflict where point D lies between points
C and E. Again, the conservative nature of Goodman criterion explains the discrepancy
and the designer must form his or her own conclusion.
Department of Material and Engineering Design, 103 Department of Material and Engineering Design,
Fig. 8–29: Modes of failure in shear loading of a 104
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, bolted or riveted connection.
8.13 – Bolted and Riveted Joints Loaded in Shear 8.13 – Bolted and Riveted Joints Loaded in Shear
Failure by Bending Failure by Shear of Bolt
• Bending moment is approximately M = Ft / 2, where t is the grip length, i.e. • Simple direct shear
the total thickness of the connected parts.
• Bending stress is determined by regular mechanics of materials approach,

where I/c is for the weakest member or for the bolt(s).
• Use the total cross sectional area of bolts that are carrying
the load.
• For bolts, determine whether the shear is across the nominal

area or across threaded area. Use area based on nominal
diameter or minor diameter, as appropriate.
Failure by Tensile Rupture of Member Failure by Bearing Stress
• Failure by crushing known as bearing stress

• Simple tensile failure
• Bolt or member with lowest strength will crush first
• Load distribution on cylindrical surface is non-trivial
• Customary to assume uniform distribution over projected

• Use the smallest net area of the member,
contact area, A = td
with holes removed
• t is the thickness of the thinnest plate and d is the bolt
diameter
Failure by Shear-out or Tear-out Example

Example8-6
8-6
• Edge shear-out or tear-out is avoided by spacing bolts at least 1.5 diameters The bolted connection shown in Figure 8-30 uses SAE grade 5 bolts. The members are hot-
away from the edge rolled AISI 1018 steel. A tensile shear load F = 4000 Ibf is applied to the connection. Find
the factor of safety for all possible modes of failure.
F = 4000 Ibf
Fig. 8–30
F = 4000 Ibf
Solution
Solution8-6
8-6 Bearing of members Tension on members
Members: Sy = 32 kpsi (from Table A-20) S sc 32 At = (2.375 − 0.75)(1 / 4) = 0.406 in 2

n= = = 1.50
Bolts: Sy = 92 kpsi (from Table 8-8) ; Ssy = 0.577Sy = 0.577(92) = 53.08 kpsi
σb − 21.3 4
σt = = 9.85 kpsi
0.406
Sy 32
Shear of bolts n= = = 3.25
At 9.85
⎡ π (0.375) 2 ⎤ 2
As = 2 ⎢ ⎥ = 0.221 in
Bearing on bolts
⎣ 4 ⎦
Fs 4 Ab = 2(0.25)(0.375) = 0.188 in 2 Ab
τ= = = 18.1 kpsi
As 0.221 −4
σb = = −21.3 kpsi
S sy 53.08 0.188 At
n= = = 2.93 Sy 92
τ 18.1 n= = = 4.32
σ b − 21.3
Shear Joints with Eccentric Loading Shear Joints with Eccentric Loading
• Eccentric loading is when the load does not pass along a line of symmetry of (a) Example of eccentric loading
the fasteners. (b) Free body diagram
• Requires finding moment about centroid of bolt pattern
(c) Close up of bolt pattern
• Centroid location
where A1 to A5 is the group of pins, rivets or bolts respective

cross sectional area and xi and yi are the distances to the ith Fig. 8–31: Centroid of pins, rivets or bolts.
area center.
Shear Joints with Eccentric Loading Example

Example8-7
8-7
• Primary Shear Shown in Fig. 8-32 is a 15 – by 200-mm rectangular steel bar cantilevered to a 250-mm steel
channel using four tightly fitted bolts located at A, B, C, and D.
• Secondary Shear, due to moment load
For a F = 16 kN load find
around centroid
(a) The resultant load on each bolt
(b) The maximum shear stress in each bolt
(c) The maximum bearing stress
(d) The critical bending stress in the bar
Fig. 8–32: Dimensions in millimeters.
V 16
Solution The primary shear load per bolt is F ' = = = 4 kN
Solution8-7
8-7 n 4
(a) Point O, the centroid of the bolt group in Fig. Since the secondary shear forces are equal, Eq. in slide 115 becomes
8-32, is found by symmetry. If a free-body Mr M 6800
F"= = = = 17.7 kN
diagram of the beam were constructed, the 4r 2 4r 4(96.0)
shear reaction V would pass through O and
the moment reactions M would be about O. The primary and secondary shear forces are plotted to scale in Fig. 8-33 and the
These reaction are resultants obtained by using parallelogram rule. The magnitudes are found by
measurement (or analysis) to be
V = 16 kN ; M = 16(425) = 6800 Nm
75 α = 90o − θ = 90o − 51.3o = 38.7 o
In Fig. 8-33, the bolt group has been drawn θ = tan −1 = 51.3o
to a larger scale and the reactions are θo
60 mm 60
shown. The distance from the centroid to the FA = FB = (4 + 17.7 cos 38.7 o ) 2 + (17.7 sin 38.7 o ) 2 = 21.0 kN
center of each bolt is
75 mm
r = (60) 2 + (75) 2 = 96.0 mm FC = FD = (17.7 cos 38.7 o − 4) 2 + (17.7 sin 38.7 o ) 2 = 14.8 kN
Fig. 8–33 αo
(b) Bolts A and B are critical because they carry the largest shear load. Does this shear act on (d) The critical bending stress in the bar is assumed to occur in a section parallel to the y axis
the threaded portion of the bolt, or on the unthreaded portion? The bolt length will be 25 mm and through bolts A and B. At this section the bending moment is
plus the height of the nut plus about 2 mm for a washer. Table A-31 gives the nut height as
M = 16(300 + 50) = 5600 Nm
14.8 mm. Including two threads beyond the nut, this adds up to a length of 43.8 mm, and so
a bolt 45 mm long will be needed. From Eq. in slide 36, we compute the thread length as The second moment of area through this section is obtained by the use of the transfer
LT = 38mm. Thus the unthreaded portion of the bolt is 45 – 38 = 7 mm long. This is less than formula, as follows:
the 15 mm for the plate in Fig. 8-33, and so the bolt will tend to shear across its minor
I = I bar − 2( I holes + d 2 A)
diameter. Therefore the shear-stress area is As = 144 mm2, and so the shear stress is
15(200) 3 ⎡15(16) 3 ⎤
F 21.0(10)3 = − 2⎢ + 60 2 (15)(16)⎥ = 8.26(10) 6 mm 4
τ= = = 146 MPa 12 ⎢⎣ 12 ⎥⎦
As 144
Then
(c) The channel is thinner than the bar, and so the largest bearing stress is due to the pressing
Mc 5600(100)
of the bolt against the channel web. The bearing area is Ab = td = 10(16) = 160 mm2. Thus σ= = = 67.8 MPa
the bearing stress is 3
I 8.26(10) 6
F 21.0(10)
σ =− =− = −131 MPa
Ab 160
BDA 31203 – Mechanical Component Design CHAPTER 8 – Nonpermanent Joints
References
1. Richard G. Budynas, J. Keith Nisbett. Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design

(Ninth Edition). Singapore : McGraw‐Hill Companies, Inc., 2011. ISBN 978‐007‐
131113‐7.
2. Bazoune, Dr. A. Aziz. KFUPM Open Courseware. [Online] King Fahd University

of Petroleum & Minerals. [Cited: February 28, 2012.]
http://opencourseware.kfupm.edu.sa/colleges/ces/me/me307/lectures.asp.

shi20361_app_A.qxd 6/3/03 3:42 PM Page 959
Useful Tables Appendix A

Appendix Outline
A–1 Standard SI Prefixes 961
A–2 Conversion Factors 962
A–3 Optional SI Units for Bending, Torsion, Axial, and Direct Shear Stresses 963
A–4 Optional SI Units for Bending and Torsional Deflections 963
A–5 Physical Constants of Materials 963
A–6 Properties of Structural-Steel Angles 964
A–7 Properties of Structural-Steel Channels 966
A–8 Properties of Round Tubing 968
A–9 Shear, Moment, and Deflection of Beams 969
A–10 Cumulative Distribution Function of Normal (Gaussian) Distribution 977
A–11 A Selection of International Tolerance Grades—Metric Series 978
A–12 Fundamental Deviations for Shafts—Metric Series 979
A–13 A Selection of International Tolerance Grades—Inch Series 980
A–14 Fundamental Deviations for Shafts—Inch Series 981
A–15 Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K t 982
A–16 Approximate Stress-Concentration Factors K t and K ts for Bending a Round Bar

or Tube with a Transverse Round Hole 987
A–17 Preferred Sizes and Renard (R-series) Numbers 989
A–18 Geometric Properties 990
A–19 American Standard Pipe 993
A–20 Deterministic ASTM Minimum Tensile and Yield Strengths

for HR and CD Steels 994
A–21 Mean Mechanical Properties of Some Heat-Treated Steels 995
A–22 Results of Tensile Tests of Some Metals 997
A–23 Mean Monotonic and Cyclic Stress-Strain Properties of Selected Steels 998
A–24 Mechanical Properties of Three Non-Steel Metals 1000
A–25 Stochastic Yield and Ultimate Strengths for Selected Materials 1002
A–26 Stochastic Parameters from Finite Life Fatigue Tests in Selected Metals 1003
959
960 Mechanical Engineering Design
A–27 Finite Life Fatigue Strengths of Selected Plain Carbon Steels 1004
A–28 Decimal Equivalents of Wire and Sheet-Metal Gauges 1005
A–29 Dimensions of Square and Hexagonal Bolts 1007
A–30 Dimensions of Hexagonal Cap Screws and Heavy Hexagonal Screws 1008
A–31 Dimensions of Hexagonal Nuts 1009
A–32 Basic Dimensions of American Standard Plain Washers 1010
A–33 Dimensions of Metric Plain Washers 1011
A–34 Gamma Function 1012

Useful Tables 961
Table A–1 Name Symbol Factor

∗†
Standard SI Prefixes exa E 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1018
peta P 1 000 000 000 000 000 = 1015
tera T 1 000 000 000 000 = 1012
giga G 1 000 000 000 = 109
mega M 1 000 000 = 106
kilo k 1 000 = 103
hecto‡ h 100 = 102
deka ‡
da 10 = 101
deci‡ d 0.1 = 10−1
centi ‡
c 0.01 = 10−2
milli m 0.001 = 10−3
micro µ 0.000 001 = 10−6
nano n 0.000 000 001 = 10−9
pico p 0.000 000 000 001 = 10−12
femto f 0.000 000 000 000 001 = 10−15
atto a 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10−18
∗ If possible use multiple and submultiple prefixes in steps of 1000.
† Spaces are used in SI instead of commas to group numbers to avoid confusion with the practice in some European countries
of using commas for decimal points.

‡ Not recommended but sometimes encountered.
Table A–2
Conversion Factors A to Convert Input X to Output Y Using the Formula Y = AX ∗
Multiply Input By Factor To Get Output Multiply Input By Factor To Get Output
X A Y X A Y
British thermal 1055 joule, J mile/hour, mi/h 1.61 kilometer/hour, km/h

unit, Btu mile/hour, mi/h 0.447 meter/second, m/s
Btu/second, Btu/s 1.05 kilowatt, kW moment of inertia, 0.0421 kilogram-meter2,
calorie 4.19 joule, J lbm ·ft2 kg · m2
centimeter of 1.333 kilopascal, kPa moment of inertia, 293 kilogram-millimeter2,
mercury (0◦ C) lbm · in2 kg · mm2
centipoise, cP 0.001 pascal-second, moment of section 41.6 centimeter4, cm4
Pa · s (second moment
degree (angle) 0.0174 radian, rad of area), in4
foot, ft 0.305 meter, m ounce-force, oz 0.278 newton, N
foot2, ft2 0.0929 meter2, m2 ounce-mass 0.0311 kilogram, kg
foot/minute, 0.0051 meter/second, m/s pound, lbf † 4.45 newton, N
ft/min pound-foot, 1.36 newton-meter,
foot-pound, ft · lbf 1.35 joule, J lbf · ft N·m
foot-pound/ 1.35 watt, W pound/foot2, lbf/ft2 47.9 pascal, Pa
second, ft · lbf/s pound-inch, lbf · in 0.113 joule, J
foot/second, ft/s 0.305 meter/second, m/s pound-inch, lbf · in 0.113 newton-meter,
gallon (U.S.), gal 3.785 liter, L N·m
horsepower, hp 0.746 kilowatt, kW pound/inch, lbf/in 175 newton/meter, N/m
2
inch, in 0.0254 meter, m pound/inch , psi 6.89 kilopascal, kPa
(lbf/in2)
inch, in 25.4 millimeter, mm
pound-mass, lbm 0.454 kilogram, kg
inch2, in2 645 millimeter2, mm2
pound-mass/ 0.454 kilogram/second,
inch of mercury 3.386 kilopascal, kPa
second, lbm/s kg/s
(32◦ F)
quart (U.S. liquid), qt 946 milliliter, mL
kilopound, kip 4.45 kilonewton, kN
section modulus, in3 16.4 centimeter3, cm3
kilopound/inch2, 6.89 megapascal, MPa
kpsi (ksi) (N/mm2) slug 14.6 kilogram, kg
mass, lbf · s /in 2
175 kilogram, kg ton (short 2000 lbm) 907 kilogram, kg
yard, yd 0.914 meter, m
mile, mi 1.610 kilometer, km
∗ Approximate.
† The U.S. Customary system unit of the pound-force is often abbreviated as lbf to distinguish it from the pound-mass, which is abbreviated as lbm.
Useful Tables 963
Table A–3 Axial and

Bending and Torsion Direct Shear
Optional SI Units for
M,T I,J c, r σ, τ F A σ, τ
Bending Stress
σ = Mc/l, Torsion Stress N · m∗ m4 m Pa N∗ m2 Pa
τ = Tr/J, Axial Stress σ N·m cm4 cm MPa (N/mm2) N† mm2 MPa (N/mm2)
4 2
= F/A, and Direct N·m †
mm mm GPa kN m kPa
Shear Stress kN · m cm4 cm GPa kN† mm2 GPa
4 2
τ = F/A N · mm †
mm mm MPa (N/mm )
∗ Basic relation.
† Often preferred.
Table A–4 Bending Deflection Torsional Deflection

Optional SI Units for F, wl l I E y T l J G θ
Bending Deflection N∗ m m4 Pa m N · m∗ m m4 Pa rad
y = f (Fl 3/El ) or kN †
mm mm 4
GPa mm N·m †
mm mm4 GPa rad
y = f (wl 4/El ) and kN m m4 GPa µm N · mm mm mm4 MPa (N/mm2) rad
Torsional Deflection N mm mm 4
kPa m N·m cm cm 4
MPa (N/mm2) rad
θ = Tl/GJ ∗ Basic relation.
† Often preferred.
Table A–5
Physical Constants of Materials
Modulus of Modulus of
Elasticity E Rigidity G Poisson’s Unit Weight w
Material Mpsi GPa Mpsi GPa Ratio v lbf/in3 lbf/ft 3 kN/m3
Aluminum (all alloys) 10.4 71.7 3.9 26.9 0.333 0.098 169 26.6
Beryllium copper 18.0 124.0 7.0 48.3 0.285 0.297 513 80.6
Brass 15.4 106.0 5.82 40.1 0.324 0.309 534 83.8
Carbon steel 30.0 207.0 11.5 79.3 0.292 0.282 487 76.5
Cast iron (gray) 14.5 100.0 6.0 41.4 0.211 0.260 450 70.6
Copper 17.2 119.0 6.49 44.7 0.326 0.322 556 87.3
Douglas fir 1.6 11.0 0.6 4.1 0.33 0.016 28 4.3
Glass 6.7 46.2 2.7 18.6 0.245 0.094 162 25.4
Inconel 31.0 214.0 11.0 75.8 0.290 0.307 530 83.3
Lead 5.3 36.5 1.9 13.1 0.425 0.411 710 111.5
Magnesium 6.5 44.8 2.4 16.5 0.350 0.065 112 17.6
Molybdenum 48.0 331.0 17.0 117.0 0.307 0.368 636 100.0
Monel metal 26.0 179.0 9.5 65.5 0.320 0.319 551 86.6
Nickel silver 18.5 127.0 7.0 48.3 0.322 0.316 546 85.8
Nickel steel 30.0 207.0 11.5 79.3 0.291 0.280 484 76.0
Phosphor bronze 16.1 111.0 6.0 41.4 0.349 0.295 510 80.1
Stainless steel (18-8) 27.6 190.0 10.6 73.1 0.305 0.280 484 76.0
Titanium alloys 16.5 114.0 6.2 42.4 0.340 0.160 276 43.4
Table A–6 w = weight per foot, lbf/ft

m = mass per meter, kg/m
Properties of Structural- A = area, in2 (cm2) 3
Steel Angles∗† I = second moment of area, in4 (cm4)
1 1
k = radius of gyration, in (cm) y
y = centroidal distance, in (cm)
Z = section modulus, in3, (cm3) 3
Size, in w A l1−1 k1−1 Z1−1 y k3−3

1 × 1 × 18 0.80 0.234 0.021 0.298 0.029 0.290 0.191
× 14 1.49 0.437 0.036 0.287 0.054 0.336 0.193
1 12 × 1 12 × 18 1.23 0.36 0.074 0.45 0.068 0.41 0.29
× 14 2.34 0.69 0.135 0.44 0.130 0.46 0.29
2 × 2 × 18 1.65 0.484 0.190 0.626 0.131 0.546 0.398
× 14 3.19 0.938 0.348 0.609 0.247 0.592 0.391
× 38 4.7 1.36 0.479 0.594 0.351 0.636 0.389
2 2 × 2 2 × 14
1 1
4.1 1.19 0.703 0.769 0.394 0.717 0.491
× 38 5.9 1.73 0.984 0.753 0.566 0.762 0.487
3 × 3 × 14 4.9 1.44 1.24 0.930 0.577 0.842 0.592
× 38 7.2 2.11 1.76 0.913 0.833 0.888 0.587
× 12 9.4 2.75 2.22 0.898 1.07 0.932 0.584
3 12 × 3 12 × 14 5.8 1.69 2.01 1.09 0.794 0.968 0.694
× 38 8.5 2.48 2.87 1.07 1.15 1.01 0.687
× 12 11.1 3.25 3.64 1.06 1.49 1.06 0.683
4 × 4 × 14 6.6 1.94 3.04 1.25 1.05 1.09 0.795
× 38 9.8 2.86 4.36 1.23 1.52 1.14 0.788
× 12 12.8 3.75 5.56 1.22 1.97 1.18 0.782
× 58 15.7 4.61 6.66 1.20 2.40 1.23 0.779
6 × 6 × 38 14.9 4.36 15.4 1.88 3.53 1.64 1.19
× 12 19.6 5.75 19.9 1.86 4.61 1.68 1.18
× 58 24.2 7.11 24.2 1.84 5.66 1.73 1.18
× 34 28.7 8.44 28.2 1.83 6.66 1.78 1.17
Useful Tables 965
Table A–6 Size, mm m A l1−1 k1−1 Z1−1 y k3−3

Properties of Structural- 25 × 25 × 3 1.11 1.42 0.80 0.75 0.45 0.72 0.48
Steel Angles∗† ×4 1.45 1.85 1.01 0.74 0.58 0.76 0.48
(Continued) ×5 1.77 2.26 1.20 0.73 0.71 0.80 0.48
40 × 40 × 4 2.42 3.08 4.47 1.21 1.55 1.12 0.78
×5 2.97 3.79 5.43 1.20 1.91 1.16 0.77
×6 3.52 4.48 6.31 1.19 2.26 1.20 0.77
50 × 50 × 5 3.77 4.80 11.0 1.51 3.05 1.40 0.97
×6 4.47 5.59 12.8 1.50 3.61 1.45 0.97
×8 5.82 7.41 16.3 1.48 4.68 1.52 0.96
60 × 60 × 5 4.57 5.82 19.4 1.82 4.45 1.64 1.17
×6 5.42 6.91 22.8 1.82 5.29 1.69 1.17
×8 7.09 9.03 29.2 1.80 6.89 1.77 1.16
× 10 8.69 11.1 34.9 1.78 8.41 1.85 1.16
80 × 80 × 6 7.34 9.35 55.8 2.44 9.57 2.17 1.57
×8 9.63 12.3 72.2 2.43 12.6 2.26 1.56
× 10 11.9 15.1 87.5 2.41 15.4 2.34 1.55
100 ×100 × 8 12.2 15.5 145 3.06 19.9 2.74 1.96
× 12 17.8 22.7 207 3.02 29.1 2.90 1.94
× 15 21.9 27.9 249 2.98 35.6 3.02 1.93
150 × 150 × 10 23.0 29.3 624 4.62 56.9 4.03 2.97
× 12 27.3 34.8 737 4.60 67.7 4.12 2.95
× 15 33.8 43.0 898 4.57 83.5 4.25 2.93
× 18 40.1 51.0 1050 4.54 98.7 4.37 2.92
∗ Metric sizes also available in sizes of 45, 70, 90, 120, and 200 mm.
† These sizes are also available in aluminum alloy.

Table A–7
Properties of Structural-Steel Channels∗

2
a, b = size, in (mm)
w = weight per foot, lbf/ft t
m = mass per meter, kg/m
1 1 a
t = web thickness, in (mm)
A = area, in2 (cm2)
I = second moment of area, in4 (cm4)
k = radius of gyration, in (cm) x
x = centroidal distance, in (cm) 2
Z = section modulus, in3 (cm3) b
a, in b, in t A w l1−1 k1−1 Z1−1 l2−2 k2−2 Z2−2 x
3 1.410 0.170 1.21 4.1 1.66 1.17 1.10 0.197 0.404 0.202 0.436
3 1.498 0.258 1.47 5.0 1.85 1.12 1.24 0.247 0.410 0.233 0.438
3 1.596 0.356 1.76 6.0 2.07 1.08 1.38 0.305 0.416 0.268 0.455
4 1.580 0.180 1.57 5.4 3.85 1.56 1.93 0.319 0.449 0.283 0.457
4 1.720 0.321 2.13 7.25 4.59 1.47 2.29 0.433 0.450 0.343 0.459
5 1.750 0.190 1.97 6.7 7.49 1.95 3.00 0.479 0.493 0.378 0.484
5 1.885 0.325 2.64 9.0 8.90 1.83 3.56 0.632 0.489 0.450 0.478
6 1.920 0.200 2.40 8.2 13.1 2.34 4.38 0.693 0.537 0.492 0.511
6 2.034 0.314 3.09 10.5 15.2 2.22 5.06 0.866 0.529 0.564 0.499
6 2.157 0.437 3.83 13.0 17.4 2.13 5.80 1.05 0.525 0.642 0.514
7 2.090 0.210 2.87 9.8 21.3 2.72 6.08 0.968 0.581 0.625 0.540
7 2.194 0.314 3.60 12.25 24.2 2.60 6.93 1.17 0.571 0.703 0.525
7 2.299 0.419 4.33 14.75 27.2 2.51 7.78 1.38 0.564 0.779 0.532
8 2.260 0.220 3.36 11.5 32.3 3.10 8.10 1.30 0.625 0.781 0.571
8 2.343 0.303 4.04 13.75 36.2 2.99 9.03 1.53 0.615 0.854 0.553
8 2.527 0.487 5.51 18.75 44.0 2.82 11.0 1.98 0.599 1.01 0.565
9 2.430 0.230 3.91 13.4 47.7 3.49 10.6 1.75 0.669 0.962 0.601
9 2.485 0.285 4.41 15.0 51.0 3.40 11.3 1.93 0.661 1.01 0.586
9 2.648 0.448 5.88 20.0 60.9 3.22 13.5 2.42 0.647 1.17 0.583
10 2.600 0.240 4.49 15.3 67.4 3.87 13.5 2.28 0.713 1.16 0.634
10 2.739 0.379 5.88 20.0 78.9 3.66 15.8 2.81 0.693 1.32 0.606
10 2.886 0.526 7.35 25.0 91.2 3.52 18.2 3.36 0.676 1.48 0.617
10 3.033 0.673 8.82 30.0 103 3.43 20.7 3.95 0.669 1.66 0.649
12 3.047 0.387 7.35 25.0 144 4.43 24.1 4.47 0.780 1.89 0.674
12 3.170 0.510 8.82 30.0 162 4.29 27.0 5.14 0.763 2.06 0.674
Useful Tables 967
Table A–7
Properties of Structural-Steel Channels (Continued)
a × b, mm m t A I1−1 k1−1 Z1−1 I2−2 k2−2 Z2−2 x
76 × 38 6.70 5.1 8.53 74.14 2.95 19.46 10.66 1.12 4.07 1.19
102 × 51 10.42 6.1 13.28 207.7 3.95 40.89 29.10 1.48 8.16 1.51
127 × 64 14.90 6.4 18.98 482.5 5.04 75.99 67.23 1.88 15.25 1.94
152 × 76 17.88 6.4 22.77 851.5 6.12 111.8 113.8 2.24 21.05 2.21
152 × 89 23.84 7.1 30.36 1166 6.20 153.0 215.1 2.66 35.70 2.86
178 × 76 20.84 6.6 26.54 1337 7.10 150.4 134.0 2.25 24.72 2.20
178 × 89 26.81 7.6 34.15 1753 7.16 197.2 241.0 2.66 39.29 2.76
203 × 76 23.82 7.1 30.34 1950 8.02 192.0 151.3 2.23 27.59 2.13
203 × 89 29.78 8.1 37.94 2491 8.10 245.2 264.4 2.64 42.34 2.65
229 × 76 26.06 7.6 33.20 2610 8.87 228.3 158.7 2.19 28.22 2.00
229 × 89 32.76 8.6 41.73 3387 9.01 296.4 285.0 2.61 44.82 2.53
254 × 76 28.29 8.1 36.03 3367 9.67 265.1 162.6 2.12 28.21 1.86
254 × 89 35.74 9.1 45.42 4448 9.88 350.2 302.4 2.58 46.70 2.42
305 × 89 41.69 10.2 53.11 7061 11.5 463.3 325.4 2.48 48.49 2.18
305 × 102 46.18 10.2 58.83 8214 11.8 539.0 499.5 2.91 66.59 2.66
∗
These sizes are also available in aluminum alloy.
Table A–8 wa = unit weight of aluminum tubing, lbf/ft

ws = unit weight of steel tubing, lbf/ft
Properties of Round m = unit mass, kg/m
Tubing A = area, in2 (cm2)
I = second moment of area, in4 (cm4)
J = second polar moment of area, in4 (cm4)
k = radius of gyration, in (cm)
Z = section modulus, in3 (cm3)
d, t = size (OD) and thickness, in (mm)
Size, in wa ws A l k Z J
1
1× 8
0.416 1.128 0.344 0.034 0.313 0.067 0.067
1
1× 4
0.713 2.003 0.589 0.046 0.280 0.092 0.092
1 12 × 1
8
0.653 1.769 0.540 0.129 0.488 0.172 0.257
1 12 × 1
4
1.188 3.338 0.982 0.199 0.451 0.266 0.399
1
2× 8
0.891 2.670 0.736 0.325 0.664 0.325 0.650
1
2× 4
1.663 4.673 1.374 0.537 0.625 0.537 1.074
2 12 × 1
8
1.129 3.050 0.933 0.660 0.841 0.528 1.319
2 12 × 1
4
2.138 6.008 1.767 1.132 0.800 0.906 2.276
1
3× 4
2.614 7.343 2.160 2.059 0.976 1.373 4.117
3
3× 8
3.742 10.51 3.093 2.718 0.938 1.812 5.436
3
4× 16
2.717 7.654 2.246 4.090 1.350 2.045 8.180
3
4× 8
5.167 14.52 4.271 7.090 1.289 3.544 14.180
Size, mm m A l k Z J
12 × 2 0.490 0.628 0.082 0.361 0.136 0.163

16 × 2 0.687 0.879 0.220 0.500 0.275 0.440
16 × 3 0.956 1.225 0.273 0.472 0.341 0.545
20 × 4 1.569 2.010 0.684 0.583 0.684 1.367
25 × 4 2.060 2.638 1.508 0.756 1.206 3.015
25 × 5 2.452 3.140 1.669 0.729 1.336 3.338
30 × 4 2.550 3.266 2.827 0.930 1.885 5.652
30 × 5 3.065 3.925 3.192 0.901 2.128 6.381
42 × 4 3.727 4.773 8.717 1.351 4.151 17.430
42 × 5 4.536 5.809 10.130 1.320 4.825 20.255
50 × 4 4.512 5.778 15.409 1.632 6.164 30.810
50 × 5 5.517 7.065 18.118 1.601 7.247 36.226
Useful Tables 969
Table A–9 1 Cantilever—end load

y
Shear, Moment, and R1 = V = F M1 = Fl
Deflection of Beams l
M = F(x − l)
(Note: Force and F
Fx2
moment reactions are x y= (x − 3l)
6E I
positive in the directions M1
R1 Fl 3
shown; equations for ymax = −
3E I
shear force V and
V
bending moment M
follow the sign
+
conventions given in
x
Sec. 4–2.)
M
x
–
2 Cantilever—intermediate load
y
R1 = V = F M1 = Fa
l
a b M A B = F(x − a) MBC = 0
F
A B C F x2
x yA B = (x − 3a)
6E I
M1
Fa 2
R1 yB C = (a − 3x)
6E I
V Fa 2
ymax = (a − 3l)
6E I
+
x
–
(continued)
Table A–9 3 Cantilever—uniform load

y
Shear, Moment, and wl 2
l R1 = wl M1 =
Deflection of Beams 2
w
(Continued) w
x V = w(l − x) M =− (l − x)2
(Note: Force and 2
M1
moment reactions are wx 2
R1 y= (4lx − x 2 − 6l 2 )
positive in the directions 24E I
shown; equations for V wl 4
ymax = −
shear force V and 8E I
bending moment M +
follow the sign x
M
Sec. 4–2.)
x
–
4 Cantilever—moment load
y
R1 = 0 M1 = M B M = MB
l
M1 MB MB x 2 MB l2
y= ymax =
A 2E I 2E I
B x
R1
x
Useful Tables 971
Table A–9 5 Simple supports—center load

y
Shear, Moment, and F
l R1 = R2 = V A B = R1
Deflection of Beams 2
l/2 F
(Continued) V A B = R1 VB C = −R2
A B C
(Note: Force and x
Fx F
moment reactions are R1 R2 MA B = M B C = (l − x)
2 2
positive in the directions Fx
V yA B = (4x 2 − 3l 2 )
shown; equations for 48E I
shear force V and Fl 3
+ ymax = −
bending moment M 48E I
x
follow the sign –
Sec. 4–2.) M
6 Simple supports—intermediate load

y
Fb Fa
l R1 = R2 =
l l
a b
F
V A B = R1 VB C = −R2
A B C
x Fbx Fa
R1 R2 MA B = MB C = (l − x)
l l
Fbx 2
V yA B = (x + b2 − l 2 )
6E I l
Fa(l − x) 2
+ yB C = (x + a 2 − 2lx)
6E I l
x
–
x (continued)
Table A–9 7 Simple supports—uniform load

y
Shear, Moment, and wl wl
l R1 = R2 = V = − wx
Deflection of Beams 2 2
w
(Continued) wx
M= (l − x)
(Note: Force and
x 2
R1 R2 wx
moment reactions are y= (2lx 2 − x 3 − l 3 )
24E I
positive in the directions V
5wl 4
shown; equations for ymax = −
384E I
shear force V and
+
bending moment M x
–
follow the sign
Sec. 4–2.) M
+
x
8 Simple supports—moment load

y
MB MB
l R1 = R2 = V =
l l
a b
MB x MB
MB R2 MA B = MB C = (x − l)
l l
A C
B x MB x 2
yA B = (x + 3a 2 − 6al + 2l 2 )
R1 6E I l
MB 3
V yB C = [x − 3lx 2 + x(2l 2 + 3a 2 ) − 3a 2 l]
6E I l
– x
Useful Tables 973
Table A–9 9 Simple supports—twin loads

y
Shear, Moment, and R1 = R2 = F VA B = F VB C = 0
l
Deflection of Beams a F F a VC D = −F
(Continued)
A B C D MA B = F x M B C = Fa MC D = F(l − x)
(Note: Force and x
moment reactions are R1 R2 Fx 2
yA B = (x + 3a 2 − 3la)
positive in the directions 6E I
V Fa
shown; equations for yB C = (3x 2 + a 2 − 3lx)
6E I
shear force V and
+ Fa
bending moment M ymax = (4a 2 − 3l 2 )
x 24E I
follow the sign –
Sec. 4–2.)
M
10 Simple supports—overhanging load

y
l a Fa F
R1 = R2 = (l + a)
R1 F l l
Fa
A B C VA B =− VB C = F
x l
R2 Fax
MA B =− M B C = F(x − l − a)
l
V
Fax 2
yA B = (l − x 2 )
6E I l
+
F(x − l)
yB C = [(x − l)2 − a(3x − l)]
– x 6E I
Fa 2
yc = − (l + a)
M 3E I
x
–
(continued)
Table A–9 11 One fixed and one simple support—center load

y
Shear, Moment, and l 11F 5F 3Fl
R1 = R2 = M1 =
Deflection of Beams l/2 F 16 16 16
(Continued) A B C V A B = R1 VB C = −R2
x
(Note: Force and F 5F
moment reactions are
M1 R2 MA B = (11x − 3l) MBC = (l − x)
R1 16 16
positive in the directions F x2
yA B = (11x − 9l)
shown; equations for V 96E I
shear force V and F(l − x)
yB C = (5x 2 + 2l 2 − 10lx)
bending moment M + 96E I
follow the sign x
–
Sec. 4–2.)
M
– x
12 One fixed and one simple support—intermediate load

y
l Fb 2 Fa 2
F
a b R1 = (3l − b2 ) R2 = (3l − a)
2l 3 2l 3
A B C Fb
x M1 = 2 (l 2 − b2 )
2l
M1 R2
R1 V A B = R1 VB C = −R2
Fb 2
V MA B = [b l − l 3 + x(3l 2 − b2 )]
2l 3
Fa 2 2
+ MBC = (3l − 3lx − al + ax)
2l 3
x Fbx 2
– yA B = [3l(b2 − l 2 ) + x(3l 2 − b2 )]
12E I l 3
F(x − a)3
M yB C = y A B −
6E I
+
– x
Useful Tables 975
Table A–9 13 One fixed and one simple support—uniform load

y
Shear, Moment, and 5wl 3wl wl 2
l R1 = R2 = M1 =
Deflection of Beams 8 8 8
(Continued) 5wl
x V = − wx
(Note: Force and M1 R2
8
moment reactions are 0.4215l ymax w
R1
M = − (4x 2 − 5lx + l 2 )
8
positive in the directions
wx 2
shown; equations for V y= (l − x)(2x − 3l)
48E I
shear force V and 5l / 8
wl 4
bending moment M ymax = −
185E I
follow the sign +
conventions given in – x
Sec. 4–2.)
M
l /4
+
– x
14 Fixed supports—center load

y
F Fl
l R1 = R2 = M1 = M2 =
l/2 F
2 8
F
A B C V A B = −VB C =
x 2
M1 M2 F F
R1 R2 MA B = (4x − l) MBC = (3l − 4x)
8 8
F x2
V yA B = (4x − 3l)
48E I
Fl 3
+ ymax = −
192E I
x
–
+
– – x
(continued)
Table A–9 15 Fixed supports—intermediate load

y
Shear, Moment, and Fb2 Fa 2
l R1 = (3a + b) R2 = (3b + a)
Deflection of Beams a b l3 l3
F
(Continued) Fab2 Fa 2 b
A B C M1 = M2 =
(Note: Force and x l2 l2
moment reactions are M1 M2 V A B = R1 VB C = −R2
R1 R2
positive in the directions
Fb2
shown; equations for MA B = [x(3a + b) − al]
V l3
shear force V and
M B C = M A B − F(x − a)
bending moment M +
follow the sign Fb2 x 2
x yA B = [x(3a + b) − 3al]
conventions given in – 6E I l 3
Sec. 4–2.) Fa 2 (l − x)2

yB C = [(l − x)(3b + a) − 3bl]
M 6E I l 3
+
– – x
16 Fixed supports—uniform load

y
wl wl 2
l R1 = R2 = M1 = M2 =
2 12
w
x V = (l − 2x)
2
M1 M2
w
R1 R2 M= (6lx − 6x 2 − l 2 )
12
V wx 2
y=− (l − x)2
24E I
+ wl 4
x ymax = −
– 384E I
M
0.2113l
+
– – x
Useful Tables 977
Table A–10
Cumulative Distribution Function of Normal (Gaussian) Distribution

zα 2
1 u f(z)
(z α ) = √ exp − du
−∞ 2π 2
⌽(z␣)
α zα ≤ 0
= ␣
1−α zα > 0
0 z␣
Zα 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.5000 0.4960 0.4920 0.4880 0.4840 0.4801 0.4761 0.4721 0.4681 0.4641
0.1 0.4602 0.4562 0.4522 0.4483 0.4443 0.4404 0.4364 0.4325 0.4286 0.4247
0.2 0.4207 0.4168 0.4129 0.4090 0.4052 0.4013 0.3974 0.3936 0.3897 0.3859
0.3 0.3821 0.3783 0.3745 0.3707 0.3669 0.3632 0.3594 0.3557 0.3520 0.3483
0.4 0.3446 0.3409 0.3372 0.3336 0.3300 0.3264 0.3238 0.3192 0.3156 0.3121
0.5 0.3085 0.3050 0.3015 0.2981 0.2946 0.2912 0.2877 0.2843 0.2810 0.2776
0.6 0.2743 0.2709 0.2676 0.2643 0.2611 0.2578 0.2546 0.2514 0.2483 0.2451
0.7 0.2420 0.2389 0.2358 0.2327 0.2296 0.2266 0.2236 0.2206 0.2177 0.2148
0.8 0.2119 0.2090 0.2061 0.2033 0.2005 0.1977 0.1949 0.1922 0.1894 0.1867
0.9 0.1841 0.1814 0.1788 0.1762 0.1736 0.1711 0.1685 0.1660 0.1635 0.1611
1.0 0.1587 0.1562 0.1539 0.1515 0.1492 0.1469 0.1446 0.1423 0.1401 0.1379
1.1 0.1357 0.1335 0.1314 0.1292 0.1271 0.1251 0.1230 0.1210 0.1190 0.1170
1.2 0.1151 0.1131 0.1112 0.1093 0.1075 0.1056 0.1038 0.1020 0.1003 0.0985
1.3 0.0968 0.0951 0.0934 0.0918 0.0901 0.0885 0.0869 0.0853 0.0838 0.0823
1.4 0.0808 0.0793 0.0778 0.0764 0.0749 0.0735 0.0721 0.0708 0.0694 0.0681
1.5 0.0668 0.0655 0.0643 0.0630 0.0618 0.0606 0.0594 0.0582 0.0571 0.0559
1.6 0.0548 0.0537 0.0526 0.0516 0.0505 0.0495 0.0485 0.0475 0.0465 0.0455
1.7 0.0446 0.0436 0.0427 0.0418 0.0409 0.0401 0.0392 0.0384 0.0375 0.0367
1.8 0.0359 0.0351 0.0344 0.0336 0.0329 0.0322 0.0314 0.0307 0.0301 0.0294
1.9 0.0287 0.0281 0.0274 0.0268 0.0262 0.0256 0.0250 0.0244 0.0239 0.0233
2.0 0.0228 0.0222 0.0217 0.0212 0.0207 0.0202 0.0197 0.0192 0.0188 0.0183
2.1 0.0179 0.0174 0.0170 0.0166 0.0162 0.0158 0.0154 0.0150 0.0146 0.0143
2.2 0.0139 0.0136 0.0132 0.0129 0.0125 0.0122 0.0119 0.0116 0.0113 0.0110
2.3 0.0107 0.0104 0.0102 0.00990 0.00964 0.00939 0.00914 0.00889 0.00866 0.00842
2.4 0.00820 0.00798 0.00776 0.00755 0.00734 0.00714 0.00695 0.00676 0.00657 0.00639
2.5 0.00621 0.00604 0.00587 0.00570 0.00554 0.00539 0.00523 0.00508 0.00494 0.00480
2.6 0.00466 0.00453 0.00440 0.00427 0.00415 0.00402 0.00391 0.00379 0.00368 0.00357
2.7 0.00347 0.00336 0.00326 0.00317 0.00307 0.00298 0.00289 0.00280 0.00272 0.00264
2.8 0.00256 0.00248 0.00240 0.00233 0.00226 0.00219 0.00212 0.00205 0.00199 0.00193
2.9 0.00187 0.00181 0.00175 0.00169 0.00164 0.00159 0.00154 0.00149 0.00144 0.00139
(continued)
Table A–10
Cumulative Distribution Function of Normal (Gaussian) Distribution (Continued)
Zα 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
3 0.00135 0.03968 0.03687 0.03483 0.03337 0.03233 0.03159 0.03108 0.04723 0.04481
4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 6
4 0.0 317 0.0 207 0.0 133 0.0 854 0.0 541 0.0 340 0.0 211 0.0 130 0.0 793 0.06479
5 0.06287 0.06170 0.07996 0.07579 0.07333 0.07190 0.07107 0.08599 0.08332 0.08182
9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 11
6 0.0 987 0.0 530 0.0 282 0.0 149 0.0 777 0.0 402 0.0 206 0.0 104 0.0 523 0.011260
zα −1.282 −1.643 −1.960 −2.326 −2.576 −3.090 −3.291 −3.891 −4.417

F(zα) 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.010 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.00005 0.000005
R(zα) 0.90 0.95 0.975 0.999 0.995 0.999 0.9995 0.9999 0.999995
Table A–11 Tolerance Grades

Basic
A Selection of Sizes IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11
International Tolerance 0–3 0.006 0.010 0.014 0.025 0.040 0.060
Grades—Metric Series 3–6 0.008 0.012 0.018 0.030 0.048 0.075
(Size Ranges Are for 6–10 0.009 0.015 0.022 0.036 0.058 0.090
Over the Lower Limit 10–18 0.011 0.018 0.027 0.043 0.070 0.110
and Including the Upper 18–30 0.013 0.021 0.033 0.052 0.084 0.130
Limit. All Values Are 30–50 0.016 0.025 0.039 0.062 0.100 0.160
in Millimeters) 50–80 0.019 0.030 0.046 0.074 0.120 0.190
Source: Preferred Metric Limits 80–120 0.022 0.035 0.054 0.087 0.140 0.220
and Fits, ANSI B4.2-1978.
See also BSI 4500. 120–180 0.025 0.040 0.063 0.100 0.160 0.250
180–250 0.029 0.046 0.072 0.115 0.185 0.290
250–315 0.032 0.052 0.081 0.130 0.210 0.320
315–400 0.036 0.057 0.089 0.140 0.230 0.360
Useful Tables 979
Table A–12
Fundamental Deviations for Shafts—Metric Series

(Size Ranges Are for Over the Lower Limit and Including the Upper Limit. All Values Are in Millimeters)
Source: Preferred Metric Limits and Fits , ANSI B4.2-1978. See also BSI 4500.
Basic Upper-Deviation Letter Lower-Deviation Letter

Sizes c d f g h k n p s u
0–3 −0.060 −0.020 −0.006 −0.002 0 0 +0.004 +0.006 +0.014 +0.018

3–6 −0.070 −0.030 −0.010 −0.004 0 +0.001 +0.008 +0.012 +0.019 +0.023
6–10 −0.080 −0.040 −0.013 −0.005 0 +0.001 +0.010 +0.015 +0.023 +0.028
10–14 −0.095 −0.050 −0.016 −0.006 0 +0.001 +0.012 +0.018 +0.028 +0.033
14–18 −0.095 −0.050 −0.016 −0.006 0 +0.001 +0.012 +0.018 +0.028 +0.033
18–24 −0.110 −0.065 −0.020 −0.007 0 +0.002 +0.015 +0.022 +0.035 +0.041
24–30 −0.110 −0.065 −0.020 −0.007 0 +0.002 +0.015 +0.022 +0.035 +0.048
30–40 −0.120 −0.080 −0.025 −0.009 0 +0.002 +0.017 +0.026 +0.043 +0.060
40–50 −0.130 −0.080 −0.025 −0.009 0 +0.002 +0.017 +0.026 +0.043 +0.070
50–65 −0.140 −0.100 −0.030 −0.010 0 +0.002 +0.020 +0.032 +0.053 +0.087
65–80 −0.150 −0.100 −0.030 −0.010 0 +0.002 +0.020 +0.032 +0.059 +0.102
80–100 −0.170 −0.120 −0.036 −0.012 0 +0.003 +0.023 +0.037 +0.071 +0.124
100–120 −0.180 −0.120 −0.036 −0.012 0 +0.003 +0.023 +0.037 +0.079 +0.144
120–140 −0.200 −0.145 −0.043 −0.014 0 +0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.092 +0.170
140–160 −0.210 −0.145 −0.043 −0.014 0 +0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.100 +0.190
160–180 −0.230 −0.145 −0.043 −0.014 0 +0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.108 +0.210
180–200 −0.240 −0.170 −0.050 −0.015 0 +0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.122 +0.236
200–225 −0.260 −0.170 −0.050 −0.015 0 +0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.130 +0.258
225–250 −0.280 −0.170 −0.050 −0.015 0 +0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.140 +0.284
250–280 −0.300 −0.190 −0.056 −0.017 0 +0.004 +0.034 +0.056 +0.158 +0.315
280–315 −0.330 −0.190 −0.056 −0.017 0 +0.004 +0.034 +0.056 +0.170 +0.350
315–355 −0.360 −0.210 −0.062 −0.018 0 +0.004 +0.037 +0.062 +0.190 +0.390
355–400 −0.400 −0.210 −0.062 −0.018 0 +0.004 +0.037 +0.062 +0.208 +0.435
Table A–13 Tolerance Grades

Basic
A Selection of Sizes IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11
International Tolerance 0–0.12 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0010 0.0016 0.0024
Grades—Inch Series 0.12–0.24 0.0003 0.0005 0.0007 0.0012 0.0019 0.0030
(Size Ranges Are for 0.24–0.40 0.0004 0.0006 0.0009 0.0014 0.0023 0.0035
Over the Lower Limit 0.40–0.72 0.0004 0.0007 0.0011 0.0017 0.0028 0.0043
and Including the Upper 0.72–1.20 0.0005 0.0008 0.0013 0.0020 0.0033 0.0051
Limit. All Values Are in 1.20–2.00 0.0006 0.0010 0.0015 0.0024 0.0039 0.0063
Inches, Converted from 2.00–3.20 0.0007 0.0012 0.0018 0.0029 0.0047 0.0075
Table A–11) 3.20–4.80 0.0009 0.0014 0.0021 0.0034 0.0055 0.0087
4.80–7.20 0.0010 0.0016 0.0025 0.0039 0.0063 0.0098
7.20–10.00 0.0011 0.0018 0.0028 0.0045 0.0073 0.0114
10.00–12.60 0.0013 0.0020 0.0032 0.0051 0.0083 0.0126
12.60–16.00 0.0014 0.0022 0.0035 0.0055 0.0091 0.0142
shi20361_app_A.qxd
Table A–14
6/3/03
Fundamental Deviations for Shafts—Inch Series (Size Ranges Are for Over the Lower Limit and Including the Upper Limit. All Values Are in
Inches, Converted from Table A–12)
Upper-Deviation Letter Lower-Deviation Letter

3:43 PM
Basic
Sizes c d f g h k n p s u
0–0.12 −0.0024 −0.0008 −0.0002 −0.0001 0 0 +0.0002 +0.0002 +0.0006 +0.0007

0.12–0.24 −0.0028 −0.0012 −0.0004 −0.0002 0 0 +0.0003 +0.0005 +0.0007 +0.0009
Page 981
0.24–0.40 −0.0031 −0.0016 −0.0005 −0.0002 0 0 +0.0004 +0.0006 +0.0009 +0.0011

0.40–0.72 −0.0037 −0.0020 −0.0006 −0.0002 0 0 +0.0005 +0.0007 +0.0011 +0.0013
0.72–0.96 −0.0043 −0.0026 −0.0008 −0.0003 0 +0.0001 +0.0006 +0.0009 +0.0014 +0.0016
0.96–1.20 −0.0043 −0.0026 −0.0008 −0.0003 0 +0.0001 +0.0006 +0.0009 +0.0014 +0.0019
1.20–1.60 −0.0047 −0.0031 −0.0010 −0.0004 0 +0.0001 +0.0007 +0.0010 +0.0017 +0.0024
1.60–2.00 −0.0051 −0.0031 −0.0010 −0.0004 0 +0.0001 +0.0007 +0.0010 +0.0017 +0.0028
2.00–2.60 −0.0055 −0.0039 −0.0012 −0.0004 0 +0.0001 +0.0008 +0.0013 +0.0021 +0.0034
2.60–3.20 −0.0059 −0.0039 −0.0012 −0.0004 0 +0.0001 +0.0008 +0.0013 +0.0023 +0.0040
3.20–4.00 −0.0067 −0.0047 −0.0014 −0.0005 0 +0.0001 +0.0009 +0.0015 +0.0028 +0.0049
4.00–4.80 −0.0071 −0.0047 −0.0014 −0.0005 0 +0.0001 +0.0009 +0.0015 +0.0031 +0.0057
4.80–5.60 −0.0079 −0.0057 −0.0017 −0.0006 0 +0.0001 +0.0011 +0.0017 +0.0036 +0.0067
5.60–6.40 −0.0083 −0.0057 −0.0017 −0.0006 0 +0.0001 +0.0011 +0.0017 +0.0039 +0.0075
6.40–7.20 −0.0091 −0.0057 −0.0017 −0.0006 0 +0.0001 +0.0011 +0.0017 +0.0043 +0.0083
7.20–8.00 −0.0094 −0.0067 −0.0020 −0.0006 0 +0.0002 +0.0012 +0.0020 +0.0048 +0.0093
8.00–9.00 −0.0102 −0.0067 −0.0020 −0.0006 0 +0.0002 +0.0012 +0.0020 +0.0051 +0.0102
9.00–10.00 −0.0110 −0.0067 −0.0020 −0.0006 0 +0.0002 +0.0012 +0.0020 +0.0055 +0.0112
10.00–11.20 −0.0118 −0.0075 −0.0022 −0.0007 0 +0.0002 +0.0013 +0.0022 +0.0062 +0.0124
11.20–12.60 −0.0130 −0.0075 −0.0022 −0.0007 0 +0.0002 +0.0013 +0.0022 +0.0067 +0.0130
12.60–14.20 −0.0142 −0.0083 −0.0024 −0.0007 0 +0.0002 +0.0015 +0.0024 +0.0075 +0.0154
14.20–16.00 −0.0157 −0.0083 −0.0024 −0.0007 0 +0.0002 +0.0015 +0.0024 +0.0082 +0.0171
981
Table A–15
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t
Figure A–15–1 3.0
Bar in tension or simple d

compression with a transverse 2.8
w
hole. σ0 = F/A, where
A = (w − d )t and t is the
2.6
thickness.
Kt
2.4
2.2
2.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
d/w

d
Rectangular bar with a d/h = 0

w
transverse hole in bending. 2.6
σ0 = Mc/I, where 0.25
M M
3
I = (w − d )h /12. 0.5
2.2 h
1.0
Kt
2.0
1.8
⬁
1.4
1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
d/w

r
w /d = 3
Notched rectangular bar in
w d
tension or simple compression. 2.6
σ0 = F/A, where A = dt and t
is the thickness. 1.5
2.2
1.2
Kt
1.1
1.8
1.05
1.4
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d
Useful Tables 983
Table A–15
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t (Continued)

1.10 w/d = ⬁ r
Notched rectangular bar in
bending. σ0 = Mc/I, where 2.6 M w M
1.5 d
c = d/2, I = td 3 /12, and t is 1.05
the thickness.
2.2
Kt 1.02
1.8
1.4
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d
Rectangular filleted bar in r

D/d = 1.50
tension or simple compression. 2.6
D d
σ0 = F/A, where A = dt and t
is the thickness. 1.10
2.2
Kt
1.05
1.8
1.02
1.4
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d
Rectangular filleted bar in r
bending. σ0 = Mc/I, where 2.6 M M

3 1.05 D d
c = d/2, I = td /12, t is the
thickness. 3
2.2
1.1 1.3
Kt
1.8
1.4 D/d = 1.02
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d (continued)
*Factors from R. E. Peterson, “Design Factors for Stress Concentration,” Machine Design, vol. 23, no. 2, February 1951, p. 169; no. 3, March 1951, p. 161, no. 5, May 1951, p. 159; no. 6, June 1951,
p. 173; no. 7, July 1951, p. 155. Reprinted with permission from Machine Design, a Penton Media Inc. publication.
Table A–15
Round shaft with shoulder fillet r

in tension. σ0 = F/A, where
A = πd 2 /4. 2.2 D d
Kt 1.8 D/d
= 1.
50
1.0 1.10
5
1.4
1.02
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d

in torsion. τ0 = Tc/J, where 2.6
4 D d
c = d/2 and J = πd /32. T T
2.2
Kts
1.8
D/d = 1.20 1.33

2
1.4
1.09
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d

in bending. σ0 = Mc/I, where 2.6
M D d M
c = d/2 and I = πd 4 /64.
2.2
Kt
1.8 D/d
=3
1.5
1.4 1.10 1.02
1.05
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d
Useful Tables 985
Table A–15
Figure A–15–10 4.0
d
Round shaft in torsion with
transverse hole. 3.6 T D
B A
Kts, A J ␲D3 dD2
Kts 3.2 c = 16 – 6 (approx)
Kts, B
2.8
2.4
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
d/D
Figure A–15–11 3.0

d
Round shaft in bending with
D
a transverse hole. σ0 = 2.6
2
M/[(πD3 /32) − (dD /6)],
M M
approximately.
2.2
Kt
1.8
1.4
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
d/D
Figure A–15–12 11
Plate loaded in tension by a

pin through a hole. σ0 = F/A, 9 h
h/w = 0.35 d
where A = (w − d)t . When
clearance exists, increase Kt w
7 t
35 to 50 percent. (M. M. Frocht
and H. N. Hill, “Stress Concentration Factors Kt
around a Central Circular Hole in a Plate 5
Loaded through a Pin in Hole,” J. Appl.
Mechanics, vol. 7, no. 1, March 1940, h/w = 0.50
p. A-5.) 3
h/w ⱖ 1.0
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
d/w (continued)
Table A–15
Figure A–15–13 3.0

r
1.15
Grooved round bar in tension.
σ0 = F/A, where 2.6
1.05 D d
A = πd 2 /4.
2.2
Kt
1.02 D/d = 1.50
1.8
1.4
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d
Figure A–15–14 3.0

r
Grooved round bar in
bending. σ0 = Mc/l, where 2.6 M M
4 D d
c = d/2 and I = πd /64.
1.05
2.2
Kt
1.02 D/d = 1.50
1.8
1.4
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d
Figure A–15–15 2.6

r
Grooved round bar in torsion. T T

τ0 = Tc/J, where c = d/2 2.2
D d
4
and J = πd /32.
1.8
Kts 1.05
D/d = 1.30
1.4
1.02
1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d
Useful Tables 987
a
Table A–16
Approximate Stress- D d
Concentration Factor Kt
M M
for Bending of a Round
Bar or Tube with a
The nominal bending stress is σ0 = M/Z net where Z net is a reduced value
Transverse Round Hole of the section modulus and is defined by
Source: R. E. Peterson, Stress
Concentration Factors, Wiley, πA
Z net = (D 4 − d 4 )
New York, 1974, pp. 146, 32D
235.
Values of A are listed in the table. Use d = 0 for a solid bar
d/D
0.9 0.6 0
a/D A Kt A Kt A Kt
0.050 0.92 2.63 0.91 2.55 0.88 2.42

0.075 0.89 2.55 0.88 2.43 0.86 2.35
0.10 0.86 2.49 0.85 2.36 0.83 2.27
0.125 0.82 2.41 0.82 2.32 0.80 2.20
0.15 0.79 2.39 0.79 2.29 0.76 2.15
0.175 0.76 2.38 0.75 2.26 0.72 2.10
0.20 0.73 2.39 0.72 2.23 0.68 2.07
0.225 0.69 2.40 0.68 2.21 0.65 2.04
0.25 0.67 2.42 0.64 2.18 0.61 2.00
0.275 0.66 2.48 0.61 2.16 0.58 1.97
0.30 0.64 2.52 0.58 2.14 0.54 1.94
(continued)
Table A–16 (Continued)
Approximate Stress-Concentration Factors Kts for a Round Bar or Tube Having a Transverse Round Hole and
Loaded in Torsion Source: R. E. Peterson, Stress Concentration Factors, Wiley, New York, 1974, pp. 148, 244.
D a d
T
T
The maximum stress occurs on the inside of the hole, slightly below the shaft surface. The nominal shear stress is τ0 = T D/2Jnet ,
where Jnet is a reduced value of the second polar moment of area and is defined by
π A(D 4 − d 4 )
Jnet =
32
Values of A are listed in the table. Use d = 0 for a solid bar.
d/D
0.9 0.8 0.6 0.4 0
a/D A Kts A Kts A Kts A Kts A Kts
0.05 0.96 1.78 0.95 1.77

0.075 0.95 1.82 0.93 1.71
0.10 0.94 1.76 0.93 1.74 0.92 1.72 0.92 1.70 0.92 1.68
0.125 0.91 1.76 0.91 1.74 0.90 1.70 0.90 1.67 0.89 1.64
0.15 0.90 1.77 0.89 1.75 0.87 1.69 0.87 1.65 0.87 1.62
0.175 0.89 1.81 0.88 1.76 0.87 1.69 0.86 1.64 0.85 1.60
0.20 0.88 1.96 0.86 1.79 0.85 1.70 0.84 1.63 0.83 1.58
0.25 0.87 2.00 0.82 1.86 0.81 1.72 0.80 1.63 0.79 1.54
0.30 0.80 2.18 0.78 1.97 0.77 1.76 0.75 1.63 0.74 1.51
0.35 0.77 2.41 0.75 2.09 0.72 1.81 0.69 1.63 0.68 1.47
0.40 0.72 2.67 0.71 2.25 0.68 1.89 0.64 1.63 0.63 1.44
Useful Tables 989
Table A–17 Fraction of Inches

Preferred Sizes and 1
, 1 , 1 , 3 , 1 , 5 , 3 , 1 , 5 , 3 , 7 , 1 , 9 , 5 , 11 , 3 , 7 , 1, 1 14 , 1 12 , 1 34 , 2, 2 14 ,
64 32 16 32 8 32 16 4 16 8 16 2 16 8 16 4 8
Renard (R-Series) 2 12 , 2 34 , 3, 3 14 , 3 12 , 3 34 , 4, 4 14 , 4 12 , 4 34 , 5, 5 14 , 5 12 , 5 34 , 6, 6 12 , 7, 7 12 , 8, 8 12 , 9, 9 12 ,
Numbers
10, 10 12 , 11, 11 12 , 12, 12 12 , 13, 13 12 , 14, 14 12 , 15, 15 12 , 16, 16 12 , 17, 17 12 , 18,
(When a choice can be
18 12 , 19, 19 12 , 20
made, use one of these
sizes; however, not all Decimal Inches
parts or items are 0.010, 0.012, 0.016, 0.020, 0.025, 0.032, 0.040, 0.05, 0.06, 0.08, 0.10, 0.12, 0.16,
available in all the sizes 0.20, 0.24, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.60, 0.80, 1.00, 1.20, 1.40, 1.60, 1.80, 2.0, 2.4, 2.6,
shown in the table.) 2.8, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, 4.0, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6, 4.8, 5.0, 5.2, 5.4, 5.6, 5.8, 6.0, 7.0, 7.5,
8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10.0, 10.5, 11.0, 11.5, 12.0, 12.5, 13.0, 13.5, 14.0, 14.5, 15.0, 15.5,
16.0, 16.5, 17.0, 17.5, 18.0, 18.5, 19.0, 19.5, 20
Millimeters
0.05, 0.06, 0.08, 0.10, 0.12, 0.16, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.60, 0.70, 0.80,
0.90, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.5, 2.8, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5,
6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 40, 45, 50,
60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 250, 300
Renard Numbers*
1st choice, R5: 1, 1.6, 2.5, 4, 6.3, 10

2d choice, R10: 1.25, 2, 3.15, 5, 8
3d choice, R20: 1.12, 1.4, 1.8, 2.24, 2.8, 3.55, 4.5, 5.6, 7.1, 9
4th choice, R40: 1.06, 1.18, 1.32, 1.5, 1.7, 1.9, 2.12, 2.36, 2.65, 3, 3.35, 3.75,
4.25, 4.75, 5.3, 6, 6.7, 7.5, 8.5, 9.5
*May be multiplied or divided by powers of 10.

Table A–18 Part 1 Properties of Sections

Geometric Properties A = area
G = location of centroid

Ix = x 2 d A = second moment of area about x axis

Ix y = x y d A = mixed moment of area about x and y axes

JG = r 2 d A = (x 2 + y 2 ) d A = Ix + I y
= second polar moment of area about axis through G
k x2 = Ix /A = squared radius of gyration about x axis
Rectangle y
b
2
h x
G h
2
b
bh 3 b3 h
A = bh Ix = Iy = Ix y = 0
12 12
Circle y
D
G x
π D2 π D4
A= Ix = I y = Ix y = 0
4 64
Hollow circle y
d D
x
G
π 2 π
A= (D − d 2 ) Ix = I y = (D 4 − d 4 ) Ix y = 0
4 64
Useful Tables 991
Table A–18
y y
Geometric Properties Right triangles
b b
(Continued) 3
h
3
G x
h h
G h x
3
b
b
3
bh bh 3 b3 h −b2 h 2
A= Ix = Iy = Ix y =
2 36 36 72
y y
Right triangles
b
b
3
h
3
G x
h h
h G x
3
b
b
3
bh bh 3 b3 h b2 h 2
A= Ix = Iy = Ix y =
2 36 36 72
Quarter-circles y y
4r
3␲ r
4r
3␲
G x
G 4r x
3␲
r 4r
3␲

πr 2 π 4 1 4
A= Ix = I y = r 4 − Ix y = r 4 −
4 16 9π 8 9π
Quarter-circles y y
4r
r 3␲
4r
3␲
G x
4r G x
3␲
4r r
3␲

πr 2 π 4 4 1
A= Ix = I y = r 4
− Ix y = r 4
−
4 16 9π 9π 8
(continued)
Table A–18 Part 2 Properties of Solids (ρ = Density, Weight per Unit Volume)
Geometric Properties Rods y
(Continued)
d
z l
x
πd 2 lρ ml 2
m= I y = Iz =
4g 12
y
Round disks
t
d
x
z
πd 2 tρ md 2 md 2
m= Ix = I y = Iz =
4g 8 16
y
Rectangular prisms
z c
a x
abcρ m 2 m 2 m 2
m= Ix = (a + b2 ) Iy = (a + c2 ) Iz = (b + c2 )
g 12 12 12
y
Cylinders
d
z l
x
πd 2 lρ md 2 m
m= Ix = I y = Iz = (3d 2 + 4l 2 )
4g 8 48
y
Hollow cylinders
di
do
z l
x

π do2 − di2 lρ m 2 m 2
m= Ix = do + di2 I y = Iz = 3do + 3di2 + 4l 2
4g 8 48
Useful Tables 993
Table A–19 Wall Thickness, in

American Standard Pipe Nominal Outside Extra Double
Size, Diameter, Threads Standard Strong Extra
in in per inch No. 40 No. 80 Strong
1
8
0.405 27 0.070 0.098
1
4
0.540 18 0.090 0.122
3
8
0.675 18 0.093 0.129
1
2
0.840 14 0.111 0.151 0.307
3
4
1.050 14 0.115 0.157 0.318
1 1.315 11 12 0.136 0.183 0.369
1 14 1.660 11 12 0.143 0.195 0.393
1 12 1.900 11 12 0.148 0.204 0.411
2 2.375 11 12 0.158 0.223 0.447
2 12 2.875 8 0.208 0.282 0.565
3 3.500 8 0.221 0.306 0.615
3 12 4.000 8 0.231 0.325
4 4.500 8 0.242 0.344 0.690
5 5.563 8 0.263 0.383 0.768
6 6.625 8 0.286 0.441 0.884
8 8.625 8 0.329 0.510 0.895
Table A–20
Deterministic ASTM Minimum Tensile and Yield Strengths for Some Hot-Rolled (HR) and Cold-Drawn (CD) Steels
[The strengths listed are estimated ASTM minimum values in the size range 18 to 32 mm ( 34 to 1 14 in). These
strengths are suitable for use with the design factor defined in Sec. 1–10, provided the materials conform to
ASTM A6 or A568 requirements or are required in the purchase specifications. Remember that a numbering
system is not a specification. See Table 1–1 for certain ASTM steels.] Source: 1986 SAE Handbook, p. 2.15.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Tensile Yield
SAE and/or Proces- Strength, Strength, Elongation in Reduction in Brinell
UNS No. AISI No. sing MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) 2 in, % Area, % Hardness
G10060 1006 HR 300 (43) 170 (24) 30 55 86

CD 330 (48) 280 (41) 20 45 95
G10100 1010 HR 320 (47) 180 (26) 28 50 95
CD 370 (53) 300 (44) 20 40 105
G10150 1015 HR 340 (50) 190 (27.5) 28 50 101
CD 390 (56) 320 (47) 18 40 111
G10180 1018 HR 400 (58) 220 (32) 25 50 116
CD 440 (64) 370 (54) 15 40 126
G10200 1020 HR 380 (55) 210 (30) 25 50 111
CD 470 (68) 390 (57) 15 40 131
G10300 1030 HR 470 (68) 260 (37.5) 20 42 137
CD 520 (76) 440 (64) 12 35 149
G10350 1035 HR 500 (72) 270 (39.5) 18 40 143
CD 550 (80) 460 (67) 12 35 163
G10400 1040 HR 520 (76) 290 (42) 18 40 149
CD 590 (85) 490 (71) 12 35 170
G10450 1045 HR 570 (82) 310 (45) 16 40 163
CD 630 (91) 530 (77) 12 35 179
G10500 1050 HR 620 (90) 340 (49.5) 15 35 179
CD 690 (100) 580 (84) 10 30 197
G10600 1060 HR 680 (98) 370 (54) 12 30 201
G10800 1080 HR 770 (112) 420 (61.5) 10 25 229
G10950 1095 HR 830 (120) 460 (66) 10 25 248
Useful Tables 995
Table A–21
Mean Mechanical Properties of Some Heat-Treated Steels

[These are typical properties for materials normalized and annealed. The properties for quenched and tempered
(Q&T) steels are from a single heat. Because of the many variables, the properties listed are global averages. In
all cases, data were obtained from specimens of diameter 0.505 in, machined from 1-in rounds, and of gauge
length 2 in. unless noted, all specimens were oil-quenched.] Source: ASM Metals Reference Book, 2d ed., American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Tensile Yield
Temperature Strength Strength, Elongation, Reduction Brinell
AISI No. Treatment °C (°F) MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) % in Area, % Hardness
1030 Q&T* 205 (400) 848 (123) 648 (94) 17 47 495

Q&T* 315 (600) 800 (116) 621 (90) 19 53 401
Q&T* 425 (800) 731 (106) 579 (84) 23 60 302
Q&T* 540 (1000) 669 (97) 517 (75) 28 65 255
Q&T* 650 (1200) 586 (85) 441 (64) 32 70 207
Normalized 925 (1700) 521 (75) 345 (50) 32 61 149
Annealed 870 (1600) 430 (62) 317 (46) 35 64 137
1040 Q&T 205 (400) 779 (113) 593 (86) 19 48 262
Q&T 425 (800) 758 (110) 552 (80) 21 54 241
Q&T 650 (1200) 634 (92) 434 (63) 29 65 192
Normalized 900 (1650) 590 (86) 374 (54) 28 55 170
Annealed 790 (1450) 519 (75) 353 (51) 30 57 149
1050 Q&T* 205 (400) 1120 (163) 807 (117) 9 27 514
Q&T* 425 (800) 1090 (158) 793 (115) 13 36 444
Q&T* 650 (1200) 717 (104) 538 (78) 28 65 235
Normalized 900 (1650) 748 (108) 427 (62) 20 39 217
Annealed 790 (1450) 636 (92) 365 (53) 24 40 187
1060 Q&T 425 (800) 1080 (156) 765 (111) 14 41 311
Q&T 540 (1000) 965 (140) 669 (97) 17 45 277
Q&T 650 (1200) 800 (116) 524 (76) 23 54 229
Normalized 900 (1650) 776 (112) 421 (61) 18 37 229
Annealed 790 (1450) 626 (91) 372 (54) 22 38 179
1095 Q&T 315 (600) 1260 (183) 813 (118) 10 30 375
Q&T 425 (800) 1210 (176) 772 (112) 12 32 363
Q&T 540 (1000) 1090 (158) 676 (98) 15 37 321
Q&T 650 (1200) 896 (130) 552 (80) 21 47 269
Normalized 900 (1650) 1010 (147) 500 (72) 9 13 293
Annealed 790 (1450) 658 (95) 380 (55) 13 21 192
1141 Q&T 315 (600) 1460 (212) 1280 (186) 9 32 415
Q&T 540 (1000) 896 (130) 765 (111) 18 57 262
(continued)
Table A–21 (Continued)
Mean Mechanical Properties of Some Heat-Treated Steels

[These are typical properties for materials normalized and annealed. The properties for quenched and tempered
(Q&T) steels are from a single heat. Because of the many variables, the properties listed are global averages. In
all cases, data were obtained from specimens of diameter 0.505 in, machined from 1-in rounds, and of gauge
length 2 in. Unless noted, all specimens were oil-quenched.] Source: ASM Metals Reference Book, 2d ed., American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Tensile Yield
Temperature Strength Strength, Elongation, Reduction Brinell
AISI No. Treatment °C (°F) MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) % in Area, % Hardness
4130 Q&T* 205 (400) 1630 (236) 1460 (212) 10 41 467

Q&T* 315 (600) 1500 (217) 1380 (200) 11 43 435
Q&T* 425 (800) 1280 (186) 1190 (173) 13 49 380
Q&T* 540 (1000) 1030 (150) 910 (132) 17 57 315
Q&T* 650 (1200) 814 (118) 703 (102) 22 64 245
Normalized 870 (1600) 670 (97) 436 (63) 25 59 197
Annealed 865 (1585) 560 (81) 361 (52) 28 56 156
4140 Q&T 205 (400) 1770 (257) 1640 (238) 8 38 510
Q&T 315 (600) 1550 (225) 1430 (208) 9 43 445
Q&T 425 (800) 1250 (181) 1140 (165) 13 49 370
Q&T 540 (1000) 951 (138) 834 (121) 18 58 285
Q&T 650 (1200) 758 (110) 655 (95) 22 63 230
Normalized 870 (1600) 1020 (148) 655 (95) 18 47 302
Annealed 815 (1500) 655 (95) 417 (61) 26 57 197
4340 Q&T 315 (600) 1720 (250) 1590 (230) 10 40 486
Q&T 425 (800) 1470 (213) 1360 (198) 10 44 430
Q&T 540 (1000) 1170 (170) 1080 (156) 13 51 360
Q&T 650 (1200) 965 (140) 855 (124) 19 60 280
*Water-quenched
shi20361_app_A.qxd
6/3/03
Table A–22
Results of Tensile Tests of Some Metals* Source: J. Datsko, “Solid Materials,” chap. 7 in Joseph E. Shigley and Charles R. Mischke (eds.-in-chief), Standard
3:43 PM
Handbook of Machine Design, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996, pp. 7.47–7.50.
Strength (Tensile)
Yield Ultimate Fracture, Coefficient Strain
Page 997
Sy, Su, σf, σ0, Strength, Fracture

Number Material Condition MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) Exponent m Strain εf
1018 Steel Annealed 220 (32.0) 341 (49.5) 628 (91.1)† 620 (90.0) 0.25 1.05
1144 Steel Annealed 358 (52.0) 646 (93.7) 898 (130)† 992 (144) 0.14 0.49
†
1212 Steel HR 193 (28.0) 424 (61.5) 729 (106) 758 (110) 0.24 0.85
1045 Steel Q&T 600°F 1520 (220) 1580 (230) 2380 (345) 1880 (273)† 0.041 0.81
4142 Steel Q&T 600°F 1720 (250) 1930 (210) 2340 (340) 1760 (255)† 0.048 0.43
†
303 Stainless Annealed 241 (35.0) 601 (87.3) 1520 (221) 1410 (205) 0.51 1.16
steel
304 Stainless Annealed 276 (40.0) 568 (82.4) 1600 (233)† 1270 (185) 0.45 1.67
steel
2011 Aluminum T6 169 (24.5) 324 (47.0) 325 (47.2)† 620 (90) 0.28 0.10
alloy
2024 Aluminum T4 296 (43.0) 446 (64.8) 533 (77.3)† 689 (100) 0.15 0.18
alloy
7075 Aluminum T6 542 (78.6) 593 (86.0) 706 (102)† 882 (128) 0.13 0.18
alloy
*Values from one or two heats and believed to be attainable using proper purchase specifications. The fracture strain may vary as much as 100 percent.
†
Derived value.
997
Table A–23
998
Mean Monotonic and Cyclic Stress-Strain Properties of Selected Steels Source: ASM Metals Reference Book, 2nd ed., American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
Ohio, 1983, p. 217.
shi20361_app_A.qxd
True Fatigue
Tensile Strain Strength Fatigue Fatigue Fatigue
6/3/03
Hard- Strength
Reduction at Modulus of Coefficient Strength Ductility Ductility
Orienta- Description ness Sut
in Area Fracture Elasticity E σ f Exponent Coefficient Exponent
4
Grade (a) tion (e) (f) HB MPa ksi % εf GPa 10 psi MPa ksi b εF c
3:43 PM
A538A (b) L STA 405 1515 220 67 1.10 185 27 1655 240 −0.065 0.30 −0.62
A538B (b) L STA 460 1860 270 56 0.82 185 27 2135 310 −0.071 0.80 −0.71
A538C (b) L STA 480 2000 290 55 0.81 180 26 2240 325 −0.07 0.60 −0.75
AM-350 (c) L HR, A 1315 191 52 0.74 195 28 2800 406 −0.14 0.33 −0.84
Page 998
AM-350 (c) L CD 496 1905 276 20 0.23 180 26 2690 390 −0.102 0.10 −0.42
Gainex (c) LT HR sheet 530 77 58 0.86 200 29.2 805 117 −0.07 0.86 −0.65
Gainex (c) L HR sheet 510 74 64 1.02 200 29.2 805 117 −0.071 0.86 −0.68
H-11 L Ausformed 660 2585 375 33 0.40 205 30 3170 460 −0.077 0.08 −0.74
RQC-100 (c) LT HR plate 290 940 136 43 0.56 205 30 1240 180 −0.07 0.66 −0.69
RQC-100 (c) L HR plate 290 930 135 67 1.02 205 30 1240 180 −0.07 0.66 −0.69
10B62 L Q&T 430 1640 238 38 0.89 195 28 1780 258 −0.067 0.32 −0.56
1005-1009 LT HR sheet 90 360 52 73 1.3 205 30 580 84 −0.09 0.15 −0.43
1005-1009 LT CD sheet 125 470 68 66 1.09 205 30 515 75 −0.059 0.30 −0.51
1005-1009 L CD sheet 125 415 60 64 1.02 200 29 540 78 −0.073 0.11 −0.41
1005-1009 L HR sheet 90 345 50 80 1.6 200 29 640 93 −0.109 0.10 −0.39
1015 L Normalized 80 415 60 68 1.14 205 30 825 120 −0.11 0.95 −0.64
1020 L HR plate 108 440 64 62 0.96 205 29.5 895 130 −0.12 0.41 −0.51
1040 L As forged 225 620 90 60 0.93 200 29 1540 223 −0.14 0.61 −0.57
1045 L Q&T 225 725 105 65 1.04 200 29 1225 178 −0.095 1.00 −0.66
1045 L Q&T 410 1450 210 51 0.72 200 29 1860 270 −0.073 0.60 −0.70
1045 L Q&T 390 1345 195 59 0.89 205 30 1585 230 −0.074 0.45 −0.68
1045 L Q&T 450 1585 230 55 0.81 205 30 1795 260 −0.07 0.35 −0.69
1045 L Q&T 500 1825 265 51 0.71 205 30 2275 330 −0.08 0.25 −0.68
1045 L Q&T 595 2240 325 41 0.52 205 30 2725 395 −0.081 0.07 −0.60
1144 L CDSR 265 930 135 33 0.51 195 28.5 1000 145 −0.08 0.32 −0.58
1144 L DAT 305 1035 150 25 0.29 200 28.8 1585 230 −0.09 0.27 −0.53
1541F L Q&T forging 290 950 138 49 0.68 205 29.9 1275 185 −0.076 0.68 −0.65
shi20361_app_A.qxd
1541F L Q&T forging 260 890 129 60 0.93 205 29.9 1275 185 −0.071 0.93 −0.65
4130 L Q&T 258 895 130 67 1.12 220 32 1275 185 −0.083 0.92 −0.63
6/3/03
4130 L Q&T 365 1425 207 55 0.79 200 29 1695 246 −0.081 0.89 −0.69
4140 L Q&T, DAT 310 1075 156 60 0.69 200 29.2 1825 265 −0.08 1.2 −0.59
4142 L DAT 310 1060 154 29 0.35 200 29 1450 210 −0.10 0.22 −0.51
4142 L DAT 335 1250 181 28 0.34 200 28.9 1250 181 0.06
3:43 PM
−0.08 −0.62
4142 L Q&T 380 1415 205 48 0.66 205 30 1825 265 −0.08 0.45 −0.75
4142 L Q&T and 400 1550 225 47 0.63 200 29 1895 275 −0.09 0.50 −0.75
deformed
Page 999
4142 L Q&T 450 1760 255 42 0.54 205 30 2000 290 −0.08 0.40 −0.73
4142 L Q&T and 475 2035 295 20 0.22 200 29 2070 300 −0.082 0.20 −0.77
deformed
4142 L Q&T and 450 1930 280 37 0.46 200 29 2105 305 −0.09 0.60 −0.76
deformed
4142 L Q&T 475 1930 280 35 0.43 205 30 2170 315 −0.081 0.09 −0.61
4142 L Q&T 560 2240 325 27 0.31 205 30 2655 385 −0.089 0.07 −0.76
4340 L HR, A 243 825 120 43 0.57 195 28 1200 174 −0.095 0.45 −0.54
4340 L Q&T 409 1470 213 38 0.48 200 29 2000 290 −0.091 0.48 −0.60
4340 L Q&T 350 1240 180 57 0.84 195 28 1655 240 −0.076 0.73 −0.62
5160 L Q&T 430 1670 242 42 0.87 195 28 1930 280 −0.071 0.40 −0.57
52100 L SH, Q&T 518 2015 292 11 0.12 205 30 2585 375 −0.09 0.18 −0.56
9262 L A 260 925 134 14 0.16 205 30 1040 151 −0.071 0.16 −0.47
9262 L Q&T 280 1000 145 33 0.41 195 28 1220 177 −0.073 0.41 −0.60
9262 L Q&T 410 565 227 32 0.38 200 29 1855 269 −0.057 0.38 −0.65
950C (d) LT HR plate 159 565 82 64 1.03 205 29.6 1170 170 −0.12 0.95 −0.61
950C (d) L HR bar 150 565 82 69 1.19 205 30 970 141 −0.11 0.85 −0.59
950X (d) L Plate channel 150 440 64 65 1.06 205 30 625 91 −0.075 0.35 −0.54
950X (d) L HR plate 156 530 77 72 1.24 205 29.5 1005 146 −0.10 0.85 −0.61
950X (d) L Plate channel 225 695 101 68 1.15 195 28.2 1055 153 −0.08 0.21 −0.53
Notes: (a) AISI/SAE grade, unless otherwise indicated. (b) ASTM designation. (c) Proprietary designation. (d) SAE HSLA grade. (e) Orientation of axis of specimen, relative to rolling direction; L is longitudinal (parallel to rolling direction); LT is long transverse (perpendicular
to rolling direction). (f) STA, solution treated and aged; HR, hot rolled; CD, cold drawn; Q&T, quenched and tempered; CDSR, cold drawn strain relieved; DAT, drawn at temperature; A, annealed.
From ASM Metals Reference Book, 2nd edition, 1983; ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073-0002; table 217. Reprinted by permission of ASM International ®, www.asminternational.org.
999
1000
shi20361_app_A.qxd
6/3/03
Table A–24
Mechanical Properties of Three Non-Steel Metals

3:43 PM
(a) Typical Properties of Gray Cast Iron

[The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) numbering system for gray cast iron is such that the numbers correspond to the
minimum tensile strength in kpsi. Thus an ASTM No. 20 cast iron has a minimum tensile strength of 20 kpsi. Note particularly that the
tabulations are typical of several heats.]
Page 1000
Fatigue
Shear Stress-
Tensile Compressive Modulus Modulus of Endurance Brinell Concentration
ASTM Strength Strength of Rupture Elasticity, Mpsi Limit* Hardness Factor
Number Sut, kpsi Suc, kpsi Ssu, kpsi Tension† Torsion Se, kpsi HB Kf
20 22 83 26 9.6–14 3.9–5.6 10 156 1.00

25 26 97 32 11.5–14.8 4.6–6.0 11.5 174 1.05
30 31 109 40 13–16.4 5.2–6.6 14 201 1.10
35 36.5 124 48.5 14.5–17.2 5.8–6.9 16 212 1.15
40 42.5 140 57 16–20 6.4–7.8 18.5 235 1.25
50 52.5 164 73 18.8–22.8 7.2–8.0 21.5 262 1.35
60 62.5 187.5 88.5 20.4–23.5 7.8–8.5 24.5 302 1.50
*Polished or machined specimens.

†
The modulus of elasticity of cast iron in compression corresponds closely to the upper value in the range given for tension and is a more constant value than that for tension.
Table A–24
Mechanical Properties of Three Non-Steel Metals (Continued)

(b) Mechanical Properties of Some Aluminum Alloys
[These are typical properties for sizes of about 12 in; similar properties can be obtained by using proper
purchase specifications. The values given for fatigue strength correspond to 50(107) cycles of completely
reversed stress. Alluminum alloys do not have an endurance limit. Yield strengths were obtained by the
0.2 percent offset method.]
Aluminum Strength Elongation Brinell

Association Yield, Sy, Tensile, Su, Fatigue, Sf, in 2 in, Hardness
Number Temper MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) % HB
Wrought:
2017 O 70 (10) 179 (26) 90 (13) 22 45
2024 O 76 (11) 186 (27) 90 (13) 22 47
T3 345 (50) 482 (70) 138 (20) 16 120
3003 H12 117 (17) 131 (19) 55 (8) 20 35
H16 165 (24) 179 (26) 65 (9.5) 14 47
3004 H34 186 (27) 234 (34) 103 (15) 12 63
H38 234 (34) 276 (40) 110 (16) 6 77
5052 H32 186 (27) 234 (34) 117 (17) 18 62
H36 234 (34) 269 (39) 124 (18) 10 74
Cast:
319.0* T6 165 (24) 248 (36) 69 (10) 2.0 80
†
333.0 T5 172 (25) 234 (34) 83 (12) 1.0 100
T6 207 (30) 289 (42) 103 (15) 1.5 105
335.0* T6 172 (25) 241 (35) 62 (9) 3.0 80
T7 248 (36) 262 (38) 62 (9) 0.5 85
*Sand casting.
†
Permanent-mold casting.
(c) Mechanical Properties of Some Titanium Alloys
Yield, Sy Strength Elongation Hardness

(0.2% offset) Tensile, Sut in 2 in, (Brinell or
Titanium Alloy Condition MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) % Rockwell)
Ti-35A† Annealed 210 (30) 275 (40) 30 135 HB

Ti-50A† Annealed 310 (45) 380 (55) 25 215 HB
Ti-0.2 Pd Annealed 280 (40) 340 (50) 28 200 HB
Ti-5 Al-2.5 Sn Annealed 760 (110) 790 (115) 16 36 HRC
Ti-8 Al-1 Mo-1 V Annealed 900 (130) 965 (140) 15 39 HRC
Ti-6 Al-6 V-2 Sn Annealed 970 (140) 1030 (150) 14 38 HRC
Ti-6Al-4V Annealed 900 (130) 830 (120) 14 36 HRC
Ti-13 V-11 Cr-3 Al Sol. + aging 1207 (175) 1276 (185) 8 40 HRC
†
Commercially pure alpha titanium
1001
Table A–25
1002
Stochastic Yield and Ultimate Strengths for Selected Materials Source: Data compiled from “Some Property Data and
Corresponding Weibull Parameters for Stochastic Mechanical Design,” Trans. ASME Journal of Mechanical Design, vol. 114
shi20361_app_A.qxd
(March 1992), pp. 29–34.
Material µSut σSut x0 θ b µSy σSy x0 θ b CSut CSy

6/3/03
1018 CD 87.6 5.74 30.8 90.1 12 78.4 5.90 56 80.6 4.29 0.0655 0.0753
1035 HR 86.2 3.92 72.6 87.5 3.86 49.6 3.81 39.5 50.8 2.88 0.0455 0.0768
1045 CD 117.7 7.13 90.2 120.5 4.38 95.5 6.59 82.1 97.2 2.14 0.0606 0.0690
3:43 PM
1117 CD 83.1 5.25 73.0 84.4 2.01 81.4 4.71 72.4 82.6 2.00 0.0632 0.0579
1137 CD 106.5 6.15 96.2 107.7 1.72 98.1 4.24 92.2 98.7 1.41 0.0577 0.0432
12L14 CD 79.6 6.92 70.3 80.4 1.36 78.1 8.27 64.3 78.8 1.72 0.0869 0.1059
Page 1002
1038 HT bolts 133.4 3.38 122.3 134.6 3.64 0.0253

ASTM40 44.5 4.34 27.7 46.2 4.38 0.0975
35018 Malleable 53.3 1.59 48.7 53.8 3.18 38.5 1.42 34.7 39.0 2.93 0.0298 0.0369
32510 Malleable 53.4 2.68 44.7 54.3 3.61 34.9 1.47 30.1 35.5 3.67 0.0502 0.0421
Malleable Pearlitic 93.9 3.83 80.1 95.3 4.04 60.2 2.78 50.2 61.2 4.02 0.0408 0.0462
604515 Nodular 64.8 3.77 53.7 66.1 3.23 49.0 4.20 33.8 50.5 4.06 0.0582 0.0857
100-70-04 Nodular 122.2 7.65 47.6 125.6 11.84 79.3 4.51 64.1 81.0 3.77 0.0626 0.0569
201SS CD 195.9 7.76 180.7 197.9 2.06 0.0396
301SS CD 191.2 5.82 151.9 193.6 8.00 166.8 9.37 139.7 170.0 3.17 0.0304 0.0562
A 105.0 5.68 92.3 106.6 2.38 46.8 4.70 26.3 48.7 4.99 0.0541 0.1004
304SS A 85.0 4.14 66.6 86.6 5.11 37.9 3.76 30.2 38.9 2.17 0.0487 0.0992
310SS A 84.8 4.23 71.6 86.3 3.45 0.0499
403SS 105.3 3.09 95.7 106.4 3.44 78.5 3.91 64.8 79.9 3.93 0.0293 0.0498
17-7PSS 198.8 9.51 163.3 202.3 4.21 189.4 11.49 144.0 193.8 4.48 0.0478 0.0607
AM350SS A 149.1 8.29 101.8 152.4 6.68 63.0 5.05 38.0 65.0 5.73 0.0556 0.0802
Ti-6AL-4V 175.4 7.91 141.8 178.5 4.85 163.7 9.03 101.5 167.4 8.18 0.0451 0.0552
2024 0 28.1 1.73 24.2 28.7 2.43 0.0616
2024 T4 64.9 1.64 60.2 65.5 3.16 40.8 1.83 38.4 41.0 1.32 0.0253 0.0449
T6 67.5 1.50 55.9 68.1 9.26 53.4 1.17 51.2 53.6 1.91 0.0222 0.0219
7075 T6 .025” 75.5 2.10 68.8 76.2 3.53 63.7 1.98 58.9 64.3 2.63 0.0278 0.0311
shi20361_app_A.qxd
6/3/03
Table A–26
3:43 PM
Stochastic Parameters for Finite Life Fatigue Tests in Selected Metals Source: E. B. Haugen, Probabilistic Mechanical Design, Wiley, New York, 1980,
Appendix 10–B.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Stress Cycles to Failure
Page 1003
TS YS Distri-
Number Condition MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) bution 104 105 106 107
1046 WQ&T, 1210°F 723 (105) 565 (82) W x0 544 (79) 462 (67) 391 (56.7)
θ 594 (86.2) 503 (73.0) 425 (61.7)
b 2.60 2.75 2.85
2340 OQ&T 1200°F 799 (116) 661 (96) W x0 579 (84) 510 (74) 420 (61)
θ 699 (101.5) 588 (85.4) 496 (72.0)
b 4.3 3.4 4.1
3140 OQ&T, 1300°F 744 (108) 599 (87) W x0 510 (74) 455 (66) 393 (57)
θ 604 (87.7) 528 (76.7) 463 (67.2)
b 5.2 5.0 5.5
2024 T-4 489 (71) 365 (53) N σ 26.3 (3.82) 21.4 (3.11) 17.4 (2.53) 14.0 (2.03)
Aluminum µ 143 (20.7) 116 (16.9) 95 (13.8) 77 (11.2)
Ti-6A1-4V HT-46 1040 (151) 992 (144) N σ 39.6 (5.75) 38.1 (5.53) 36.6 (5.31) 35.1 (5.10)
µ 712 (108) 684 (99.3) 657 (95.4) 493 (71.6)
Statistical parameters from a large number of fatigue tests are listed. Weibull distribution is denoted W and the parameters are x0, “guaranteed” fatigue strength; θ, characteristic fatigue strength; and b, shape factor. Normal distribution is denoted N and the
parameters are µ, mean fatigue strength; and σ, standard deviation of the fatigue strength. The life is in stress-cycles-to-failure. TS = tensile strength, YS = yield strength. All testing by rotating-beam specimen.
1003
1004
shi20361_app_A.qxd
Table A–27
Finite Life Fatigue Strengths of Selected Plain Carbon Steels Source: Compiled from Table 4 in H. J. Grover, S. A. Gordon,
and L. R. Jackson, Fatigue of Metals and Structures, Bureau of Naval Weapons Document NAVWEPS 00-25-534, 1960.
6/3/03
Tensile Yield
Strength Strength Stress Cycles to Failure
4 4
3:43 PM
Material Condition BHN* kpsi kpsi RA* 10 4(10 ) 105 4(105) 106 4(106) 107 108
1020 Furnace 58 30 0.63 37 34 30 28 25

cooled
1030 Air-cooled 135 80 45 0.62 51 47 42 38 38 38
Page 1004
1035 Normal 132 72 35 0.54 44 40 37 34 33 33

WQT 209 103 87 0.65 80 72 65 60 57 57 57
1040 Forged 195 92 53 0.23 40 47 33 33
1045 HR, N 107 63 0.49 80 70 56 47 47 47 47
1050 N, AC 164 92 47 0.40 50 48 46 40 38 34 34
WQT
1200 196 97 70 0.58 60 57 52 50 50 50 50
.56 MN N 193 98 47 0.42 61 55 51 47 43 41 41 41
WQT 277 111 84 0.57 94 81 73 62 57 55 55 55
1200
1060 As Rec. 67 Rb 134 65 0.20 65 60 55 50 48 48 48
1095 162 84 33 0.37 50 43 40 34 31 30 30 30
OQT 227 115 65 0.40 77 68 64 57 56 56 56 56
1200
10120 224 117 59 0.12 60 56 51 50 50 50
OQT 369 180 130 0.15 102 95 91 91 91 91
860
*BHN = Brinell hardness number; RA = fractional reduction in area.

Table A–28
shi20361_app_A.qxd
Decimal Equivalents of Wire and Sheet-Metal Gauges* (All Sizes Are Given in Inches)
Steel Wire
6/3/03
Name American Birmingham United Manu- or Stubs

of or Brown or Stubs States facturers Washburn Music Steel Twist
Gauge: & Sharpe Iron Wire Standard † Standard & Moen Wire Wire Drill
Tubing,
3:43 PM
Ferrous Ferrous Ferrous

Nonferrous Strip, Flat Sheet and Wire Steel Twist
Principal Sheet, Wire, Wire, and Plate, Ferrous Except Music Drill Drills and
Use: and Rod Spring Steel 480 lbf/ft3 Sheet Music Wire Wire Rod Drill Steel
Page 1005
7/0 0.500 0.490

6/0 0.580 0 0.468 75 0.461 5 0.004
5/0 0.516 5 0.437 5 0.430 5 0.005
4/0 0.460 0 0.454 0.406 25 0.393 8 0.006
3/0 0.409 6 0.425 0.375 0.362 5 0.007
2/0 0.364 8 0.380 0.343 75 0.331 0 0.008
0 0.324 9 0.340 0.312 5 0.306 5 0.009
1 0.289 3 0.300 0.281 25 0.283 0 0.010 0.227 0.228 0
2 0.257 6 0.284 0.265 625 0.262 5 0.011 0.219 0.221 0
3 0.229 4 0.259 0.25 0.239 1 0.243 7 0.012 0.212 0.213 0
4 0.204 3 0.238 0.234 375 0.224 2 0.225 3 0.013 0.207 0.209 0
5 0.181 9 0.220 0.218 75 0.209 2 0.207 0 0.014 0.204 0.205 5
6 0.162 0 0.203 0.203 125 0.194 3 0.192 0 0.016 0.201 0.204 0
7 0.144 3 0.180 0.187 5 0.179 3 0.177 0 0.018 0.199 0.201 0
8 0.128 5 0.165 0.171 875 0.164 4 0.162 0 0.020 0.197 0.199 0
9 0.114 4 0.148 0.156 25 0.149 5 0.148 3 0.022 0.194 0.196 0
10 0.101 9 0.134 0.140 625 0.134 5 0.135 0 0.024 0.191 0.193 5
11 0.090 74 0.120 0.125 0.119 6 0.120 5 0.026 0.188 0.191 0
12 0.080 81 0.109 0.109 357 0.104 6 0.105 5 0.029 0.185 0.189 0
13 0.071 96 0.095 0.093 75 0.089 7 0.091 5 0.031 0.182 0.185 0
14 0.064 08 0.083 0.078 125 0.074 7 0.080 0 0.033 0.180 0.182 0
15 0.057 07 0.072 0.070 312 5 0.067 3 0.072 0 0.035 0.178 0.180 0
16 0.050 82 0.065 0.062 5 0.059 8 0.062 5 0.037 0.175 0.177 0
17 0.045 26 0.058 0.056 25 0.053 8 0.054 0 0.039 0.172 0.173 0
1005
(continued)
Table A–28
1006
Decimal Equivalents of Wire and Sheet-Metal Gauges* (All Sizes Are Given in Inches) (Continued)
shi20361_app_A.qxd
Steel Wire
Name American Birmingham United Manu- or Stubs
of or Brown or Stubs States facturers Washburn Music Steel Twist
Gauge: & Sharpe Iron Wire Standard † Standard & Moen Wire Wire Drill
6/3/03
Tubing,
Ferrous Ferrous Ferrous
Nonferrous Strip, Flat Sheet and Wire Steel Twist
3:43 PM
Principal Sheet, Wire, Wire, and Plate, Ferrous Except Music Drill Drills and
Use: and Rod Spring Steel 480 lbf/ft3 Sheet Music Wire Wire Rod Drill Steel
18 0.040 30 0.049 0.05 0.047 8 0.047 5 0.041 0.168 0.169 5

19 0.035 89 0.042 0.043 75 0.041 8 0.041 0 0.043 0.164 0.166 0
Page 1006
20 0.031 96 0.035 0.037 5 0.035 9 0.034 8 0.045 0.161 0.161 0

21 0.028 46 0.032 0.034 375 0.032 9 0.031 7 0.047 0.157 0.159 0
22 0.025 35 0.028 0.031 25 0.029 9 0.028 6 0.049 0.155 0.157 0
23 0.022 57 0.025 0.028 125 0.026 9 0.025 8 0.051 0.153 0.154 0
24 0.020 10 0.022 0.025 0.023 9 0.023 0 0.055 0.151 0.152 0
25 0.017 90 0.020 0.021 875 0.020 9 0.020 4 0.059 0.148 0.149 5
26 0.015 94 0.018 0.018 75 0.017 9 0.018 1 0.063 0.146 0.147 0
27 0.014 20 0.016 0.017 187 5 0.016 4 0.017 3 0.067 0.143 0.144 0
28 0.012 64 0.014 0.015 625 0.014 9 0.016 2 0.071 0.139 0.140 5
29 0.011 26 0.013 0.014 062 5 0.013 5 0.015 0 0.075 0.134 0.136 0
30 0.010 03 0.012 0.012 5 0.012 0 0.014 0 0.080 0.127 0.128 5
31 0.008 928 0.010 0.010 937 5 0.010 5 0.013 2 0.085 0.120 0.120 0
32 0.007 950 0.009 0.010 156 25 0.009 7 0.012 8 0.090 0.115 0.116 0
33 0.007 080 0.008 0.009 375 0.009 0 0.011 8 0.095 0.112 0.113 0
34 0.006 305 0.007 0.008 593 75 0.008 2 0.010 4 0.110 0.111 0
35 0.005 615 0.005 0.007 812 5 0.007 5 0.009 5 0.108 0.110 0
36 0.005 000 0.004 0.007 031 25 0.006 7 0.009 0 0.106 0.106 5
37 0.004 453 0.006 640 625 0.006 4 0.008 5 0.103 0.104 0
38 0.003 965 0.006 25 0.006 0 0.008 0 0.101 0.101 5
39 0.003 531 0.007 5 0.099 0.099 5
40 0.003 145 0.007 0 0.097 0.098 0
*Specify sheet, wire, and plate by stating the gauge number, the gauge name, and the decimal equivalent in parentheses.
†
Reflects present average and weights of sheet steel.
Useful Tables 1007
Table A–29
Dimensions of Square and Hexagonal Bolts

H
W
R
Head Type
Nominal Square Regular Hexagonal Heavy Hexagonal Structural Hexagonal
Size, in W H W H Rmin W H Rmin W H Rmin
1 3 11 7 11
4 8 64 16 64
0.01
5 1 13 1 7
16 2 64 2 32
0.01
3 9 1 9 1
8 16 4 16 4
0.01
7 5 19 5 19
16 8 64 8 64
0.01
1 3 21 3 11 7 11 7 5
2 4 64 4 32
0.01 8 32
0.01 8 16
0.009
5 15 27 15 27 1 27 1 25
8 16 64 16 64
0.02 1 16 64
0.02 1 16 64
0.021
3
4
1 18 1
2
1 18 1
2
0.02 1 14 1
2
0.02 1 14 15
32
0.021
1 1 12 21
32
1 12 43
64
0.03 1 58 43
64
0.03 1 58 39
64
0.062
1 18 1 11
16
3
4
1 11
16
3
4
0.03 1 13
16
3
4
0.03 1 13
16
11
16
0.062
1 14 1 78 27
32
1 78 27
32
0.03 2 27
32
0.03 2 25
32
0.062
1 38 1
2 16 29
32
1
2 16 29
32
0.03 3
2 16 29
32
0.03 3
2 16 27
32
0.062
1 12 2 14 1 2 14 1 0.03 2 38 1 0.03 2 38 15
16
0.062
Nominal
Size, mm
M5 8 3.58 8 3.58 0.2

M6 10 4.38 0.3
M8 13 5.68 0.4
M10 16 6.85 0.4
M12 18 7.95 0.6 21 7.95 0.6
M14 21 9.25 0.6 24 9.25 0.6
M16 24 10.75 0.6 27 10.75 0.6 27 10.75 0.6
M20 30 13.40 0.8 34 13.40 0.8 34 13.40 0.8
M24 36 15.90 0.8 41 15.90 0.8 41 15.90 1.0
M30 46 19.75 1.0 50 19.75 1.0 50 19.75 1.2
M36 55 23.55 1.0 60 23.55 1.0 60 23.55 1.5
Table A–30 Type of Screw

Minimum
Dimensions of Nominal Fillet Cap Heavy Height
Size, in Radius W W H
Hexagonal Cap Screws
1 7 5
and Heavy Hexagonal 4
0.015 16 32
Screws (W = Width 5
16
0.015 1
2
13
64
across Flats; H = Height 3
0.015 9 15
8 16 64
of Head; See Figure 7
0.015 5 9
16 8 32
in Table A–29) 1 3 7 5
2
0.015 4 8 16
5 15 1 25
8
0.020 16
1 16 64
3
4
0.020 1 18 1 14 15
32
7 5 7 35
8
0.040 1 16 1 16 64
1 0.060 1 12 1 18 39
64
1 14 0.060 1 78 2 25
32
1 38 0.060 1
2 16 3
2 16 27
32
1 12 0.060 2 14 2 38 15
16
Nominal
Size, mm
M5 0.2 8 3.65
M6 0.3 10 4.15
M8 0.4 13 5.50
M10 0.4 16 6.63
M12 0.6 18 21 7.76
M14 0.6 21 24 9.09
M16 0.6 24 27 10.32
M20 0.8 30 34 12.88
M24 0.8 36 41 15.44
M30 1.0 46 50 19.48
M36 1.0 55 60 23.38
Useful Tables 1009
Table A–31 Height H

Dimensions of Nominal Width Regular Thick or
Size, in W Hexagonal Slotted JAM
Hexagonal Nuts
1 7 7 9 5
4 16 32 32 32
5 1 17 21 3
16 2 64 64 16
3 9 21 13 7
8 16 64 32 32
7 11 3 29 1
16 16 8 64 4
1 3 7 9 5
2 4 16 16 16
9 7 31 39 5
16 8 64 64 16
5 15 35 23 3
8 16 64 32 8
3
4
1 18 41
64
13
16
27
64
7 5 3 29 31
8
1 16 4 32 64
1 1 12 55
64
1 35
64
1 18 1 11
16
31
32
5
1 32 39
64
1 14 1 78 1
1 16 1 14 23
32
1 38 1
2 16 1 11
64
1 38 25
32
1 12 2 14 9
1 32 1 12 27
32
Nominal
Size, mm
M5 8 4.7 5.1 2.7

M6 10 5.2 5.7 3.2
M8 13 6.8 7.5 4.0
M10 16 8.4 9.3 5.0
M12 18 10.8 12.0 6.0
M14 21 12.8 14.1 7.0
M16 24 14.8 16.4 8.0
M20 30 18.0 20.3 10.0
M24 36 21.5 23.9 12.0
M30 46 25.6 28.6 15.0
M36 55 31.0 34.7 18.0
Table A–32 Diameter

Fastener Washer
Basic Dimensions of Size Size ID OD Thickness
American Standard #6 0.138 0.156 0.375 0.049
Plain Washers (All #8 0.164 0.188 0.438 0.049
Dimensions in Inches) #10 0.190 0.219 0.500 0.049
3
16
0.188 0.250 0.562 0.049
#12 0.216 0.250 0.562 0.065
1
4
N 0.250 0.281 0.625 0.065
1
4
W 0.250 0.312 0.734 0.065
5
16
N 0.312 0.344 0.688 0.065
5
16
W 0.312 0.375 0.875 0.083
3
8
N 0.375 0.406 0.812 0.065
3
8
W 0.375 0.438 1.000 0.083
7
16
N 0.438 0.469 0.922 0.065
7
16
W 0.438 0.500 1.250 0.083
1
2
N 0.500 0.531 1.062 0.095
1
2
W 0.500 0.562 1.375 0.109
9
16
N 0.562 0.594 1.156 0.095
9
16
W 0.562 0.625 1.469 0.109
5
8
N 0.625 0.656 1.312 0.095
5
8
W 0.625 0.688 1.750 0.134
3
4
N 0.750 0.812 1.469 0.134
3
4
W 0.750 0.812 2.000 0.148
7
8
N 0.875 0.938 1.750 0.134
7
8
W 0.875 0.938 2.250 0.165
1N 1.000 1.062 2.000 0.134
1W 1.000 1.062 2.500 0.165
1 18 N 1.125 1.250 2.250 0.134
1 18 W 1.125 1.250 2.750 0.165
1 14 N 1.250 1.375 2.500 0.165
1 14 W 1.250 1.375 3.000 0.165
1 38 N 1.375 1.500 2.750 0.165
1 38 W 1.375 1.500 3.250 0.180
1 12 N 1.500 1.625 3.000 0.165
1 12 W 1.500 1.625 3.500 0.180
1 58 1.625 1.750 3.750 0.180
1 34 1.750 1.875 4.000 0.180
1 78 1.875 2.000 4.250 0.180
2 2.000 2.125 4.500 0.180
2 14 2.250 2.375 4.750 0.220
2 12 2.500 2.625 5.000 0.238
2 34 2.750 2.875 5.250 0.259
3 3.000 3.125 5.500 0.284
N = narrow; W = wide; use W when not specified.
1010
Useful Tables 1011
Table A–33
Dimensions of Metric Plain Washers (All Dimensions in Millimeters)
Washer Minimum Maximum Maximum Washer Minimum Maximum Maximum

Size* ID OD Thickness Size* ID OD Thickness
1.6 N 1.95 4.00 0.70 10 N 10.85 20.00 2.30

1.6 R 1.95 5.00 0.70 10 R 10.85 28.00 2.80
1.6 W 1.95 6.00 0.90 10 W 10.85 39.00 3.50
2N 2.50 5.00 0.90 12 N 13.30 25.40 2.80
2R 2.50 6.00 0.90 12 R 13.30 34.00 3.50
2W 2.50 8.00 0.90 12 W 13.30 44.00 3.50
2.5 N 3.00 6.00 0.90 14 N 15.25 28.00 2.80
2.5 R 3.00 8.00 0.90 14 R 15.25 39.00 3.50
2.5 W 3.00 10.00 1.20 14 W 15.25 50.00 4.00
3N 3.50 7.00 0.90 16 N 17.25 32.00 3.50
3R 3.50 10.00 1.20 16 R 17.25 44.00 4.00
3W 3.50 12.00 1.40 16 W 17.25 56.00 4.60
3.5 N 4.00 9.00 1.20 20 N 21.80 39.00 4.00
3.5 R 4.00 10.00 1.40 20 R 21.80 50.00 4.60
3.5 W 4.00 15.00 1.75 20 W 21.80 66.00 5.10
4N 4.70 10.00 1.20 24 N 25.60 44.00 4.60
4R 4.70 12.00 1.40 24 R 25.60 56.00 5.10
4W 4.70 16.00 2.30 24 W 25.60 72.00 5.60
5N 5.50 11.00 1.40 30 N 32.40 56.00 5.10
5R 5.50 15.00 1.75 30 R 32.40 72.00 5.60
5W 5.50 20.00 2.30 30 W 32.40 90.00 6.40
6N 6.65 13.00 1.75 36 N 38.30 66.00 5.60
6R 6.65 18.80 1.75 36 R 38.30 90.00 6.40
6W 6.65 25.40 2.30 36 W 38.30 110.00 8.50
8N 8.90 18.80 2.30
8R 8.90 25.40 2.30
8W 8.90 32.00 2.80
N = narrow; R = regular; W = wide.

*Same as screw or bolt size.
∞
Table A–34 Values of (n) = e−x x n−1 dx; (n + 1) = n(n)
0
Gamma Function*
Source: Reprinted with n (n) n (n) n (n) n (n)
permission from William H.
Beyer (ed.), Handbook of 1.00 1.000 00 1.25 .906 40 1.50 .886 23 1.75 .919 06
Tables for Probability and 1.01 .994 33 1.26 .904 40 1.51 .886 59 1.76 .921 37
Statistics, 2nd ed., 1966.
Copyright CRC Press, Boca
1.02 .988 84 1.27 .902 50 1.52 .887 04 1.77 .923 76
Raton, Florida. 1.03 .983 55 1.28 .900 72 1.53 .887 57 1.78 .926 23
1.04 .978 44 1.29 .899 04 1.54 .888 18 1.79 .928 77
1.05 .973 50 1.30 .897 47 1.55 .888 87 1.80 .931 38
1.06 .968 74 1.31 .896 00 1.56 .889 64 1.81 .934 08
1.07 .964 15 1.32 .894 64 1.57 .890 49 1.82 .936 85
1.08 .959 73 1.33 .893 38 1.58 .891 42 1.83 .939 69
1.09 .955 46 1.34 .892 22 1.59 .892 43 1.84 .942 61
1.10 .951 35 1.35 .891 15 1.60 .893 52 1.85 .945 61
1.11 .947 39 1.36 .890 18 1.61 .894 68 1.86 .948 69
1.12 .943 59 1.37 .889 31 1.62 .895 92 1.87 .951 84
1.13 .939 93 1.38 .888 54 1.63 .897 24 1.88 .955 07
1.14 .936 42 1.39 .887 85 1.64 .898 64 1.89 .958 38
1.15 .933 04 1.40 .887 26 1.65 .900 12 1.90 .961 77
1.16 .929 80 1.41 .886 76 1.66 .901 67 1.91 .965 23
1.17 .936 70 1.42 .886 36 1.67 .903 30 1.92 .968 78
1.18 .923 73 1.43 .886 04 1.68 .905 00 1.93 .972 40
1.19 .920 88 1.44 .885 80 1.69 .906 78 1.94 .976 10
1.20 .918 17 1.45 .885 65 1.70 .908 64 1.95 .979 88
1.21 .915 58 1.46 .885 60 1.71 .910 57 1.96 .983 74
1.22 .913 11 1.47 .885 63 1.72 .912 58 1.97 .987 68
1.23 .910 75 1.48 .885 75 1.73 .914 66 1.98 .991 71
1.24 .908 52 1.49 .885 95 1.74 .916 83 1.99 .995 81
2.00 1.000 00
*For large positive values of x, (x) approximates the asymptotic series

2x 1 1 139 571
x x e−x 1+ + 2
− 3
− 4
+ ···
x 12x 288x 51 840x 2 488 320x

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FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

BDA 31203 - Mechanical Component Design

Semester II 2017 / 2018

Course Coordinator : MR. MOHD AZWIR BIN AZLAN

DAY / SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY

8.00 - 8.50 BDA 31203 BDA 31203 BDA 31203

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Saya pelajar yang bernama no matrik ,

menggantikan kuliah yang tidak dapat saya hadiri pada .

Topik yang dipelajari adalah:-

Week 1 Lesson Plan, Introduction To Design Process, Analysis And Synthesis

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UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

MAKLUMAT KURSUS (COURSE INFORMATION)

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HASIL PEMBELAJARAN (LEARNING OUTCOMES):

Di akhir kursus ini, pelajar dapat :

After completing this course, the students are able to:

RPP-04 / Prosedur Pelaksanaan Kuliah

ISI KANDUNGAN (CONTENT):

MINGGU KANDUNGAN PENTAKSIRAN

W1 1.0 PENGENALAN KEPADA PROSES REKABENTUK

W2 3.0 TEORI-TEORI KEGAGALAN REKABENTUK STATIK Tugasan 1

Tugasan 1 – Hantar Sebelum 08/03/2018 ; 3:30 pm

RPP-04 / Prosedur Pelaksanaan Kuliah

W3 & W4 4.0 TEORI-TEORI KEGAGALAN BAGI REKABENTUK LESU Tugasan 2

Tugasan 2 – Hantar Sebelum 22/03/2018 ; 3:30 pm

W5 5.0 GEAR – BAHAGIAN 1 (GEAR – PART 1) ---- (3 hours) Projek

W6 PROJEK REKABENTUK (DESIGN PROJECT)

(25th ~ 31st  Penerangan Projek – Tajuk Projek, Tema, Jadual Perancangan,

W7 – W8 5.0 GEAR – BAHAGIAN 2 (GEAR – PART 2) ---- (6 hours) Projek

RPP-04 / Prosedur Pelaksanaan Kuliah

W9 6.0 REKABENTUK ACI (SHAFT DESIGN) ---- (3 hours) Projek

W10 7.0 GALAS (BEARING) ---- (3 hours) Projek

W11 – 8.0 PENYAMBUNGAN SEMENTARA Ujian 3 (3rd Test)

(06th ~ 26th 8.1 Pengenalan (Introduction)

W14 PROJEK REKABENTUK (DESIGN PROJECT)

RPP-04 / Prosedur Pelaksanaan Kuliah

W15 PENGHANTARAN LAPORAN PROJEK REKABENTUK Laporan Akhir

TUGASAN / PROJEK (ASSIGNMENT / PROJECT):

Jumlah (Total) : 100 %

RPP-04 / Prosedur Pelaksanaan Kuliah

KEHADIRAN / PERATURAN SEMASA KULIAH (ATTENDANCE / REGULATIONS DURING LECTURE)

MATRIK HASIL PEMBELAJARAN KURSUS DAN HASIL PEMBELAJARAN PROGRAM

RPP-04 / Prosedur Pelaksanaan Kuliah

MATRIK HASIL PEMBELAJARAN KURSUS DAN HASIL PEMBELAJARAN PROGRAM

Taksonomi Pembelajaran (Learning Taxonomy)

RPP-04 / Prosedur Pelaksanaan Kuliah

Department of Material and Engineering Design, Learning Outcomes

At the end of this topic, the students would be able to apply

• understand the basic principles of mechanical engineering

Department of Material and Engineering Design, 2

What you will be learn here? 1.1 – Design Definition

• 1.1 - Design Definition

1.2 - Mechanical Engineering Design 1.3 - Design Process

• Mechanical engineering design involves all disciplines of

1.3 - Design Process 1.3 - Design Process

• Often consist highly creative act, Definition of Problem

1.3 - Design Process 1.3 - Design Process

The consideration of cost plays such an important role in the design