ABSTRACT

Crankshaft is large volume production component with a complex

geometry in the Internal Combustion (I.C) Engine. This converts the linear (or) reciprocating
motion of the piston in to a rotary motion of the crank. In this project the product is modeled
in a 3d model with all available constraints by using advanced cad software like CATIA-V5.

This model will be converted to Initial Graphic Exchange Specification (IGS) file format and
imported to ansys workbench to perform static analysis . Finite element analysis (FEA) is
performed to obtain the variation of stress at critical locations of the crank shaft using the
ANSYS software.Here we compare the results and select the best sutiable material

1
 CHAPTER -1 INTRODUCTION

A crankshaft contains two or more centrally-located coaxial cylindrical ("main")

journals and one or more offset cylindrical crankpin ("rod") journals. The two-
plane V8 crankshaft has five main journals and four rod journals, each spaced 90°
from its neighbors.

Figure 1. 1 Main Parts Of A Crankshaft

Example (2-Plane) Crankshaft

The crankshaft main journals rotate in a set of supporting bearings ("main

bearings"), causing the offset rod journals to rotate in a circular path around the
main journal centers, the diameter of which is twice the offset of the rod journals.
The diameter of that path is the engine "stroke": the distance the piston moves up
and down in its cylinder. The big ends of the connecting rods ("conrods") contain
bearings ("rod bearings") which ride on the offset rod journals. (For details on the
operation of crankshaft bearings, For important details on the motion which the
crankshaft imparts to the piston assembly.

Forces Imposed On A Crankshaft

The obvious source of forces applied to a crankshaft is the product of

combustion chamber pressure acting on the top of the piston. High-performance,
normally-aspirated Spark-ignition (SI) engines can have combustion pressures in
the 100-bar neighborhood (1450 psi), while contemporary high-performance
Compression-Ignition (CI) engines can see combustion pressures in excess of 200

2
bar (2900 psi). A pressure of 100 bar acting on a 4.00 inch diameter piston will
produce a force of 81050 N. A pressure of 200 bar acting on a 4.00 inch diameter
piston produces a force of 16202 N. That level of force exerted onto a crankshaft
rod journal produces substantial bending and torsion moments and the resulting
tensile, compressive and shear stresses.

However, there is another major source of forces imposed on a crankshaft,

namely Piston acceleration. The combined weight of the piston, ring package,
wristpin, retainers, the connecting rod small end and a small amount of oil are being
continuously accelerated from rest to very high velocity and back to rest twice each
crankshaft revolution. Since the force it takes to accelerate an object is proportional
to the weight of the object times the acceleration (as long as the mass of the object
is constant), many of the significant forces exerted on those reciprocating
components, as well as on the connecting rod beam and big-end, crankshaft,
crankshaft, bearings, and engine block are directly related to piston acceleration.
The methods for dealing with those vibratory loads are covered in a dedicated
article. Combustion forces and piston acceleration are also the main source of
external vibration produced by an engine. The tensional excitation contained in the
engine output waveform is discussed in a separate article.
These acceleration forces
combine in complex ways to produce primary and secondary shaking forces as
well as primary and secondary rocking moments. The combinations of forces and
moments vary with the cylinder arrangement (inline, opposed, 60°V, 90°V,
120°V, etc.) and with the crankpin separation (60° / 90° / 120° / 180°, etc.). They
must, to the maximum extent possible, be counteracted by the implementation of
the crankshaft counterweights. Many of the common engine arrangements allow
for complete balancing of primary and secondary forces and moments. Examples
are inline six cylinder engines with 120° crankpin spacing and 90° V8 engines
with conventional 90° crankpin spacing.
Certain other engine arrangements do not allow for the complete
counteracting of all the forces and moments, so there are design compromises which
must be optimized. For example, an inline-four has a secondary vertical shake as
3
the result of the secondary piston acceleration forces. In road vehicles, the
secondary vertical shake is often suppressed by unbalanced counterweight shafts
rotating at twice crank speed. The 90° V8 engine with a single-plane crank such
as is used in Formula One, IRL and Le Mans-style V8 engines produces a
substantial external horizontal shaking force at twice the crankshaft frequency
("second order"). Because the secondary piston acceleration forces are parallel
with the cylinder axes, in this engine design the vertical components of those
forces on a given crankpin cancel each other, but the horizontal components add
together.
At 18,000 RPM (Formula
One) the horizontal shake frequency is 600 Hz. (2 x 18000 / 60) while at 9000
RPM (IRL) the frequency is 300 Hz. The amplitude is proportional to the
magnitude of the secondary piston acceleration. This shake can become a major
concern for designers of the chassis (or airframe) and the bits that attach to the
engine. In addition to these reciprocating forces and the resulting

moments, there is a rotating mass associated with each crankpin, which must be
counteracted. The rotating mass consists of the weight of the conrod big end(s),
connecting rod bearing(s), some amount of oil, and the mass of the crankshaft
structure comprising the crankpin and cheeks. These rotating forces are
counteracted by counterweight masses located in appropriate angular locations
opposing the rod journals.
The following shows a single-plane V8 crankshaft, in which the
counterweights are directly opposite their associated rod journal. A fully-
counterweighted inline-4 cylinder engine has a similar layout.
However, the counterweights are not always directly opposite the rod journals. For
example, the commonly-used production version of a two-plane 90° V8 crankshaft
has no counterweights around the center main journal, as show. In that case, the
Centroid of each counterweight, instead of being 180° from its respective journal,
is offset (to approximately 135°) in order to place the net counterbalancing forces
in the optimal location. Note also that the front and rear counterweights are larger
(thicker) than the others in order to fully counterbalance the end-to-end moments.
4
Crankshaft Manufacturing Processes

Many high performance crankshafts are formed by the forging process, in

which a billet of suitable size is heated to the appropriate forging temperature,
typically in the range of1950 - 2250°F, and then successively pounded or pressed
into the desired shape by squeezing the billet between pairs of dies under very high
pressure. These die sets have the concave negative form of the desired external
shape. Complex shapes and / or extreme deformations often require more than one
set of dies to accomplish the shaping. Originally, two-plane V8 cranks were forged
in a single plane, then the number two and four main journals were reheated and
twisted 90° to move crankpins number two and three into a perpendicular plane.
Later developments in forging technology allowed the forging of a 2-plane "non-
twist" crank directly.

Crankshafts at the upper end of the motorsport spectrum are manufactured

from billet. Billet crankshafts are fully machined from a round bar ("billet") of the
selected material. This method of manufacture provides extreme flexibility of
design and allows rapid alterations to a design in search of optimal performance
characteristics. In addition to the fully-machined surfaces, the billet process makes
it much easier to locate the counterweights and journal webs exactly where the
designer wants them to be.

There is an old argument that a forged crank is superior to a billet crank because of
the allegedly uninterrupted grain flow that can be obtained in the forging process.
That might be true of some components, but with respect to crankshafts, the
argument fails because of the large dislocations in the material that are necessary to
move the crankpin and counterweight material from the center of the forging blank
to the outer extremes of the part. The resulting grain structure in the typical V8
crank forging exhibits similar fractured grain properties to that of a machined billet.
More than one crankshaft manufacturer has told me that there is no way that a
forging from the commonly used steel alloy SAE-4340 (AMS-6414) would survive
in one of today's Cup engines. Some years ago, there was an effort at Cosworth to
5
build a Formula One crankshaft by welding together various sections, which
comprised the journals, webs and counterweights. The purported intent was to be
better able to create exactly the shape and section of the various components,
thereby reducing MMOI while achieving the same or better stiffness.

Figure 1. 2 Component Of Crankshaft

While no one was willing to divulge details about the effort, it is rumored
to have been run once or twice then abandoned due to the high cost and complexity
compared to the measurable benefits. In certain cases, there are benefits to the use
of a built-up crankshaft. Because of the ‘master-rod’ mechanism necessary for the
implementation of the radial piston engines that powered most aircraft until well

6
into the second half of the 20th century, a bolted-together crankshaft configuration
was used almost exclusively. Figure 5illustrates a typical two-row composite radial
crankshaft and master-rod layout. The loose counterweights will be addressed later
in this article.
Crankshaft Materials

The steel alloys typically used in high strength crankshafts have been
selected for what each designer perceives as the most desirable combination of
properties. Medium-carbon steel alloys are composed of predominantly the element
iron, and contain a small percentage of carbon (0.25% to 0.45%, described as ‘25
to 45 points’ of carbon), along with combinations of several alloying elements, the
mix of which has been carefully designed in order to produce specific qualities in
the target alloy, including hardenability, nitridability, surface and core hardness,
ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, endurance limit (fatigue strength), ductility,
impact resistance, corrosion resistance, and temper-embrittlement resistance. The
alloying elements typically used in these carbon steels are manganese, chromium,
molybdenum, nickel, silicon, cobalt, vanadium, and sometimes aluminum and
titanium. Each of those elements adds specific properties in a given material. The
carbon content is the main determinant of the ultimate strength and hardness to
which such an alloy can be heat treated.

Figure 1. 3 Crank Shaft Material Alloying Elements

In addition to alloying elements, high strength steels are carefully refined so

as to remove as many of the undesirable impurities as possible (sulfur, phosphorous,

7
calcium, etc.) and to more tightly constrain the tolerances, which define the
allowable variations in the percentage of alloying elements. The highest quality
steels are usually specified and ordered by reference to their AMS number (Aircraft
Material Specification). These specs tightly constrain the chemistry, and the
required purity can often only be achieved by melting in a vacuum, then re-melting
in a vacuum to further refine the metal. Typical vacuum-processing methods are
VIM and VAR. Vacuum Induction Melting (VIM) is a process for producing very
high purity steels by melting the materials by induction heating inside a high-
vacuum chamber. Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) is a refining process in which
steels are remelted inside a vacuum chamber to reduce the amount of dissolved
gasses in the metal. Heating is by means of an electric arc between a consumable
electrode and the ingot.
There are other ultra-high-strength steels that are not carbon steels. These
steels, known as "maraging" steels, are refined so as to remove as much of the
carbon as possible, and develop their extreme strength and fatigue properties as a
by-product of the crystalline structures resulting from the large amounts of nickel
(15% and up) and cobalt (6% and up) they contain. These steels can achieve extreme
levels of strength and maintain excellent levels of impact resistance. As far as I
could determine, maraging alloys are not currently (2008) used for racing
crankshafts but they have been used in certain extreme application conrods. In the
high performance crankshaft world, the nickel-chrome-moly alloy SAE-4340
(AMS-6414) has been a favorite in both forged and billet applications. It is used
because of its very high strength and fatigue properties, coupled with good ductility
and impact resistance at high strengths. SAE-4340 contains a nominal 40 points of
carbon and is often described as "the standard to which other ultra-high strength
alloys are compared".

8
 There is evidence that a lower carbon content provides better
impact resistance (reduced notch sensitivity) in certain alloys. The air-hardening
nickel-chrome-moly alloy EN-30B is used in some high-end billet crankshafts, in
both commercial and VAR forms. This alloy contains 30 points of carbon, and has
a nickel content exceeding 4% (400 points). It has good impact resistance at high
strengths and is often used in rock-drilling equipment and highly-stressed gears and
transmission components. The fact that it can be air-quenched to typical crankshaft
core hardness is an added advantage because the distortions and residual stresses
which result from oil quenching are avoided. Several manufacturers offer billet
crankshafts in EN-30B.
At least one US manufacturer of extreme duty crankshafts for
NASCAR Cup, Top Fuel, Pro-Stock, early IRL, and other venues has selected a
high-purity, lower-carbon version of the 43xx series of nickel-chrome-moly steels,
a high-grade variant of E-4330-M (AMS 6427). This material has a nominal 30
points of carbon and has become a favorite for oil drilling and jet engine
components because of its very high toughness and impact resistance when heat-
treated to high strengths. This manufacturer uses slight variations in the chemistry
for different applications, but was understandably reluctant to discuss the variation
specifics and how they affected the desired properties. The company maintains tight
control over the entire process by purchasing its specific chemistry materials from
a single, extreme-quality steel manufacturer, and by doing its heat-treating
The material which is currently viewed as the ultra-extreme crankshaft
alloy is a steel available from the French manufacturer Aubert & Duval, known as
32-CrMoV-13 or 32CDV13. It is a deep-nitriding alloy containing 300 points of
chrome, developed in the mid-nineties specifically for aerospace bearing
applications. It is available in three grades. GKH is the commercial purity and
chemistry tolerance. GKH-W is the grade having higher purity (VAR) and tighter
chemistry tolerance. GKH-YW is the extremely pure grade (VIM - VAR) and is
said to cost twice as much per pound as the -W grade. According to data supplied
by Aubert & Duval, fatigue-tests of the -W and -YW grades, using samples of each
grade heat treated to similar values of ultimate tensile strength, show consistently
that the -YW grade achieves a dramatic improvement (over 22%) in fatigue strength
9
compared to the -W grade, and the endurance limit is claimed to be just a bit short
of the yield stress, which is truly amazing. I have been told that, because of the
extreme stress levels on Formula One crankshafts, most of them use the -YW grade,
while the lower stress levels of a Cup crank allow the successful use of the -W
grade. One well-known manufacturer (Chambon) has developed a process which
allows the production of a deep case nitride layer in this alloy (almost 1.0 mm deep,
as compared to the more typical 0.10 to 0.15 mm deep layer). They say this deeper
case provides a far less sharp hardness gradient from the >60 HRc surface to the
40-45 HRc core, which improves the fatigue and impact properties of the steel. It
says that its deep-case process requires several days in the nitriding ovens, but the
depth allows finish-grinding after nitriding, using a very sophisticated process to
remove the distortions which occurred during the nitriding soak.
No discussion of high-end crankshaft materials would be complete
without mention of the ultra-high-strength alloy known as 300-M (AMS 6419).This
alloy is a modification to the basic 4340 chemistry, in which a few more points of
carbon are added (higher achievable hardness and strength), along with 170 points
of silicon and 7 points of vanadium. The vanadium acts as a grain refiner, and the
silicon enables the material to be tempered to very high strength (285 ksi) and
fatigue properties, while retaining extremely good impact resistance and toughness.
This material (300-M) is expensive and sometimes hard to get, since it is preferred
for heavy aircraft landing gear components. It has been used by a few

manufacturers for extreme duty crankshafts and conrods as well as

high-shock aircraft components. However, several of the manufacturers I spoke
with told me that they consider their favorite materials to be much better than 300-
M for crankshaft applications.

10
 Crankshaft Heat Treating

Regarding the steel alloys typically used in high-grade crankshafts,

the desired ultimate (and hence yield and fatigue) strength of the material is
produced by a series of processes, known in aggregate as ‘heat treatment’. The
typical heat-treating process for carbon-steel alloys is first to transform the structure
of the rough-machined part into the face-centered-cubic austenite crystalline
structure (‘austenitize’) by heating the part in an oven until the temperature
throughout the part stabilizes in the neighborhood of 1550°F to 1650°F (depending
on the specific material). Next, the part is removed from the heating oven and
rapidly cooled ("quenched") to extract heat from the part at a rate sufficient to
transform a large percentage of the austenitic structure into fine-grained marten site.
The desired martens tic post-quench crystalline structure of the steel is the high-
strength, high-hardness, form of the iron-carbon solution. The rate of cooling
required to achieve maximum transformation varies with the hardenability of the
material, determined by the combination of alloying elements.

Distortion and induced residual stress are two of the biggest

problems involved in heat-treating. Less severe quenching methods tend to reduce
residual stresses and distortion. Some alloys (EN-30B and certain tool steels, for
example) can reach full hardness by quenching in air. Other alloys having less
hardenability can be quenched in a bath of 400°F molten salt. Still others require
quenching in a polymer-based oil, and the least hardenable alloys need to be
quenched in water. The shock of water-quenching is often severe enough to crack
the part or induce severe residual stresses and distortions. As the hardenability of a
material decreases, the hardness (thus strength) varies more drastically from the
surface to the core of the material. High hardenability materials can reach much
more homogeneous post-quench hardness. Cryogenic treatment, if used, directly
follows quenching. The body of belief-based and empirical evidence supporting
cryo is now supported by scientific data from a recent NASA study confirming that
a properly-done cryo process does transform most of the retained austenite to
martensite, relaxes the crystalline distortions, and produces helpful η ("eta")
particles at the grain boundaries. The resulting material is almost fully martensitic,
11
has reduced residual stress, more homogeneous structure and therefore greater
fatigue strength. After quenching (and cryo if used), the alloy steel material has
reached a very high strength and hardness, but at that hardness level, it lacks
sufficient ductility and impact resistance for most applications. In order to produce
the combination of material properties deemed suitable for a given application, the
part is placed in a ‘tempering’ oven and soaked for a specific amount of time at a
specific temperature (for that alloy) in order to reduce the hardness to the desired
level, hence producing the desired strength, ductility, impact resistance and other

process can further improve fatigue strength and notch toughness. The tempering
temperature and time must be carefully determined for each specific steel alloy,
because in mid-range temperature bands, martensitic steels exhibit a property
known as temper embrittlement, in which the steel, while having high strength,
loses a great deal of its toughness and impact resistance.

Typically, the post-temper hardness which results in the best ductility and impact
properties is not sufficient for the wear surfaces of the crank journals. In addition,
the fatigue strength of the material at that hardness is insufficient for suitable life.
The currently-favored process which provides both the hard journal surfaces and
dramatic improvements in fatigue life is nitriding (not nitrating - nitrates are
oxygen-bearing compounds of nitrogen).Nitriding is the process of diffusing
elemental nitrogen into the surface of a steel, producing iron nitrides (FeNx). The
result is a hard, high strength case along with residual surface compressive stresses.
The part gains a high-strength, high hardness surface with high wear resistance, and
greatly improved fatigue performance due to both the high strength of the case and
the residual compressive stress. These effects occur without the need for quenching
from the nitriding temperature. The case thickness is usually quite thin (0.10 to 0.20
mm), although at least one crankshaft manufacturer has developed a way to achieve
nitride layer thickness approaching 1.0 mm.

12
desired mechanical properties. In the case of certain alloys, a double-tempering

There are three common nitriding processes: gas nitriding (typically ammonia),
molten salt-bath nitriding (cyanide salts) and the more precise plasma-ion nitriding.
All three occur at approximately the same temperatures (925 - 1050°F) which, of
course, becomes the ultimate tempering temperature of the part. The effectiveness
of nitriding varies with the chemistry of the steel alloy. The best results occur when
the alloy contains one of more of the nitride-forming elements, including
chromium, molybdenum and vanadium. Older crankshaft technology involved
heat-treating to a higher core hardness and shotpeening the fillet radii for fatigue
improvement. Figure 1.7 shows the relative fatigue strength of 4340 material from
heat treating alone, heat-treating plus shotpeening, and heat treating plus nitriding.

Figure 1. 4 Crank Shaft Fatigue Test

13
 Crankshaft Design Issues

In the world of component design, there are competing criteria, which

require the engineers to achieve a perceived optimal compromise to satisfy the
requirements of their particular efforts. Discussions with various recognized experts
in the crankshaft field make it abundantly clear that there is no ‘right’ answer, and
opinions about the priorities of design criteria vary considerably. In contemporary
racing crankshaft design, the requirements for bending and torsional stiffness (see
the Stiffness vs. Strength sidebar) compete with the need for low mass moment of
inertia (MMOI). Several crankshaft experts emphasized the fact that exotic
metallurgy is no substitute for proper design, and there's little point in switching to
exotics if there is no fatigue problem to be solved. High stiffness is a benefit because
it increases the tensional resonant frequency of the crankshaft, and because it
reduces bending deflection of the bearing journals. Journal deflection can cause
increased friction by disturbing the hydrodynamic film at critical points, and can
cause loss of lubrication because of increased leakage through the greater radial
clearances that occur when a journal's axis is not parallel to the bearing axis. At this
point, it is important to digress and emphasize the often-misunderstood difference
between STIFFNESS and STRENGTH.
Metal parts are not rigid. When a load is applied to a metal part, the part
deflects in response to the load. The deflection can be very small (crankshaft,
conrod, etc.) or it can be quite large (valve springs, etc). But to one degree or
another, all parts behave like springs in response to a load. The ultimate strength of
a material is a measure of the stress level which can be applied to a lab sample of
the material before it fractures. The degree to which a given part resists deflection
in response to a given loading is called stiffness. It is important to understand that
the ultimate strength of a material has nothing whatever to do with stiffness.

14
Stiffness is the result of two properties of a part: (1) the Young's Modulus of the
material (sometimes called Modulus of Elasticity, but more appropriately named
Modulus of Rigidity) and the cross-sectional properties of the part to which the load
is applied. For example, suppose you have two components which are identical in
all respects (same material, same dimensions) except the tensile strength to which
those components have been heat-treated. If you apply an increasing load to each
component, both will deflect the same amount for each load value, until the
component with the lower strength permanently deforms (and breaks if it is loaded
and constrained in a certain way) at a relatively low stress level. The component
with the higher strength will continue to deform with increasing load until its yield
stress is reached, at which point it too will permanently deform.
Three major parameters which affect crank stiffness are length,
journal diameter and crank pin overlap. The torsional rate of a cylindrical section
varies directly with length and with the fourth power of diameter. Crankpin overlap
is a measurement of how much crankpin material is horizontally aligned with the
material of the adjacent main journals, as illustrated in Figure 8, showing a CPO of
0.225 with a 4.250" stroke crank having 2.100 rod journals and 2.600 main journals.
CPO = (main diameter + crankpin diameter - stroke) / 2

Figure 1. 5 Cpo Of 0.225 With A 4.250" Stroke Crank Having 2.100 Rod Journals
There is a continuing emphasis on research and design among F1 and Cup
teams to increase stiffness with minimal impact on MMOI. However, all the experts
I spoke with were understandably reluctant to discuss the specifics of where and
how they are adding material and how effective their changes are. From examining
15
some available pictures and gathering data on other engine parameters, I would
hazard a guess that the conrod bearing widths are being reduced to make room for
thicker webs. It is also possible that main bearing journals are being undercut to
produce the required fillet radii at the intersection with the web, again making more
room for thicker webs.
Undercutting the journals increases the stress levels and locally reduces the
section properties. However, the immense fatigue strengths of the contemporary
materials and the relative lack of crank failure at the highest levels of racing suggest
that the endurance limits can be pushed a bit further. It is apparent that a great deal
of FEA work is essential at the top.
One stiffness area where most two-plane V8 engine people agree is the use
of center counterweights. It has been known for some time that there are significant
power gains available in two-plane crank V8s from the use of counterweights
around the center main bearing (Figure 1.9).

Traditionally, many two-plane V8 crankshafts had been produced without

center counterweights because of economies and difficulties forging the blanks,
because the six-counterweight crank typically has a slightly lower MMOI, and
because the benefits of an eight-counterweight crank in a short-stroke application
were not fully appreciated. However, the bending deflection across the center main
at high loadings and high speeds causes measurable losses, so many areas of racing
which use two-plane V8 cranks are moving (or have already moved) to eight-
counterweight cranks. From an overall engine design perspective, the relocation
of the thrust bearing from the rear main to the center main also helps reduce
center- main bending deflection.

There are varying opinions about whether high stiffness or low MMOI is
more important. Low MMOI is most important at high engine acceleration rates.
Road-course racing typically involves greater vehicle speed variation per lap, which
implies greater requirements for quick acceleration through several gear ratios. In
certain classes, the low weight of the vehicle and the high power of the engine can
yield very high engine acceleration rates. At the higher-speed Cup racing circuits,
16
the engine acceleration rates at speed are often less than 100 RPM per second, while
at some of the shorter tracks, they can exceed 500 RPM per second. Of course, there
are restarts and pit stops to be dealt with at all tracks, so it is easy to see how there
can be varying approaches to this issue.

Reducing MMOI involves removing material, especially from places which

are a long distance from the main bearing axis. However, these are also some of the
most highly loaded areas as well, so reducing cross sectional properties necessarily
increases the cyclic stress levels. Pushing the cyclic stress levels up impinges on the

fatigue life of the component, which is especially important in classes where an

engine must, by regulation, survive more than one meeting. Determining acceptable
levels of cyclic stresses vs. expected life is not an exact science. Endurance limit
testing of materials produces a highly statistical array of results data (as illustrated
in Figure 1.7).There has been quite a bit of discussion about the use of bolt-on
counterweights in an attempt to reduce MMOI values. An example of this
technology is shown in Figure 10. These detachable counterweights are made from
variants of the ‘heavy metal’ used to balance crankshafts. This heavy metal is a
tungsten-based alloy with several different chemistries (W-Ni-Cu; W-Ni-Fe; W-Ni-
C) depending on the required properties. These alloys have nearly 2.5 times the
density of steel, and are extremely expensive.

17
 Figure 1. 6 Bolt-On Counterweights

Another benefit of bolt-on counterweights is that several of the

machining operations are much simpler to accomplish without having to deal with
the integral counterweights getting in the way. If journal coatings are used, the more
complete access to the journals provided by the absence of integral counterweights
could also be a benefit.

There were some initial problems with bolt-on counterweights, which

resulted (as one Formula One designer told me) in "several deep holes being dug in
the surface of a few racetracks". There are tensile and fatigue stress issues, as well
as the inevitable fretting between contact surfaces and the requirement for highly
developed fastener technology. Usage in Formula One suggests that those issues
have been resolved. There is a variance of opinion as to whether bolt on
counterweights are being investigated in Cup. One person told me they are
explicitly illegal, while two others told me they know of a certain amount of
investigation and development going on in that regard.
In the world of two-plane V8 cranks, the traditional calculation for the balance-bob weight value is
100% of the rotating weight (big end, inserts and oil)

18
plus 50% of the reciprocating weight (small end, wristpin, retainers, piston, rings
and oil). However, there are differing approaches to the question of overbalance or
under balance. .
Some experts stick with the 100% + 50% distribution, while others opt for a
46-47% underbalanced (100% + 47%). Others prefer a 52-53% overbalance,
while others add an arbitrary 100 grams to the 50% reciprocating calculation. There
was a general reluctance to discuss the expected or observed effects of these
strategies.
There has been an interesting development regarding two-plane V8
crankshaft lubrication drillings. Traditionally, each rod bearing was fed oil by a
single angled hole from the loaded-during-compression side of the rod journal to
the less-loaded side of the adjacent main journal, sometimes called ‘straight-shot
oiling’, shown in Figure 11. That strategy reduced the effect of centrifugal-force
starvation at high RPM and assured the availability of sufficient oil to provide the
dynamic film strength for the combustion loading.

The problem with this scheme is that the intersection of the angled hole
with the rod journal produces a large elliptical interruption in the journal surface.
Add the chamfering usually done around that hole, and what results is a significant
interruption of the hydrodynamic surface area. Coupled with the reduced bearing
widths, that divot creates a substantial leakage path for the oil to escape.
The new approach rearranges the drillings so the holes in the rod journal can
be perpendicular to the surface. One method is to drill a perpendicular oil hole into
the rod journal, and drill an intersecting parallel hole partially through the rod
journal and plug the open end. Next, an angled drilling from an adjacent main
journal is made to intersect the parallel drilling. Another method involves horizontal
19
drillings through the main journal, through the CPO into the rod journal, with
perpendicular feeds into both journals. This rearrangement enables the lubrication
of both rods on the same crankpin from a single main journal. That can be an
advantage in view of data showing that two-plane V8 main journals numbers two
and four are the most highly loaded, so the rods can be oiled from one, three and
five while the oil delivered to mains two and four can do a better job because of
reduced leakage and no surface interruptions.

The above figures show examples of this approach. An

interesting byproduct of this new drilling strategy is the creation of internal sharp
corners and edges where the drillings intersect. These sharp corners introduce the
flow- restricting effect of sharp-edged orifices into the lube system at a critical
point. Further, sharp corners and machining marks introduce stress concentrations
due to of the surface discontinuities.
One major crank manufacturer (Bryant Racing) has developed a
proprietary extrude-honing system in which an abrasive slurry is pumped through
these drillings at high pressure. This abrasive treatment removes the sharp edges
and surface flaws which cause flow restrictions and stress concentrations, leaving
the inside surfaces of the holes with a mirror finish and nicely rounded intersections,
which adds substantially to the fatigue life of the part.
Up to now we made a discussion about introduction, its time to enter into
literature survey.

20
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
According to Farzin H. Montazersadgh and Ali Fatemi’s journal dynamic
simulation was acted on a crankshaft from a multi cylinder four stroke engine.
Finite element analysis was performed to obtain the variation of stress magnitude
at critical locations. The pressure-volume diagram was used to calculate the load
boundary condition in dynamic simulation model, and other simulation inputs were
taken from the engine specification chart. The dynamic analysis was done
analytically and was verified by simulation in ADAMS which resulted in the load
spectrum applied to crank pin bearing. This load was applied to the FE model in
ANSYS, and boundary conditions were applied according to the engine mounting
conditions. The analysis was done for different engine speeds and as a result
critical engine speed and critical region on the crankshaft were obtained. Stress
variation over the engine cycle and the effect of torsional load in the analysis were
investigated. Results from FE analysis were verified by strain gages attached to
several locations on the crankshaft. Results achieved from aforementioned
analysis can be used in fatigue life calculation and optimization of this component.

Guagliano et al. conducted a study on a marine diesel engine crankshaft,

in which two different FE models were investigated. Due to memory limitations in
meshing a three dimensional model was difficult and costly. Therefore, they used a
bi-dimensional model to obtain the stress concentration factor which resulted in an
accuracy of less than 6.9 percent error for a centered load and 8.6 percent error for
an eccentric load. This numerical model was satisfactory since it was very fast and
had good agreement with experimental results.
Payer et al. developed a two-step technique to perform nonlinear transient
analysis of crankshafts combining a beam-mass model and a solid element model.
Using FEA, two major steps were used to calculate the transient stress behavior of
the crankshaft; the first step calculated time dependent deformations by a step-by-
step integration using the new mark-beta- method. Using a rotating beam-mass-
model of the crankshaft, a time dependent nonlinear oil film model and a model

21
of the main bearing wall structure, the mass, damping and stiffness matrices
were built at each time step and the equation system was solved by an iterative
method.
In the second step those transient deformations were enforced to a solid- element-
model of the crankshaft to determine its time dependent stress behavior. The
major advantage of using the two steps was reduction of CPU time for
calculations. This is because the number of degrees of freedom for performing step
one was low and therefore enabled an efficient solution. Furthermore, the stiffness
matrix of the solid element model for step two needed only to be built up once
Literature survey is concluded, and we can move into next chapter to discuss about
designing procedure.

22
 CHAPTER -3
CALCULATION PART
When the crank is at dead centre:

At this position of the crank, the maximum gas pressure on the piston will transmit
maximum force on the crankpin in the plane of the crank causing only bending of
the shaft. The crankpin as well as ends of the crankshaft will be only subjected to
bending moment. Thus, whenthe crank is atthedead centre,the bending moment onthe shaft
is max. And the twisting moment is zero. The various forces that are acting on the
crankshaft are indicated as below. This engine crankshaft is a single throw and three
bearingshaft locatedatposition1,2 &3.Lets us assume followingdata forengine We cancalculate
the various forces acting on crank shaft connecting rod (Fp), Horizontal and vertical reactions on
shaft, and the resultant force at bearing 2 & 3 by below formulae. Now the piston force

Pmax = P * no of cylinders/1248 *106*4000

= 55*4/1248*106*4000
= 44.07
Piston force Fp=π/4 * D2* Pmax
=π/4*(69.6)2*44.07
= 167.67 KN
Assuming the distance between the bearings 1 &2 as

b = 2D = 2*69.6 = 13902 mm
b1 = b2 = b/2 = 69.6
We know that due to piston gas load, there will be two equal horizontal reactions
H1 & H2 at bearings 1 & 2 respectively.

.i.e., H1 = Fp/2 = 167.66/2 = 83.83 KN = H2

Assuming that the length of bearing to be equal

i.e. c1=c2=c/2
23
 We know that due to weight of flywheel acting downwards, there will be two
vertical reactions V2 & V3 at bearings 2 & 3

V2= V1 = W/2 = 9.8/2 = 4.9 N

Since, the belt is absent in engine, neglecting the belt tension exerted by belt

.i.e. T1 + T2 = 0
Now, let’s design various parts of crankshaft

a) Design of left hand crank web

b) The crank web is designed for eccentric loading. There will be two stresses acting on
the crank web, one is direct compressive stress and the other is bending stress due to piston gas
load (Fp).

The crank web is subjected to the following stresses

i. :i. Bending stresses in two planes normal to each other,

ii. ii. Direct compressive stress and

iii. iii. Torsion stress

We know that the thickness of crank web is

t = 0.65 *dc + 6.35= 0.65* 90 + 6.35
= 64.85 = say65 mm
Also width of crank web is,
W = 1.125 * dc +12.7
= 1.125 * 90 +12.7
= 113.95 = say115 mm
The maximum bending moment on crank web is

Mmax= H1 (b2 –lc/2-t/2)

= 83.83 (69.6- 186.28/2-65/2)
24
= - 4697.83 kN mm
The bending moment is negative; hence the design is not safe. Thus the dimensions
are on higher side.

Now let’s assume,

dc = 45 mm
Hence, lc = 372.57 mm
This is very high, which will require huge length of crank shaft. To have optimum
dimension of crank shaft let’s assume length of crank web as.

lc = 24 mm
and check whether these dimensions are suitable for the load exerted by the piston,
& other forces

Now, t = 35.6 &

w = 63.32 = say 68 mm
This thickness is also on higher side, let’s assume thickness of crank web as

t = 13.2 mm
As compared to width of crank web thickness is more Bending moment,
M = 4275.33 kN-mm
Section
modulus, Z = 1/6
x w x t2
= 1/6 x 68 x 13.22
= 1974.72 mm3
Bending stress,

σb= M/Z
σb= 2.165 kN/mm2
The compressive stress acting on crank web are

σc= H1 / (w*t)
25
 = 83.83 / (68 * 13.2)
= 0.09339 kN/ mm2
a) The total stress acting on crank web is

σT = σb + σc
= 2.2583 kN/ mm2
Thus total stress on crank web is less than allowable bending stress of 83 N/mm2

Hence, the design is safe

b) Design of right hand crank web

From balancing point of view, the dimensions of right hand crank web i.e.
thickness and width are made equal to the dimensions of left hand crank web.

c) Design of shaft under flywheel

There are two types of bending moments acting on shaft. Bending moment
due to weight &, bending moment due to belt tension. Neglecting the belt tension
lets design shaft diameter.

Let, ds = diameter of crank shaft

Since the length of bearings are equal
l1= l2 = l3 = 2(b/2-lc/2-t)
= 2(139.2/2- 24/2-13.2)
= 88.8 mm
Assuming the width of flywheel = 200 mm

C = 88.88 + 200
= 288.88 mm
Considering the space for gearing and clearance,

Let C = 300 mm
Bending moment due to weight of fly wheel,

26
 Mb = V3 x C
= 4.9 x 103 x300
= 1470 x 103kN mm
Also the bending moment of shaft is

Ms =π/32 * ds3 x σ allow

1470 x 103 = π/32 * ds3 * 83
d s = 56.50 mm

27
 CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION CATIAV5R20
CATIA is the leading solution for product success. It addresses all
manufacturing organizations. CATIA can be applied to a wide variety of industries-
from aerospace- automotive- and industrial machinery- to electronics-
shipbuilding- plant design- and consumer goods. Today- CATIA is used to design
anything from an airplane to jewelry and clothing. With the power and functional
range to address the complete product development process- CATIA supports
product engineering- from initial specification to product-in-service- in a fully-
integrated manner. It facilitates reuse of product design knowledge and shortens
development cycles- helping enterprises to accelerate their response to market
needs.

CatiaV5R20 is an interactive Computer- Aided Design and Computer Aided

Manufacturing system. The CAD functions automate the normal engineering-
design and drafting capabilities found in today’s manufacturing companies. The
CAM functions provide NC programming for modern machine tools using the
CatiaV5 R16 design model to describe the finished part. CatiaV5R20 functions are
divided into “applications” of common capabilities. These applications are
supported by a prerequisite application called “CatiaV5R20 Gateway”.

CatiaV5R20 is fully three dimensional- double precision system that allows

to accurately describing almost any geometric shape. By combining these shapes-
one can design- analyze- and create drawings of product

28
BASIC PROCEDURE FOR CREATING A 3-D MODEL IN
CATIAV5R20:

Creation of a 3-D model in CatiaV5R20 can be performed using three

workbenches i.e.- sketcher- modeling and assembly.

SKETCHER:
Sketcher is used two-dimensional representations of profiles associated
within the part. We can create a rough outline of curves- and then specify conditions
called constraints to define the shapes more precisely and capture our design intent.
Each curve is referred to as a sketch object.

CREATING A NEW SKETCH:

a new sketch- chose StartMechanical DesignSketcher then select
the reference plane or sketch plane in which the sketch is to be created.

SKETCH PLANE
The sketch plane is the plane that the sketch is located on. The sketch plane
menu has the following options:

Face/Plane: With this option- we can use the attachment face/plane icon to
select a planar face or existing datum plane. If we select a datum plane-
we can use the reverse direction button to reverse the direction of the normal to the
plane.

XC-YC- YC-ZC- and ZC-XC: With these options- we can create a sketch on
one of the WCS planes. If we use this method- a datum plane and two datum axes
are created as below.

Displays the structure of the part, assembly, or drawing. Select an

item from the feature manager design tree to edit the underlying sketch, edit the
feature, and suppress and un suppress the feature or component, for example.

29
 An meeting is a aggregate of or extra components, additionally known as
components, inside one solid works record. You role and orient components the use
of mates that form family members among additives.

➢ This lesson discusses the following:

➢ Adding components to an meeting

➢ Transferring and rotating additives in an assembly

➢ Growing display states in an assembly

modeling of crankshaft

“Feature” is an all-encompassing term that refers to all solids, bodies and

primitives used in Solid works Form Features are used to supply detail to the model
in the form of standard feature types. These include hole, Extrude Boss/Cut, Swept
Boss/Cut, Fillet. We can also create our own custom features using the User Defined
option. All of these features are associative.

Reference Feature sallow creating reference planes, reference lines and

reference points. These references can assist in creating features on cylinders,
cones, spheres and revolved solid bodies. Reference planes can also aid in creating
features at angles other than normal to the faces of a target solid. Dress up Feature
options lets modify existing solid bodies and features.

These include a wide assortment of options such as edge fillet, variable

fillet, chamfers, draft, offset face, shell and tapers. Surface design lets us create
surface and solid bodies. A surface body with zero thickness, and consists of a
collection of faces and edges that do not close up to enclose a volume. Most Free
30
figure 4. 1 Sketch Profile for Crank Shaft

After creating the crank shaft end, a sleeve has to be designed between cylinder
1 and 2 connecting rod location. Initial sketch profile looks as follows.

figure 4. 2 Sleeve Profile

31
 After a couple of operations like Fillets, Revolve Cut, Mirror the final
product looks as follows. This part is assembled with the rest of the components to
produce the final connecting rod assembly.

figure 4. 3 Symmetry operation

4.7.1. Designing Crank Shaft Ends

To design connecting the initial sketch profile looks a follows. This sketch
profile is symmetric along the x-axis as shown bellow.

figure 4. 4 Crank Shaft journals

32
figure 4. 5 Symmetry operation to create the second set of Journals

After creating the above sketch profile extrude cut feature is used to remove
the material from the solid connecting rod. Two holes are created at the two end of
the top portion in to fit the connecting rod end as shown in the figure below.

figure 4. 6 Crank Shaft End or Fly Wheel Flange

figure 4. 7 Crank Nose Basic Sketch Profile

33
Final Design

34
 CHAPTER-5
INTRODUCTION OF ANSYS

ANSYS a product of ANSYS inc. Is a world's leading, widely distributed and

popular commercial CAE package. It is widely used by designers/analysis in
industries such as aerospace, automotive, manufacturing, nuclear, electronics,
biomedical, and much more. ANSYS provides simulation solution that enables
designers to simulate design performance directly on the desktop. In this way, it
provides fast efficient and cost efficient product development from design concept
stage to performance validation stage of product development cycle.
It helps to acceleration and streamlines the product development process by
helping designers to resolve issues relation to structural thermal fluid flow
electromagnetic effect a combination of these phenomena acting together and soon.
In ANSYS, the basics of FEA concepts, modelling and the analysing of
engineering problem using ANSYS workbench. In addition, describe of importance
tools and concepts given whenever required .this following simulation streams of
ANSYS.
1. Structural Analysis

Static Structural Analysis

Modal Analysis
Transient Structural Analysis
2. Thermal Analysis

Steady State Thermal Analysis

Transient Thermal Analysis

35
 CHAPTER-6

INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS WORKBENCH

Project Objective

In this chapter, we will be able to define:

➢ Understand the types of system

➢ Understand different types of cells

➢ Understand the graphic user interface of the workbench window

➢ Start a new project in ansys workbench windows

➢ Add the first and subsequent analysis system to a project

➢ Set units for the project

Introduction To Ansys Workbench

ANSYS WORKBENCH, developed by ANSYS INC., USA, is a computer

aided finite element modelling and finite element analysis tool (CAFEM AND
CAFEA). In the graphical user interface GUI of ansys workbench the user can
generate 3-dimensional and FEA models, perform analysis and generate results of
analysis. We can perform a variety of tasks ranging from design assessment to finite
element analysis to complete product optimisation analysis by using ANSYS
WORKBENCH. ANSYS also enable the combination of standalone analysis
system into a project and to manage the project workflow.
In ansys workbench this are the list of analysis can be determined:
➢ Modal analysis

➢ Static structural analysis

➢ Transient structural analysis

➢ Steady state thermal analysis

➢ Transient thermal analysis

36
➢ Fluid flow (CFD)

6.2.1 Starting Ansys Workbench 16.0

To start ansys workbench 16.0, choose start- programs/ all programs- ansys
14.0 - workbench 14.0 from the taskbar. Alternatively, we can start ansys
workbench by double click on the workbench 14.0.

Figure 6. 1 Starting Of Ansys Workbench Using Taskbar

37
 The workbench windows help streamline an entire project to be carried out
in ansys workbench 14.0. In this window, one can create, manage, and view the
workflow of the entire project create by using standard analysis system. The
workbench windows mainly consist of the menu bar, standard toolbar, the toolbar
windows, project schematic windows, and the status bar.

Figure 6. 2 The Component Of The Workbench Windows

6.2.2. Toolbox Windows

The toolbox windows are located on the left in the workbench windows. The
toolbox windows list the standard and customised templates or the individual
analysis components that are used to create a project. To create a project, drag a
particular analysis or component system from the toolbox window and drop into the
project schematic windows or double click on GUI table it will add it into project
schematic windows and to create the project

38
Figure 6. 3 The Analysis System Toolbox Displaying Various Analysis System
In It.

Name of Application of Solution

analysis loads determines
Explicit Loads with Total
dynamics respect to time deformation
or impact
deformation
Fluid flow Compressible or Heat transfer
(CFX) incompressible or flow of air
of air or gases
Fluid flow Compressible or Heat transfer
(CFD) incompressible fluid
of fluid
Harmonic Periodic or Resonance,
response sinusoidal loads fatigue, and
effect of
forced
vibration.
Rigid Constraints and Forces or
dynamics motion loads direction
39
 analysis

Static Static load Deformation,

structural conditions Stresses and
Strains,
Fatigue tool,
Life,
Damages,
Safety factor
Steady Temperature or Heat flux or
state thermal loads temperatures
thermal

Transient Varying of load Deformation,

structural conditions with Stresses and
changing of Strains,
times Fatigue tool,
Life,
Damages,
Safety factor
Transient Varying of Heat flux or
thermal Temperature or temperatures
thermal loads
with changing of
times

Table 6. 1 Analysis And Definitions

40
Project Schematic Windows

The project schematics windows help manage an entire project. It displays

the workflow of entire analysis project. To add an analysis system to the project
schematic windows, drag the analysis system from toolbox windows and drop into
the green coloured box displayed in the project schematic windows.

Figure 6. 4 Static Analysis Imported Into Project Schematic

6.3.1 Custom System Analysis.

By default, the custom system toolbox is also displayed in collapsed state in
the toolbox. To expand this node, click on + on a custom system. The system in the
customs system toolbox is used to carry out the standard coupled analysis like static
and thermal analysis(the combination of more than single or multiple of GUI tab).
In every GUI tabs, we can drag more GUI tabs makes the links analysis.

41
 Figure 6. 5 Sharing Of Engineering Data, Geometry And Model

Units In Any Workbench:

In any workbench, you can use any of the following predefined unit systems.
Units Mass Length Time Voltage Temperature Current Forces
Metric Kg M S V OC A N
Metric Tonne Mm S Mv OC Ma N
US Cust. Lb In S V OC A N
SI Kg M S V K A N
US Engg Lb In S V Rankine (R) A Lbs
Table 6. 2 Units

Component Of The System:

An item that is added from the toolbox window to the project schematic
windows is known as a system and the constituent elements of the system are known
as cells. Each cell of a system plays an important role in carrying out a project and
are discussed next

Engineering Data Cell

The engineering data cell is used to define the material to used in the analysis.
To define the materials, double click on the engineering data cell, the workbench
corresponding to this the engineering data cell will e displayed.
42
 Engineering cell-double click-clickon the shell system (engineering data
book)-select general materials in the outline of the engineering data sources- select
materials in the outline of general materials

Figure 6. 6 The Engineering Data Workspace

Geometry Cell
The geometry cell is used to create, edit or import the geometry that is used
for analysis. To create a geometry for analysis, double click on geometry cell, the
design modeller windows
will be displayed.

Figure 6. 7 The Shortcut Menu Displayed On Right Clicking On The

Geometry Cell

The new geometry option in the menu is used to get into design modeller
windows, where you can create geometry or import the geometry from the existing
geometry file create in another CAD software packages.
43
 Model Cell
The model cell will be displayed for mechanical analysis system and is used
to discredited geometry into small elements, apply boundary and load conditions,
solve the analysis, and so on.

Mesh Cell
The mesh cell will be displayed for fluid flow analysis and is used to mesh
the geometry, on double clicking on this cell, the meshing windows will be
displayed . In other words, this cell is associated with the meshing windows.

Setup Cell
The setup cell is used to define the boundary conditions of an analysis system,
such as loads and constraints. This cell is also associated with the mechanical
workspace.

Solution Cell
The solution cell is used to solve the analysis problem based on the conditions
defined in the cells above the solution cell. The cell is also associated with the
mechanical workspace.

Results Cell
The results cell is used to display the results of the analysis in the user
specified formats, this cell is also associated with the mechanical workspace.

44
 CHAPTER 7 STATIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Project Objective

In this project, we will be able to define total deformation and stress, etc
➢ Create the static structural analysis system

➢ Apply different types of materials

➢ Applying of boundary conditions

➢ Apply a different type of constraints

➢ Apply different loads

➢ Generate the results as per required

➢ Generate project reports

In this project, we imported the geometry of the component show the

dimensions for the component with respect to the load applications. The material to
be applied on the model is Stainless Steel. Next, you will run the analysis under two
conditions and evaluate the Total Deformation, Directional Deformation,
Equivalent Stress, Maximum Principal Stress, and Minimum Principal Stress.

Introduction To Static Structural Analysis

The Static Structural analysis is one of the important analyses in ANSYS

Workbench. It is available as Static Structural analysis system under the Analysis
System toolbox in the Toolbox window, This system analyses the structural
components for displacements (deformation), stresses, strains, and forces under
different loading conditions. The loads in this analysis system are assumed not to
have damping characteristics (time dependent). Steady loading and damping
conditions are assumed in this type of analysis system.
To start a new Static Structural analysis system, double-click on Static
Structural in the Analysis Systems toolbox in the Toolbox window; the Static
Structural analysis system will be added to the Project Schematic window. To start
an analysis, first you need to specify the geometry on which the analysis is to be
45
done. To do so, you can import the geometry from an external CAD package, or
you can create the geometry in the ANSYS's Design Modeler software. After the
model is specified for an analysis, you need to double-click on the Model cell of the
Static Structural analysis system to open the Mechanical window. In this window,
you can specify the parameters and run the analysis.

Figure 7. 1 The Static Structural Analysis System Added To The

Project Schematic Window

Figure 7. 2 The Mechanical Window

As discussed in previous chapters, analysis can be carried out in three major

steps: pre-processing, solution, and post-processing. The tools required to carry out

46
these steps are discussed next.
Pre-Processing The pre-processing of an analysis system involves
specifying the material, generating a mesh, and defining boundary conditions.
In ANSYS Workbench, the various tools related to boundary conditions are available in the Environment
contextual toolbar, which is displayed when you selectthe Static Structural node in the Tree Outline

Figure 7. 3 The Environment Contextual Toolbar

In order to provide a support to the model, you need to choose the required
tool from the Supports drop-down. Similarly, to add a load, choose the desired tool
from the Loads drop-down in the Environment contextual toolbar. Also, when you
choose any tool from the Environment contextual toolbar; the corresponding entity
is placed under the Static Structural node in the Tree Outline.
The main purpose of an analysis is to evaluate the results. After the boundary
condition is set and loads are applied, you need to specify the desired outcomes of
the analysis. In ANSYS Workbench, you can analyze various parameters such as
deformation, stresses, strains, and so on. To do so, you need to specify the results
required and then evaluate them. You can use the tools available in the Solution
contextual toolbar to specify results, refer to Figure 9-4. Alternatively, right-click
on the Solution node in the Tree Outline and then use the desired option from the
shortcut menu displayed.

Figure 7. 4 The Solution Contextual Toolbar

47
 In order to evaluate deformations, stresses, strains, and so on, choose the
desired options from the drop-downs available in the Solution contextual toolbar.
Solution In an analysis, after pre-processing (meshing, specifying material,
and specifying boundary condition) is done, the next step is to solve the analysis.
In ANSYS Workbench, you will use the Solve tool from the Standard toolbar to run
the solver. The solver runs in the background of a software and acquires results of
an analysis, based on the specified boundary conditions.

Post-Processing After the analysis is complete, you need to generate the report
in the Mechanical window. To do so, choose the Report Preview tab from the
bottom of the Graphics screen; the ANSYS Report generation in progress message
is displayed on the screen. After sometime, this message vanishes and the report is
generated.

Figure 7. 5 The Report Generation In Progress...

48
 7.3. Project Overview

In this project, you will create the model of a crankshaft, as shown below . The
dimensions to create the model and its boundary and loading conditions are also
given in the same figure. Run a Static Structural analysis on the model and evaluate
the Total Deformation and the Directional Deformation. Determine Directional
Deformation along the X, Y, and Z axes. After evaluating the results, interpret them.
(Expected time: 3 hr)
1. Start a new project and create the model.

2. Generate the mesh.

3. Set the boundary and loading _conditions.

4. Solve the model.

5. Duplicate the existing analysis system.

6. Interpret results.

7. Save the project.

7.3.1 Starting A New Project And Creating The Model
The first step is to start a new project in the Workbench window.
8. Start ANSYS Workbench.

9. Choose the Save button from the Standard toolbar; the Save As dialog box is
displayed.
10. Double-click on Static Structural in the Toolbox window; the Static Structural
analysis system is added in the Project Schematic window.
11. Rename the Static Structural analysis system (if).

12. In the Cantilever analysis system, double-click on the Geometry cell; the Design
Modeler window along with the ANSYS Workbench dialog box is displayed.
13. In the ANSYS Workbench dialog box, set the unit to millimeter. Now, create the
model on the XY plane
14. Exit the Design Modeler window to display the Workbench window.

49
 7.3.2. Adding The Material To The Engineering Data Figure Workspace
After creating the holes in the model, you now need to apply the material to
it. The Material to be applied is Stainless Steel.
1. Double-click on the Engineering Data cell of the crankshaft analysis system; the
Engineering Data workspace is displayed in the Workbench window.
2. Choose the Engineering Data Sources toggle button from the Standard toolbar; the
Engineering Data Sources window is added to the Engineering Data workspace.
3. In the Engineering Data Sources window, select the General Materials library to
display the Outline of General Materials window.
4. In the Outline of General Materials window, choose the plus symbol
corresponding to Aluminum Alloy; the material is added to the Engineering Data
in the Outline window of the Engineering Data workspace.
5. Again, choose the Engineering Data Sources toggle button from the Standard
toolbar to switch to the default view of Engineering Data workspace.
Choose the Return to Project button from the Standard toolbar to display the Project
Schematic window.

50
7.3.4. Table Of The Composite Material
92% Aluminum+6.74% Steel+0.2% Carbon+0.32% Silicon+0.7%
Maginesum+0.02% Phosphorus+0.02% Sulphur

Material Percentage Densit % Density Poison

y Ratio
Aluminum Alloy 92 3720 3422.4
Steel 6.74 7480 504.152 0.29
Carbon 0.2 7870 15.74 0.29
Silicon 0.32 3180 10.176 0.23
Magnesium 0.7 1.827 0.012789 0.35
Phosphorus 0.02 1823 0.3646 0.15
Sulphur 0.02 2070 0.414 0.15
Composite 3953.259389
Table 7. 1 Composite Material I (Medium Steel Alloy)
7.3.5 Table Of The Composite Material (Nickel + Chromium +Steel+ Cast
Iron+ Aluminum)
Nickel + Chromium+ Steel+ Cast Iron+ Aluminum+ Molybdenum

Material Z Density % Density Poison Ratio

Aluminum Alloy 92 3720 3422.4 0.29
Steel 2 7480 149.6 0.29
Nickel 1 8900 89 0.23
Chromium 2 7180 143.6 0.35
Cast Iron 1 7200 72 0.15

Molybdenum 2 10220 204.4 0.35

Composite 4081
Table 7. 2 Composite Material I (Ni Cr Mo Steel Alloy)
51
 Figure 7. 6 Specifying A Material

52
 Generating The Mesh

After the model is created in the Design Modeler window, you need to
generate the mesh for the model in the Mechanical window.
1. In the Project Schematic window, double-click on the Model cell in the static
structural analysis system; the Mechanical window is displayed.
2. Select Mesh in the Tree Outline to display the Details of "Mesh" window.

3. In the Details of "Mesh" window, expand the Sizing node, if it is not already
expanded. Also, notice that Default is displayed in the Element Size edit box.
The Element Size edit box is used to specify the size of an element. The
element size specified in this edit box is according to the size of the geometry.
However, this edit box will not be visible when the
➢ On: Proximity and

➢ On: Proximity and Curvature

options are selected from the Use Advanced Size Function drop-down list. When
Default is displayed in the Element Size edit box, it indicates that a default value,
based on the size of the geometry, is already specified by the software.
4. Choose the Generate Mesh tool from the Mesh drop-down in the Mesh contextual
toolbar; the mesh is generated.

Figure 7. 7 Mesh Generated With Default Mesh Controls

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 5. Expand the Statistics node in the Details of "Mesh" window to display the
total number of elements created. On doing so, you will find that the total number
of elements.

Specifying The Boundary Conditions

After you mesh the model, it is required to specify the boundary and loading
conditions.
1. In the Mechanical window, select the Static Structural node from the Tree Outline;
the Details of “Static Structural” window is displayed along with the Environment
contextual toolbar.
2. Choose the Fixed Support tool from the Supports drop-down in the Environment
contextual toolbar; Fixed Support is added under the Static Structural node. Also,
the Details of“ Static Structural” window is displayed
3. Click on the Geometry selection box to display the Apply and Cancel buttons

Figure 7. 8 Choosing The Fixed Support Tool From The Supports Drop-Down

4. Choose the Face tool from the Select toolbar to enable selection of faces.
5. Select faces on the model. Next, choose the Apply button in the Geometry selection
box; the selected faces turn purple indicating that Fixed support is applied
6. Choose the Force tool from the Loads drop-down in the Environment contextual
toolbar; Force is added under the Static Structural node in the Tree Outline. Also,
the Details of “Force” window is displayed
7. Click on the Geometry selection box to display the Apply and Cancel buttons, if
they are not already displayed.
8. Next, select the circular face on the right of the model, as shown in Figure.
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9. Choose the Apply button from the Geometry selection box; the cylindrical face
turns red indicating that the Force load is applied.
10. In the Details of “momentum” window, expand the Definition node, if it is not
already expanded.

Figure 7. 9 The Loads Drop-Down

11. Select Vector from the Define By drop-down list, if it is not already selected.

12. In the Details of “momentum” window, click on the right arrow next to the
Magnitude edit Box; a fly-out is displayed.
13. Choose Constant from the fly out, if it is not already chosen, as shown in Figure.
The Constant option is chosen when the force applied remains constant with respect
to Time,
14. In the Magnitude edit box, enter number.

15. Click on the Direction selection box to display the Apply and Cancel buttons.

As the application of force under consideration is vertically downward, you

need to Define the direction by selecting edges for the force vector.
16. Select any vertical edge on the model, as shown in Figure 949, to specify the
direction of Force application
17. Next, choose the Apply button from the Direction selection box; a downward force
is specified for the analysis. After you have selected the edge for specifying the
direction, you can flip the direction
18. Specified by choosing the Flip button available in the Graphics screen.

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 Solving The Fe Model And Analyzing The Results

After the boundary and load conditions are specified for the model, you need
to solve the analysis. After solving, you will get the Total and Directional
Deformations due to the given condition. Also, you will get Equivalent Stress, life
, and damage.
1. Select the Solution node in the Tree Outline; the Solution contextual toolbar is
displayed. Also, the Details of “Solution” window is displayed.

Figure 7. 10 The Details Of Solution Window

2. Choose the Total tool from the Deformation drop-down of the Solution contextual
toolbar; Total Deformation is added under the Solution node.

Figure 7. 11 Choosing The Total Tool From The Deformation Drop Down

3. Choose the Equivalent (von-misses) tool from the Stress drop-down in the Solution
contextual toolbar;
The Equivalent or von-misses stress is the criteria by which the effect of all
the directional Stresses acting at a point is considered 1" his helps in finding out
whether the model will fail Or bear the stress at that particular point.
4. Choose the life option from the fatigue tool drop-down in the Solution contextual

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 toolbar; life is added under the Solution node.
5. Choose the damage option from the fatigue tool drop-down in the Solution
contextual toolbar; damage is added under the Solution node.
6. Choose the Solve tool from the Standard toolbar; the parameters are evaluated

7. In the tree Outline, select Total Deformation to visualize the results; the deformed
model is shown in the Graphics screen
8. In the Details of “Total Deformation” window, expand the Results node, if it is not
already expanded. Note that the maximum and minimum deformations displayed
are respectively.

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 RESULTS

Total Deformations

In the Details of “Total Deformation” window, expand the Results node, if it is not
already expanded. Note that the maximum and minimum deformations displayed
are respectively.

8.1.1 For Medium Steel Alloy

Figure 8. 1 The Values Of Total Deformation Obtained From The

Legend Display In Color Bands.

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8.1.2. For Ni Cr Mo Steel Alloy

Figure 8. 2 The Values Of Total Deformation Obtained From The Legend

Display In Color Bands.

Equivalent Stress

In the Details of “equivalent stress” window, expand the Results node, if it is not
already expanded. Note that the maximum and minimum deformations displayed
are respectively.

For Medium Steel Alloy

Figure 8. 3 The Values Of Equivalent Stress Obtained From The Legend

Display In Color Bands

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 For Ni Cr Mo Steel Alloy
Figure 8. 4 The Values Of Equivalent Stress Obtained From The Legend
Display In Color Bands.

Fatigue Tool Graph 8. 1 Strain Life Graphs

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Life

In the Details of “life” window, expand the Results node, if it is not already
expanded. Note that the maximum and minimum deformations displayed are
respectively.

Damage

In the Details of “damage” window, expand the Results node, if it is not already
expanded. Note that the maximum and minimum deformations displayed are
respectively.

For Ni Cr Mo Steel Alloy

Close the existing Mechanical window; the Workbench window is displayed.
A body is called to be deformed if its shape is changed temporarily or
permanently. The temporary change of shape is known as elastic deformation and
a permanent change of shape is known as plastic deformation. In ANSYS
Workbench, You can determine deformation in terms of Total and Directional
Deformations.
Total Deformation is the total change of shape in a given working condition. You
can view the Total Deformation induced in any component by using the Total tool
from the Deformation drop-down in the Solution contextual toolbar. Directional
deformation is the total change of shape in a particular axis, due to given working
conditions. You can view Directional deformation by using the Directional tool
from the Deformation drop-down in the Solution contextual toolbar.
Total Deformation is the summation of all directional deformations produced in a
certain region of the model. The following equation describes the Total
Deformation:
If Deformation in the X-axis Ux
Deformation in the Y-axis Uy
Deformation in the Z-axis Uz

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 Then Total Deformation. U will be given as follows:
U = (U 2+ U 2 + U 2) 1/2
x y z

The Legend has colors arranged in a band from top to bottom. Depending
upon the type of analysis and the parameters evaluated, each color will indicate a
different value. A typical Legend displayed when Total Deformation is selected
from the Tree Outline.
The blue color in the Legend indicates the minimum value of Total
Deformation. In this case, it displays 0 which means there is no deformation at that
region.

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 13. Exit the static structural analysis - Mechanical window

Results From Workbench 16.0

8.6.1 For Medium Steel Alloy

Figure 8. 5 Summary Results

Figure 8. 6 Weight

For Ni Cr Mo Steel Alloy

Figure 8. 7 Summary Results

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Figure 8. 8 Weight

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 Results and graphs

Total

Type Weights Deformation Stress

Material I 10.93 4.82E-06 1.55E-02

Material II 9.7775 4.96E-06 1.55E-02

Table 9. 1 Results

Graph 9. 1 Weight

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Graph 9. 2 Total Deformations

Graph 9. 3 Stress

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 CONCLUSION

➢ The Model weight was reduced after change of materials from 10.93 kg to 9.773 kg
at a density Kg/m3 from the table 7.1 and 7.2 .
➢ From the above results it is suggest that the design modification was acceptable.

➢ In the working of the engine, the engine generate 10 to 12 torque at beginning it

may varies by increase of acceleration. Because of continuously cycle or stokes the
crankshaft gets deforms. At a peek of cycles the crankshaft is unable to generate
smooth transmission of the power to rear wheel.
➢ In this project we consider the composite material in real time MEDIUM STEEL
ALLOY and replace the material with other material name NI CR MO STEEL
ALLOY so that the weight and deformations are decreased and life increase.
➢ by analysis the life of the crankshaft is increased

➢ weight was reduced

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 REFERENCES

1. Altan, T., Oh, S., and Gegel, H. L., 1983, “Metal Forming Fundamentals and

2. Applications,” American Society for Metals, Metal Park, OH, USA.

3. Ando, S., Yamane, S., Doi, Y., Sakurai, H., and Meguro, H., 1992, “Method for
Forming
4. a Crankshaft,” US Patent No. 5115663, United States Patent.

5. Baxter, W. J., 1993, “Detection of Fatigue Damage in Crankshafts with the Gel

6. Electrode,” SAE Technical Paper No. 930409, Society of Automotive Engineers,

7. Warrendale, PA, USA.

8. Borges, A. C., Oliveira, L. C., and Neto, P. S., 2002, “Stress Distribution in a
Crankshaft
9. Crank Using a Geometrically Restricted Finite Element Model,” SAE Technical
Paper
10. No. 2002-01-2183, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, USA.

11. Burrell, N. K., 1985, “Controlled Shot Peening of Automotive Components,” SAE

12. Technical Paper No. 850365, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA,
USA.
13. Chien, W. Y., Pan, J., Close, D., and Ho, S., 2005, “Fatigue Analysis of Crankshaft

14. Sections Under Bending with Consideration of Residual Stresses,” International

Journal
15. of Fatigue, Vol. 27, pp. 1-19.

16. Fergusen, C. R., 1986, “Internal Combustion Engines, Applied Thermodynamics,”

John
17. Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY, USA.

18. Guagliano, M., Terranova, A., and Vergani, L., 1993, “Theoretical and
Experimental

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