International Tropical

Animal Nutrition Conference

Volume I

October 4-7, 2007

National Dairy Research Institute
Karnal, India

M. P. S. Bakshi
M. Wadhwa

Animal Nutrition Society of India

 International Tropical
Animal Nutrition Conference

Volume I
Invited papers

October 4-7, 2007

National Dairy Research Institute

Karnal - 132001, India

M. P. S. Bakshi and M. Wadhwa

Department of Animal Nutrition
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
Ludhiana-141004, India

ANIMAL NUTRITION SOCIETY OF INDIA

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
 Prelude
The Animal Nutrition Society of India, is pleased to have organized Interna-
tional Tropical Animal Nutrition Conference ‘TROPNUTRICON-2007’ at National
Dairy Research Institute, Karnal in October 2007.
The conference’s theme ‘Animal Nutrition in Tropics- Constraints and Oppor-
tunities’ has the relevance of the information to all involved in promoting improved
and affordable livestock husbandry practices to the resource- poor, throughout the
tropics. The conference would include a series of deliberations, on available feed re-
sources and their efficient use either by manipulating rumen microbes or by modifying
the activities of enzymes involved in digestion and utilization of end products at cellu-
lar level or by partitioning the nutrients for productive purposes or by processing the
feed resources to make available the nutrients or by using feed supplements or by
finding potential alternate feed resources, or by modifying the existing feeding prac-
tices/systems, from all over the world, especially from tropical countries.
The whole purpose is to have sustainable system, because Sustainability necessi-
tates getting beyond environmentalism which is a movement against pollution while
sustainability is a movement towards new actions and behaviors.
We feel confident that prudent adoption of the recommendations of this con-
ference will lead to wealth creation for many poor people of tropics, which keep live-
stock and provide them with an opportunity to escape from poverty and sustain in
clean environment. With this hope, we welcome delegates from all over the world to
Karnal.
We are very grateful to the participants who shared their experiences, without
their generous participation, these proceedings would not have been achieved.
The endless efforts put in by our staff especially Ms Kamal preet Kaur and Dr
Jasmin Kaur, friends and the family members is duly acknowledged.

M P S Bakshi
M Wadhwa
 CONTENTS

1. Tropical animal nutrition with emphasis on animal adaptation and products

E. R. Ørskov -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

2. Transformation of animal nutrition education to match future need

Ashok Rathore ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6

3. Biotechnological advances in animal production

S. K. Gulati, M. R. Garg, P. L. Sherasia,
B. M. Bhanderi, T. W. Scott --------------------------------------------------------------------- 20

4. Ruminal anaerobic fungi for improving digestion and utilization of

fibrous feeds in ruminants
J. P. Sehgal and Sanjay Kumar -------------------------------------------------------------- 24

5. Bioactivity of phytochemicals in some lesser-known plants and their

effects and potential applications in livestock and aquaculture nutrition
Harinder P. S. Makkar -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32

6. Combined strategies guarantee mycotoxin control

Devendra S. Verma ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 49

7. Nutritional challenges for poultry and pigs in the post antibiotic era
S. S. Sikka and Jaswinder Singh ------------------------------------------------------------- 53

8. Score of utilizing unconventional phophorus supplements in broilers

R. P. S. Baghel ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 65

9. Nutrition and nutrient delivery system for fish farming

Vijay Anand and G. Ramesh -------------------------------------------------------------------- 73

10. Pasture based feeding systems for small ruminant production and its
relevance in tropics
S. A. Karim and A. K. Shinde ----------------------------------------------------------------- 80

11. Sustainable intensive meat production system for goats and sheep in tropics
N. P. Singh ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91

12. Heat stress and dairy feeding program

Jason Park ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 105

13. Code of practice on good animal feeding in relation to food safety

M. R. Garg and B. M. Bhanderi ---------------------------------------------------------------- 108
14. Metrological aspects and strategies to reduce uncertainties in
greenhouse gas emissions from livestock
Prabhat K. Gupta and Arvind K. Jha ------------------------------------------------------- 116

15. Environmental pollution and animal productivity

D. Swarup ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 125

16. Safety and wholesomeness of genetically modified crops for livestock,

poultry and aquaculture: focus on insect-protected crops in India
G. F. Hartnell and B. G. Hammond ----------------------------------------------------------- 132

17. Potential of GM plants, current status, feeding to animals and open questions
Gerhard Flachowsky --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 141

18. Efficacy of herbal feed additive for livestock

M. J. Saxena, K. Ravikant and Anup Kalra -------------------------------------------------147

19. Implications for minerals deficiency in ruminants and methods for its amelioration
C. S. Prasad, N. K. S. Gowda, D. T. Pal ---------------------------------------------------- 152

20. Strategic supplementation of minerals to livestock: An Indian perspective

Tapan K. Ghosh and Sudipto Haldar ---------------------------------------------------------163
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Tropical animal nutrition with emphasis on animal
adaptation and products
E. R. Ørskov
Macaulay Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, UK
It is of course possible to write books about
the subject above so this paper will be a summary
of my own experiences of tropical agriculture and
philosophies derived from them.
First of all we need perhaps to define what is
tropical. Most people of course expect the tropics to
be hot but with varying degrees of humidity. How-
ever, for several years, I had a project with animal
production some 2000 m up on the slopes of
Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, almost on the Equator, I can
assure you that at that altitude it can also be cold.
Adaptation to dry and hot climates with fluctu-
ating supply of nutrients
An excellent example of an animal adapted to
an extreme climate is no doubt the camel. Both
Dromedary and Bactrian camel are well adapted to
hot and dry and cold conditions, but in slightly dif-
ferent ways. The camel has not only an ability to
be comfortable in very hot and dry climates; it can
do without food and water for many days. The
dromedary at least is biochemically adapted with
an enzyme system that ensures a very low require-
ment of glucose. In fact they can generate reducing
equivalent from C2 unit i.e. fat so that even at 10 d
starvation there is no increase in blood ketones e.g.
β-hydroxybutyrate (β-OH) (Wensvoort et al.,
2001) which is unlike ruminants. When food and
water become available they can drink very large
quantities and very rapidly convert even glucose to
fat stores (Wardeh and Dawa 2006). The most
important fat store is in the hump so the fat is stored
in a specific region which make for much easier
thermoregulations. Ruminants on the whole need a
11
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
small supply of feed every day to avoid glucose
deficiency. In our intragastic nutrition studies we
found that if cattle were fed about one third of
energy maintenance their elevation of β-OH was
slight (Ku Vera et al., 1989). In sheep the level of
feeding needed to avoid elevation of β-OH is lower
(Ørskov et al., 1998) suggesting that sheep may
have a lower glucose requirement than cattle. An
elevation of β-OH signifying glucose deficiency will
lead to excessive loss of lean tissue as reducing
equivalents required for utilization of fat are gener-
ated from the protein turnover cycle. At starvation
or fasting the urine N excretion is about two times
greater than it is when there is no elevation in β-
OH due to use of glucose precursors from the
protein turnover cycle. Bos indicus also has a fat
store in the hump rather than evenly spread subcu-
taneously to help thermoregulation during hot sea-
sons and when there is fluctuation in the supply of
nutrients. Bos taurus on the whole is less well
adapted to hot climates with fluctuating supply of
nutrients.
Sheep in hot regions with a fluctuating supply of
nutrients have also adapted by having fat stores in
their tail e.g. Awassi sheep whose tails carry more
than 5Kg of fat; some sheep also store fat in their
dewlap e.g. Maasai sheep in Africa. Many breeds
have a hair coat rather than wool e.g.Maasai sheep
and many other breeds. A sleek hair coat reflects much
of the sun’s heat whereas a wool coat insulates from
it. Goats on the whole tolerate fluctuating supply of
nutrients better than cattle since they are browsers
and have access to nutrients, sometimes high quality
nutrients such as tree leaves, which cattle being graz-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
ers have not. Sheep also do better than cattle as they
are grazer/browsers but not as selective as goats.
Apart from Bos indicus some other cattle breeds are
well adapted to hot regions where there is not too
much fluctuation in nutrient supply e.g. Bos bantang
in Indonesia, Bos frontalis in Yunnan and indeed
Chinese and Vietnamese yellow cattle.
Humid tropics
The best adapted animal for the humid tropics
is undoubtedly the buffalo but under extreme con-
ditions it needs access to water or mud to assist in
thermoregulation
Low oxygen
The Yak cattle in the high Tibetan Plateau and
Mongolia and the South American camelids e.g.
Llama and Guanaco (Campero, 2006) and Alpaca
and Vicunna (Otazu, 2006) are outstanding in their
adaptation to low oxygen tension at great altitudes
as is the Bactrian camel in the Gobi desert (Wardeh
and Dawa, 2006). The Yaks do not do well at high
oxygen concentration in lowlands. They are also
extremely well adapted to fluctuating supply of
nutrients and also to cold winters as they have a
long coat of hair. Even their milk production is
related to nutrient supply. They normally have a
calf every two years but have virtually two summer
lactation periods for each calf (Weiner et al., 2003).
They respond to nutrient supply in the second sum-
mer even though milk production had virtually
stopped in the winter when little feed was available.
It is of course also possible that the calf has physi-
ologically adapted to less demand for milk in the
winter period.
Adaptation to low quality feed
As a generalization roughages and grasses are
of lower quality in tropical as opposed to temper-
ate regions. However, cattle breeds in the tropics
are often adapted to this by having a higher rumen
volume relative to body weight enabling them to
22
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
have longer retention time of roughage and so di-
gest it more fully. Mould et al. (1982) for instance
showed that cattle in Bangladesh had a rumen vol-
ume amounting to about 35% of live weight com-
pared to about 20% for Holstein cattle. Chinese
yellow cattle likewise can fatten on much poorer
diets due to higher rumen volume relative to body
weight. Buffaloes too are outstanding in this re-
spect with high rumen volume and long retention
time giving generally a slightly higher digestibility of
roughage compared to cattle. Buffaloes are also
more efficient than cattle in recycling urea to the
rumen, even purine derivatives are recycled (Thanh
and Ørskov 2006), and thus the N concentration in
roughages needed to satisfy the requirement of ru-
men microbes is less for buffaloes than cattle. This
is one area of research where more data is needed
to describe different types of animals and their
adaptation to local feeds.
Nutrition and heat production
It is a fact that the main energy source for
ruminants is the volatile fatty acid (VFA) arising
from the anaerobic fermentation of food by rumen
microbes. The utilization of energy by the animals
is less efficient from VFA than for instance from
glucose. Ørskov et al. (1979) found that at least
40% of the energy of VFA infused into the rumen
was dissipated as heat. In addition to this the cost
of eating and propulsion of roughage through the
gut is high so capture of metabolizable energy for
productive purposes is generally less than 50%.
This has the effect that in hot areas the animals will
often limit their intake of food according to how
much of this waste heat they can dissipate even if
the quality of the feed could have enabled them to
eat more. If the need for ME is high, e.g. for milk
production by dairy cows, the animals will then be
in negative energy balance. While fat stores can be
used during negative energy balance the consequent
glucose requirement will be met by metabolising
tissue protein, which depress immunity to disease
and delay ovulatory cycling activity and so prolong
the calving interval. The consequence is that cattle
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

in tropical regions will generally have lower pro- The contrasting economic goals, the driving
duction of milk and even growth rate compared forces that distinguish the two systems, are profit
with the cattle in temperate regions as they cannot maximisation, cash generation and productivity in
sustain sufficient food intake to meet the need for the market oriented sector, and risk minimization
very high milk yield. The heat stress will limit their and stability in the social value oriented sector.
intake. If the animals are kept inside, their environ- It is most important that often the environment
ment can be controlled by air conditioning, but this is under human control in market oriented systems.
is generally not an economical option. It is of course Thus beef animals are kept in feedlots at least dur-
also possible to reduce heat stress somewhat by ing part of their lives with complete environmental
shelter and air movement. However, I have often and nutritional control so that weight gains, milk
seen differences between animals in their ability to yields etc. are similar in dry and wet seasons and
dissipate heat. I observed for instance in South in summers and winters. This has an effect on the
China Holstein cattle panting like dogs while Jersey breeding goal which is homogeneity in the market
cows were comfortably chewing their cud and in oriented sector as this increases the prediction of
Mexico Creole cattle eating comfortably and yield- profitability. The homogeneity may be achieved by
ing milk well while Holstein cattle were suffering use of tools such as artificial insemination and em-
from heat stress. bryo transfer. For the social value sector diversity
has survival value as the environment is not predict-
Animal products able but varies from year to year. It is unfortunate
In many countries including East and South- that almost everywhere animal research is focussed
East Asia livestock perform many functions; they on homogeneity and single products. This is under-
are multipurpose not single purpose. This aspect standable but not excusable because most research
was discussed by Ørskov and Viglizzo (1994) and is funded by countries with intensive animal pro-
is summarized in Table 1, with a comparison be- duction industries. The philosophical approach can
tween market oriented and single purpose systems be specialistic e.g. concentrated on one aspect of
and social value oriented and multipurpose systems. production while in the social value sector the phi-
losophy has to be holistic, as animal production is
Table 1. Comparison between single purpose system and
multipurpose system. part of a system interacting with families and with
plants and soils. University courses traditionally
System Single purpose Multi purpose
Market oriented Social value
focus on single disciplines e.g. animal nutrition, ani-
oriented mal production, animal breeding, whereas in rela-
Economic goal Profit maximization Risk minimization tion to the social value sector there should be sys-
Cash generation Family support tem disciplines. Normally statistical emphasis is
Productivity Stability and directed towards the mean and main effect but in
sustainability
the social value sector there should be emphasis on
Control of Human control Environmental
environment control the variance and interactions as these concern sur-
Breeding goal Homogeneity Biological diversity vival value in an environment that varies from year
Philosophical Specialistic Holistic to year.
approach Clearly animals from the social value sector
Scientific Single discipline System discipline will not generally be able to compete with market
approach
oriented animals on the single product for which the
Statistica Meanl Variance
emphasis Main effects Interactions latter have been selected for many years to achieve.

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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Generally, there is little direct transfer in that direc-
tion though it might serve to enhance genetic diver-
sity. However transfer of animals from the market
oriented to social value oriented sector is pursued
relentlessly by western livestock dealers pretending
to solve problems and aid the farmer in the social
value sector. Animal selected under environmental
control and with high quality feed and produce a
single product are asked to produce and survive in
an area where the environment is not under control.
There are plenty of examples of disasters and rela-
tively few successes. The average lifespan of Frie-
sian cows exported to developing countries is about
15 months. They have great problems and yet the
expert of so-called superior breeds continue relent-
lessly and uncritically under the guise of aid! Nu-
tritional support can then be achieved by importa-
tion of feed but this is expensive and neglectful of
local feed resources. Beef cattle produced in west-
ern temperate countries on high quality feeds are
often, apart from growth rate, selected for high
carcass weight relative to live weight which essen-
tially results in selecting against rumen volume.
These animals are exported as upgraded animals to
areas where the local feed of low quality requires
a large rumen volume for its intake and digestion. It
is however leaving a country very vulnerable. Inten-
sive poultry production in Indonesia was supported
by cheap feed from America. When the currency
was devalued by 80% in 1998 most of the poultry
industry went bankrupt. The small farmers produc-
ing chickens from local resources survived. Vari-
ous levels of crossbreeding with single purpose
animals can be attempted. It is interesting to note
that Cuba where breeding policy used to depend
on the use of cheap feed from USSR is now reduc-
ing the amount of Holstein blood in their dairy herds.
In the tropics, and elsewhere too, livestock
kept in their proper interaction with soil, plants and
people make a tremendous contribution to resource
management, to soil fertility, high quality food such
as milk and meat, and to security as a type of bank.
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
Separating animals from this interaction, as by keep-
ing them in large feedlots, is not a sustainable sys-
tem. Animal manure becomes a polluting waste
product, instead of contributing to soil fertility. Many
cities even in Asia and Africa are surrounded by
intensive animal enterprises to provide meat and
milk for the townsfolk, but the manure causes pol-
lution and the feed has to be transported from rural
areas or imported. This system causes immense
environmental damage and should be stopped. The
increased demand for animal products for the cities
should if possible be used as a tool to decrease
rural poverty. Animal production should be en-
couraged from rural areas where the feed is avail-
able but here our politicians have to recognise that
small farmers cannot take risks or tolerate large
price fluctuations. Given security it is my experi-
ence from many countries that small farmers will
respond by increasing animal production when the
conditions are right. This has so many advantages
for soil, plants, people and environment in general.
Organizations such as WTO must recognize this.
Intensive animal production closely around cities
promotes the very opposite, poverty, pollution and
soil deterioration.
REFERENCES
Campero, J.R. (2006) Llama and Guanaco general
perspective. ICAR Technical Series, 11: 11-
18.
Ku-Vera, J.C., MacLeod, N.A. and Ørskov, E.R.
(1989) Energy exchanges of cattle nourished
by intragastric infusion of nutrients. In: Energy
metabolism of farm animals. (Y. van der
Honeny and W.H. Close, eds.). pp. 271-274.
Proc. 11th Symp. Lunteren (EAAP 43), Pudoc,
Wageningen.
Mould, F.L., Saadullah, M., Haque, M., Davis, C.,
Dolberg, F. and Ørskov, E.R. (1982) Trop.
Anim. Prod., 7: 174-181.
Ørskov, E.R., Grubb, D.A., Smith, J.S., Webster,
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

A.J.F. and Corrigall, W. (1979). Br. J. Nur., Wardeh, M.F. and Dawa, M. (2006) Camels and
41: 541-551 Dromedaries: general perspective ICAR
Technical Series No 11: 1-10.
Ørskov, E.R. and Viglizzo, E.F. (1994) Outlook
Agric., 23: 81-89. Weiner, G., Jianlin, H. and Ruijun, L. (2003) FAO
RAP Publication 2003/2006. Regional Office
Ørskov, E.R., Meehan, D.E., MacLeod, N.A. and
for Asia & Pacific, FAO, UK Bangkok Thai-
Kyle, D.J. (1998) Br. J. Nur., 81: 389-393.
land.
Otazu D.A. (2006) Alpaca and Vicuna general
Wensvoort, J., Kyle, D.J., Ørskov, E.R. and
perspective ICAR Technical Series, 11: 31-36.
Bourke, D.A. (2001) Rangifer, 21: 45-48
Thanh Vo thi Kim and Ørskov, E.R. (2006) Anim.
Sci., 82: 355-358.

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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Transformation of animal nutrition education to match future need
Ashok Rathore
Department of Animal Welfare and Veterinary Science Institute
Allahabad Agricultural Institute-Deemed University, Allahabad-211007, India
Agricultural improvement has been called the
most difficult task, a nation can face (Sommer,
1975). It is difficult, yes, but not impossible. In
developing nations like India the system of educa-
tion in Animal Science in general, and animal nutri-
tion in particular, requires a fundamental revamp.
The primary focus, need to increase efficiency of
animal production and marketing at local level;
extension and adoption of existing technologies;
applied research and empowerment of local women.
There is an urgent need to integrate and re-work
the curricula for the need of poor communities in
rural areas. These courses (animal sciences and
animal nutrition) should be organized with integrated
rural development as the over all objective and
should avoid purely academic approaches. People
in the field are asking for support and assistance in
improved livestock production through improved
management encompassing improved nutrition for
the livestock, which sadly is frequently ignored and
neglected in traditional curricula and rural develop-
ment program.
All too often we underestimate the time needed
to plan a good course of study. Furthermore, those
teaching the courses should also do extension work
to prevent their becoming isolated from the needs
and problems in the farmers’ fields. What is needed;
is practical hands-on training that supplements and
reinforces the more formal didactic approach of the
classroom. The course of study should begin by
arousing interest and motivating the participants to
try out innovation. Then it should make sure they
know enough to experiment successfully. Finally, it
should encourage them to teach others and show
them how to do it. Scotland was one of the first
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countries to start ‘extension’ service when the uni-
versities decided to ‘extend’ their educational ef-
forts beyond the university boundaries, although the
term ‘extension’ was introduced in Cambridge Uni-
versity. The concept was then taken up in the USA,
particularly in the agricultural field. There, graduates
were employed to work in the rural areas under the
guidance of a nearby university. Their job was to
introduce new ideas and skills to farmers. Since
then, ‘Extension’ has spread to almost all countries
in the world. Many of the people in the farming
communities are suspicious of governmental work-
ers, so trust and friendship need to be built up.
A practical and more realistic approach will
encompass such know-how as nutrition, breeding,
feeding, management, and treatment of farm ani-
mals (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and poultry etc.). It
is useless to have such information stored or locked
up in files and inaccessible theses. Practical educa-
tion and training for the graduate and postgraduate
students, who will be working with the rural work-
ers must over come bureaucratic inertia and lack of
political will. There exists a general apathy among
the rural poor who often can see no leadership
showing them the way out of their unenviable situ-
ation. These problems should be replaced with an
enthusiasm engendered by learning practical meth-
ods for improvement, and inspired by those privi-
leged to assist them in making headway towards
their desired targets for production. There exists “a
serious gap in the myriads of volumes available is
any serious attempt to relate theories to practice
and address them to the practitioner in the field”. It
would seem that practitioners do not write and theo-
reticians remain in the abstractions of their theories
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
(Stoesz, 1972). It seems to be characteristics of
human nature that people learn more effectively from
mistakes, their own as well as others, than their
success.
Village people are interested in works that re-
sponds not to the general needs of the region, but
to their own specific needs. Having no experience
with large institutions, they tend to interpret bureau-
cratic inflexibility as an insult, a sign of indifference,
or an ultimate Refusal of help. It is usually the case
that general apathy among the rural poor is associ-
ated with abstruse documents that are too scientific
to be of practical use for farmers. This, along with
generally low literacy levels (Table 2) and poor skills
in English language, makes it vary hard for appro-
priate information and knowledge to be dissemi-
nated among farmers in rural areas.
If sufficient government funds are put in to the
proper and practical education for our students,
(who will be working with the rural farming com-
munities), the reward both the farming families and
to India will be huge. Responsible government sim-
ply can not afford to neglect it.
There are many tools that are used in, teaching
and research at our universities. One of the tools-
the National Research Council’s (NRC) nutrient re-
quirement series represents the primary publications
of the Committee of Animal Nutrition (CAN). These
publications have been used throughout most of this
century for research and education purposes. The
continued update of the reports in this series is critical
to our next generation of academics and scientists.
Whether they are of use to farmers is highly ques-
tionable.
Global situation
Within the next 25-30 years, the world’s popu-
lation will increase to nearly 8 billion people. All of
that increase will occur in the developing countries.
The overwhelming majority of undernourished people
live in Asia and Pacific. During seasonal food short-
ages and in times of famine and social unrest, the
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number of undernourished people increases. Nearly
13 million children under 5 years of age die every
year from preventable diseases and infections such
as measles, diarrhea, malaria and pneumonia or from
some combination of these. According to some es-
timate, malnutrition is a factor in one-third of these
cases (Table 1 and 2).
Table 1. Major nutrition problems
l 30 % of children under five years of age are under-
weight;
l 199 million children suffer from protein energy mal-
nutrition;
l 40 million people suffer from vitamin A deficiency;
l 2 billion people are affected by or at risk from iodine
deficiency disorder;
l 2 billion people are affected by or at risk from iron
deficiency anemia.
Table 2. Under-nutrition, basic services and poverty
l 800 million people lack adequate access to food;
l 158 million children under five years of age are mal-
nourished;
l 800 million people lack adequate access to health
services;
l 1.2 billion people lack access to safe water;
l 1.3 billion people live below poverty line
l 2 billion people lack sanitation facilities;
l 1 billion people lack adequate shelter;
l 842 million adults are illiterate;
Past generation
Over the past few decades, at least spill over of
agricultural technology from rich countries to poor
countries demonstrated increased production and
food security for many parts of the developing world,
however, recent developments in both the devel-
oped and developing world means that poor coun-
tries may no longer be able to depend, as they have
in the past on spillovers of new agricultural tech-
nologies and knowledge from richer countries, es-
pecially advances related to enhanced productivity
of staple foods. And a consequence of these changes,
simply maintaining their current agricultural Research
and Development (R & D) policies may leave many
 Chelated minerals and performance of sheep
Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
developing nations as technological orphans in the
decades ahead. Developing countries may have to
become more self-reliant and perhaps more depen-
dent on one another for the collective benefits of
agricultural R & D and technology.
Many developing countries are facing serious
shortage of funding and institutional constraints that
inhibit the effectiveness of local R & D. Together
these factors may lead to serious food deficits. The
number of publications that have been used by past
generations of researchers and educators peaked in
the mid-70s and since that time the interval be-
tween revisions of the publications has increased
and the number of publications produced per year
has decreased.
These trends reflects the fact that the rapid
pace of science produces more material that must
be reviewed with each revision, which requires more
time and resources to put in to practical use – that
is, making practical use of the extended knowledge
at grass root level to benefit the rural communities.
The Indian agricultural research and education sys-
tems have a long and distinguished history that
evolved from a decentralized, imperial system into
a highly centralized one created to respond to the
food crisis in the 1960s. With the goal of increased
food production as the driving force, the system
grew rapidly, through both central and state fiscal
appropriations. The impacts of these investments
were impressive, India became self-sufficient in food,
and numerous studies have documented high pay-
offs.
Technology transfer
In the 1990s, new challenges arose, forcing
changes in the organizations and funding of educa-
tion and research in India. Food security is now
only one of several goals of the current education
and research system. Privatization and liberalization
of the economy and challenges of sustainable re-
source management and diversification are now
placing new demand on the system. Some lessons
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can be learned from the past. First political com-
mitment through sustainability of public funds is
essential. Despite the transition at independence and
successive governments of different political ideolo-
gies thereafter, however, as the system expands and
becomes more complex, a number of organizational
and management problem emerge. These problems
could be addressed with appropriate management
leadership and willingness to learn from the past, as
well as from contemporary institutional develop-
ments in education and research systems around
the world.
Improved communication technology has re-
sulted in revisions of the reports on food-producing
animals. These reports have evolved from static
documents containing tables with numerical values
to become more dynamic with the incorporation of
computer models, which should make the reports
more useful. These days there is a need to move
beyond using reports and text books to educate.
Now it makes sense to use hands-on education
and training to meet local needs, at the grass-root
level by:
1. Supplying adequate relevant materials which
can be easily understood by local groups;
2. Sufficient training of extension workers who
are able to communicate development infor-
mation; and
3. Make available reliable materials which are not
expensive.
Deliberate action is needed:
l To ensure enabling political, social and eco-
nomic environment;
l To eradicate/alleviate poverty and inequality;
l To pursue sustainable food, agricultural and
rural development policies;
l To ensure that food, agricultural trade and over-
all policies foster food security; and
l To meet emergency food requirements in ways
that encounter recovery, rehabilitation and de-
velopment.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Because of direct impact of the climatic
changes and increasing population in developing
nations, global food production and loss of arable
land has become one of the most urgent problems
facing humanity. Should climatic alteration from
greenhouse warming and enhanced ultraviolet levels
impose further stress on agricultural systems, the
prospects for increased food production would
become even less favorable than they are at present.
To make animal nutrition education relevant to
the local need we should aim to:
l Explain the range of livestock feeds and feed-
ing methods available for Animal production,
using accepted industry terminology, explain the
role of energy foods, including the sources and
functions of those foods in animal diets;
l Explain the functions of the major nutritional
group, including proteins, vitamins, minerals and
trace elements in animal diets;
l Explain on-farm methods used to evaluate feed-
ing including selection of feeds and feed di-
gestibility;
l Explain the dietary value of pastures, including
grasses, cereals, and other edible as well as
non-edible plants, and their by-products for
animal feeds;
l Explain the dietary value of seeds, including oil
seeds, legume seeds and their by-products and
food sources for animals;
l Evaluate the dietary value of fodder plants,
including trees and shrubs and their by-prod-
ucts, as a food source in animal production,
determine suitable feed rations for a farm ani-
mal maintenance program at a reasonable cost;
l Analyze the method(s) to determine suitable
feed rations in a farm animal production pro-
gram; and
l Explain the factors affecting the composition
of feed ration in animal production.
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Course coverage
It is generally agreed that payoffs to agricul-
tural education could be higher with a stronger re-
search-extension interface. The weakness of cur-
rent system can be attributed to a number of fac-
tors. First, because adaptive research and technol-
ogy transfer is considered to be less challenging,
few scientists and educators are attracted to it.
Second, scientists working in technology assess-
ment and transfer are disadvantaged because per-
formance-evaluation criteria tend to emphasize the
number of research publications. Third, most scien-
tists lack the skills to assess farmers’ research needs
and design appropriate technologies; they also lack
operating expenses for on-farm research. Livestock
is one such opportunity, driven by increasing in-
comes in developing countries, the demand for live-
stock products- meat, eggs and dairy products is
increasing at a far greater rate than the demand for
staple crops.
India is a tropical country, having largest live-
stock wealth, with highest bovine population, and
second in sheep population and sixth highest in poul-
try. India’s large livestock population, considered
by some as an asset that is provided in plenty by
nature, but seen by others as burden. India is pres-
ently the world’s largest dairy producer (due to,
vast number of low producers-cattle and buffaloes).
Operation flood is an Indian scheme by which about
10 million small-scale producers, producing as little
as a couple of liters each day, have been integrated
into the market. However, in India many of the
poor farmers are land less, and many of these land-
less poor are women- women constitute about 70%
of the poorest of the poor.
A major key to managing change is proper
diagnosis of problems and situations, keeping in mind
that the performance of the whole is not the sum of
the individual parts, but is a sequence of the rela-
tionship of the performance between parts. Thus
problems cannot be solved separately, since they
are interdependent. Basically farming/agriculture is
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
about human interference with nature in such a way
that animal and plant products can be harvested.
Yet this interference can cause serious problems to
the environment unless it is done carefully.
Pro-poor innovative systems
In developing countries, a major problem is
how to get new ideas and technologies to poor
people. Trying to implement new ideas and tech-
nologies has been expensive and traditional exten-
sion systems have failed to help rural poor. This
TROPNUTRICON-2007 Conference will be de-
liberating into how we can organize and get com-
munities involved in sharing knowledge. The old-
fashioned farmer field-school approach is now be-
ing tested as a way to disseminate information about
livestock innovations with an emphasis on animal
nutrition. It is a technique brings group of people
together around a common interest such as breed-
ing small ruminants. The farmers request informa-
tion about a particular topic or technology. They
may be explicit about their concerns and what they
want a technology to accomplish for them. The
farmers themselves may initiate the research and
they help shape the innovation.
There are institutions, governmental as well as
non-governmental organizations and universities that
can address policy and there are those that address
technology. They have the potential to move devel-
opment along a path that is beneficial for the poor
who rely on livestock for what little income they
have. This, however, requires a targeted effort. It
will not happen by default. Many of the issues are
international, are complex and require a wide range
of skills indicating that collaboration must transcend
institutional and national boundaries.
Australia’s role, the livestock revolution: A
pathway from poverty
The northern part of Australia is, where inten-
sive research is done on tropical agriculture. Aus-
tralia is successful in livestock production. Particu-
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larly important is the fact that researchers and edu-
cators are interested in understanding tropical ani-
mal diseases (Rathore, 2007a) both inside and out-
side Australia, because these livestock keepers have
the same problems. The Office International des
Epizootics (OIE) estimates that animal disease may
result in losses of up to 20% of production (OIE
1993). When dealing with livestock in the tropics,
Australia has first-hand experience that puts re-
searchers in a more advantageous position than, for
example, those working in Nordic countries.
Australia has developed interesting institutional
innovations in managing research, such as the Co-
operative Research Centers Programs – build links
between industry, universities and research agen-
cies to achieve world-class research and innova-
tion. It is attractive to consider how such innova-
tions can take on a more international role. Austra-
lia is closer than other developed countries to de-
veloping nation like India in South-East Asia. Aus-
tralia has valuable experience and assets to offer
that reach beyond trade exports. As Australia is a
model of successful tropical agriculture, opportuni-
ties will present themselves in areas such as training
and consulting, with possibilities of sharing and
passing on expertise that will benefit the entire re-
gion.
In the future Australia’s role will probably be
to build the livestock industry in the developing
world, providing knowledge, services, genetic re-
source training. Livestock research, development
and training promising opportunities for improve-
ment of the lives of poor farmers, helping them step
out poverty and offering broader benefits for all.
Since 1971, when ‘poverty eradication’ be-
came the main theme of development planning,
improving livestock has been recognized by the
Indian Government as an important tool for poverty
alleviation and funds were provided for develop-
ment and research programs. The focus of such
programs, however, has been improvement in the
production of livestock commodities for income
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
generation, applying the western model and assum-
ing that ideal conditions would be provided. As a
result, the programs have had mixed results and
many reports on the impact of livestock develop-
ment programs concluded that ‘there is no clear
evidence to show impact on poverty’ and that ‘adop-
tion of western technology by the resource poor
has been negligible’. Agriculture has changed dra-
matically especially since mid 50s. Food and fiber
productivity soared due to new technologies, mecha-
nization, increased chemical use, specialization and
governmental policies that favor maximizing pro-
duction. These challenges allowed fewer farmers
with reduced labor, to produce the majority of food
and fiber in the developed nations like the U.S. and
Australia.
It is not necessary, nor even desirable, for
countries developing today to follow the same path
towards development as did the developed world.
Previously, as countries developed, people moving
into cities readily found employment as industrial-
ization was taking place on a large scale. Simulta-
neously, the number of people required to work in
the livestock industry was greatly reduced because
mechanization had taken over many jobs. Contem-
porary thinking is that by bolstering and developing
agricultural production beyond subsistence levels, it
will be possible for people to support more of the
population on the land. People not able to sustain
themselves on the land are drifting into cities. But
people who are now migrating into cities have little
prospect of employment and, without jobs; they
are forced into slums - at an enormous cost to
society. We need to take such potential dangers
into account as we work out our strategies.
In order to alleviate rural poverty we need our
future agricultural and veterinary graduates to be
better educated, but to be proactive, and well
equipped to assist rural communities. These gradu-
ates will be able help the rural communities by
extension of their knowledge so that the farmers
will be better equipped to manage their livestock.
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As a result they will be more productive and will
improve their economic base on which rural com-
munities depend, especially with regard to local food
production (for humans as well as livestock). The
consequential growth of the rural economies can
lead to increased trade with other countries with
prospects of benefits flowing globally. A continuing
major effort in international research and education
in agriculture and natural resource management is
required to provide for the continuing increase in
world population. These efforts must extend to the
underlying reasons for poverty in developing coun-
tries, and to issues surrounding continuing environ-
mental degradation.
Improving the food supply: diet modification,
increasing demand for livestock and products
In 2030, it is estimated that out of the eight billion
people in this world, six billion will be in the devel-
oping world. That is where the population is grow-
ing, and it will continue to grow particularly rapidly
in Asia, where we expect 50% of that additional
growth. It is calculated and widely cited that 1.2
billion people are living on a cash income of less
than a dollar a day. Three-quarter of these people
live in rural areas.
The proposed Animal Welfare & Veterinary
Science Institute at Sam Higginbottom University
of Agriculture, Technology and Science (at
Allahabad, U.P. India) recognizes the importance
of agricultural education, research and development
in agriculture, forestry and natural resource man-
agement and will be a power-house for economic
progress in India where rural communities are de-
pendent on local food and livestock production and
resource management. It will be advancing India’s
national interest through poverty reduction and the
sustainable development for poor rural community.
The success of Green Revolution lay primarily
in its use of fossil energy for fertilizers, pesticides,
and irrigation to raise crops as well as in improved
seed. It greatly increased the energy-intensiveness
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
of agricultural production, in some case by 100 fold
or more. The Green revolution was technologically
suited to special circumstances: relatively level land
with adequate water for irrigation and fertilizers,
and in nations that could acquire the other needed
resources. The green Revolution has been imple-
mented in a manner that has not proved to be
environmentally sustainable by better education. The
technology has enhanced soil erosion, polluted
groundwater and surface-water resources, and in-
creased pesticide use has caused serious public
health and environmental problems. Fossil fuels-
starting with oil – are now being depleted and will
not be available for a long to sustain the techniques
of the Green Revolution.
At the present time only 3, of 183 nations are
major exporters of grain, the United States, Austra-
lia and Canada. With the present patterns of dis-
tribution and consumption current food supplies
appear insufficient to provide satisfactory diets for
all. Although a recent FAO report indicates that
chronic under-nutrition in developing countries has
improved some what. It is generally agreed that
among a number of important global changes, eco-
nomics and social well-being must improve for that
large fraction of the world’s people now in poverty.
This includes better education, better infrastructure,
and more and better quality food.
Ruminant livestock like cattle, goat and sheep,
graze about half of the earth’s total land area (Dur-
ing amd Brough, 1992). In addition, about one-
quarter of the world cropland is devoted to pro-
ducing grains and other feeds for livestock. About
38% of the world grain production is now fed to
livestock. In the United States, for example, this
amounts to about 135 million tons/year of grain, of
a total production of 312 million tons/year. If devel-
oped countries, moved toward more- vegetable-
protein diet rather than their present diets, which
are high in animal foods, a substantial amount of
grain would become available for direct human con-
sumption. There are a number of ways by which
cropland productivity may be raised that do not
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induce injury over the long term, that is, are sustain-
able. If these technologies were put into common
use in agriculture, some of the negative impacts of
degradation in the agro-ecosystem could be reduced
and the yields of many crops increased. These tech-
nologies include:
Energy intensive farming: While continua-
tion of the rapid increases in yields of the Green
Revolution is no longer possible in many regions of
the world, increased crop yields are possible by
increasing the use of fertilizers and pesticides in some
developing countries in Africa, Latin America and
Asia. However, recent reports indicate a possible
problem of declining yields in the rice-wheat sys-
tems in the high production areas of South Asia.
And as depletion of oil and gas becomes more
severe, the production of fertilizers and pesticides
will become too costly to sustain
Livestock management and fertilizer
sources: Livestock serve two important functions
in agriculture and food production. First, ruminant
livestock convert grass and forages, which are un-
suitable for human foods, into milk, leather/fiber,
blood and meat for use by humans. They also pro-
duce enormous amount of manure and urine and
other byproducts useful for crop production, biogas
and a number of innovative products.
Soil and water conservation: The loss of
productive soil has occurred as long as crops have
been cultivated. This loss arises from soil erosion,
salinization, water-logging, and urbanization. Nutri-
ent depletion, over-cultivation, over-grazing, acidi-
fication and soil compaction contribute as well. Many
of these processes are caused or are aggravated by
poor agricultural practices. Soil erosion, a problem
throughout the world, is the single most serious cause
of degradation of arable land. The high rate of soil
erosion now typical of world agriculture land em-
phasizes the urgency of stemming this loss, which in
itself is probably the most threatening to sustained
levels of food production. Improved conservation
of water can enhance rain-fed and irrigated crop
yields.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Crop varieties and genetic engineering: The
application of biotechnology to alter certain crop
characteristics is expected to increase yields for
some crops, such as developing new crop varieties
with better harvest index and crop that have im-
proved resistance to insect and plant pathogen at-
tacks.
Maintaining biodiversity: Conserving
biodiversity of plants and animal species is essential
to maintaining a productive and attractive environ-
ment for agriculture and other human activities.
Greater effort is also needed to conserve the ge-
netic diversity that exists in crops and animals
worldwide. This diversity has proven extremely
valuable in improving crop productivity and will
continue to do so in the field of animal breeding and
genetic improvement in the future (Rathore, 2007).
Improved pest control: Because insects, dis-
eases and weeds destroy about 35% of potential
pre-harvest crop production in the world, the imple-
mentation of appropriate technologies to reduce pest
and disease losses would substantially increase crop
yields and food supplies.
Irrigation can be used successfully to increase
yields, which also happens if abundant water and
energy resources are available. The problems facing
irrigation suggest that its worldwide expansion will
be limited. Owing to developing shortages of water,
improved irrigation practices that lead to increased
water in plants’ root zones are urgently needed.
Constraints and challenges for educating live-
stock industry personnel in India
A wide range of solutions would be needed to
address the many problems that have been identi-
fied. There is an urgent need for improved informa-
tion gathering, based on active surveillance and
quickly collection of reliable data. Information must
be able to be gathered and processes quickly so
that it is still relevant when it is used for decision
making.
There is great challenge to alleviate poverty,
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produce more and safer food, especially of animal
origin, against shrinking animal bio-diversity and
increased global trade.
There must be a livestock revolution in devel-
oping world to meet the projected demands of more
than double the meat and milk consumption over
the next 20 years. This demand can not only be
met by an increased number of animals; increased
productivity is also required to avoid degradation
of natural resources.
The potential of indigenous breeds in develop-
ing countries is often inadequately documented and
under-utilized. Diversity in animal genetic resources
is invaluable for future development.
There is a need for conservation programs that
increase animal productivity and maintain the nec-
essary genetic diversity. Often past conservation
programs have failed. Good and simple examples
that demonstrate effective breeding strategies, which
take into account environmental, economic and in-
frastructure constraints, must be developed.
Research and capacity building at all levels is
required to improve the knowledge of indigenous
and alternate animal genetic resources in different
region of the developing world. The implementation
of sustainable breeding strategies in the developing
countries will be instrumental in increasing aware-
ness of the roles of livestock and their genetic di-
versity.
There is need to develop and sustain partner-
ships for international livestock research and edu-
cation, with priorities for development –oriented
livestock research that will increase outputs that
improve the wellbeing of poor people.
However, there are a number of difficulties in
expanding food supplies in developing nations, some
of these are:
1. There is a need to decrease global fossil-fuel
use and halt deforestation, in order to lessen
carbon emissions to the atmosphere. These
steps are in direct competition with the need
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
to provide sufficient energy for intensive agri-
culture and for cooking and heating using fire-
wood. A major decrease in fossil-fuel use by
the industrial countries would require 25 years
at a minimum to implement fully, even in favor-
able circumstances. Yet a three-or fourfold
increase in effective energy services to the
earth’s people will be required to yield the
improvements needed in the quality of life in a
world of eight billion people.
2. Even assuming that sufficient fossil or other
fuels will be available in the future to support
energy-intensive agriculture in developing coun-
tries, several constraints appear to make this
difficult. These include: the high economic costs
of energy and problem associated with new
technologies.
3. Any solution must be able to be practically
applied and be appropriate for the situation in
which it will be used.
Research and educational priorities
l Crop-livestock integrated farming system;
l Feed resource utilization and improvement;
l Nutrient requirements and germplasm evalua-
tion;
l Socio-economic analysis, policy issues and
developing alternative technologies;
l Genetic evaluation, biological markers and
production and processing of quality male
germplasm and freezing technology;
l Development of latest diagnostics and vaccines
for augmenting animal health;
l Reproductive biotechnology;
l Improved reproductive efficiency;
l Rapid genetic up gradation of livestock;
l Scientific exchange, training and recruitment of
staffs;
l Resource management (sustainable).
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Creation of public awareness and human re-
source development
No enterprise can be successful unless it is
accepted by the community. To improve the liveli-
hood and the livestock production of the under-
privileged families, we need to understand their way
of life and their perceptions about the role of live-
stock in their livelihood. Human societies all over
the world have developed social and cultural bonds
and affinities with certain species or breeds of ani-
mals. This has resulted in the integration of certain
breeds as a part of human life. Numerous religious
rituals, festivals and folklores are intimately con-
nected with native domestic animals. In some soci-
eties ownership of certain breeds confers on their
owners a status symbol and authority (Sahai, 1998).
It is now globally accepted that conservation of
animal genetic resources is essential, but overriding
economic consideration often jeopardize the attempt
to preserve them (FAO, 1999). The population of
farm livestock is markedly high in relation to the
land and other resources. The overall productivity
of farm animals in India is distressingly lower than
in America, Australia and Europe.
The multi-functionality of livestock and their
existence in developing countries, particularly in small
holder production systems - directly link them with
poor rural communities and concern millions of
resource poor landless agricultural laborers and small
and marginal farmers. While most of the livestock
are owned by underprivileged families, reliable sta-
tistics are not available on the number of livestock
owned by a family (neither for rural or urban popu-
lations). Recent statistics (Government of India 2004)
show that on an average 25% of households belong
to the under-privileged category. According to
Vidyanathan (1988, 1989), economics of bovine
production in relation to livelihood encompasses:
l Bovines are mainly maintained for animal power
and milk, cattle for bullocks and buffaloes for
milk;
l Buffaloes are mainly maintained for milk pro-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
duction but more buffaloes are reared by re-
source rich farmers and in feed surplus areas,
compared to cows;
l There is strong link between milk production
and feed availability;
l Milk production can generate employment and
income for smallholders and landless farmers.
However, they need financial and institutional
support and better access to feed resources
and livestock services;
l There is inadequacy of hard data on economic
related aspects;
l Requirement of bullocks is decreasing in some
areas; and
l Buffaloes (and goats also) appear to be the
animal of the future and their population is in-
creasing.
Women in livestock production
The role of women in livestock production
varies among underprivileged groups and between
regions. In tribal communities, women have a greater
role in livestock production as well as in the sale of
produce, while pastoral women are generally in-
volved in looking after the newly born and sick
animals. Amongst most of the other backward com-
munities, women have a greater role with small
animals and backyard poultry, while men manage
large animals (Rangnekar 1992). Within the context
of improving livestock production, it is crucial that
women’s involvement in livestock research and
development (R & D) is promoted.
In the context of livestock development, fol-
lowing are suggested:
In the under-privileged rural sector improved
livestock productivity knowledge and skills of
women - and their greater involvement in livestock
production and development - will quicken the rate
of improvement both qualitatively and quantitatively;
and
l When they are working in developed areas
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where they have access to organizational sup-
port the under-privileged can adopt more ad-
vanced livestock production systems;
l Under grain fed conditions, diversified crop-
livestock production systems, in which live-
stock and crop ‘niche’ well, together, are the
best way to improve sustainability and liveli-
hoods of the underprivileged.
Livestock wealth and its contribution to the
national GDP
Over 64% of population of India lives in rural
sector and is mainly dependent on land and ani-
mals. 69% of the farmers have less than 1.0 hector
land and 21% of farmers have between 1.0-2.0
hectors of land. According to 2005-2006 statistics
50% of rural labor force is landless farmers. Pov-
erty causes pronounced deprivation in human well-
being encompassing material deprivation, poor
health, literacy and nutrition, vulnerability to shocks
and changes, and having little or no control over
key decisions.
One billion can not read or write, 1.2 billion
lack access to safe drinking water, 35% of world’s
poor live in India (refer Table 2). The poorest of
the poor often do not have livestock, but if they
acquire animals, their livestock can help them along
a pathway out of poverty. Poor people should not
be regarded as burdensome to society. Rather, they
represent an economic opportunity needs to be
taped. India’s poverty ratio is disgracefully 28%.
Because despite spending enormous sums, the gov-
ernment has failed dismally to provide every village
with the five basics of growth: all weather roads,
electricity, telecom, functioning schools and func-
tioning health centers.
The low GDP indicates high level of ineffi-
ciency in the agricultural sector. However, if the
livestock production can be improved by selecting
livestock with higher productivity, it will provide
people with work, more food, income, traction,
fertilizer and fuel; but it will also act as catalyst to
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
transform subsistence farming into higher income
generating enterprise, allowing poor to join the
market economy. The GDP for the current fiscal
year (2006-07) in India will touch 9.2%, hitting the
9.4% mark for the second successive year, bringing
close to magical double digit levels of 10%. Econo-
mists have said ‘high growth seem sustainable in the
future’. But what is the advantage of such eco-
nomic growth when our farmers in Uttar Pradesh,
Maharastra, Bihar and other states in India are still
committing suicide everyday as they do not get ad-
equate return from their produce? A liter of milk
costs same as a liter of bottled water in India. What
a paradox!
Policy, education, research, technologies and
innovations
What should we do? How can education and
research help? Research and education can influ-
ence policies in a number of ways. In India small
holder dairying has become an economic story,
farmers with only a small patch of land can keep a
cow by zero grazing it (by utilization of agricultural
waste and by-products), cash from this milk helps
pay school fee and provide for other needs of the
family. The conventional Western approach, as
found in many developing countries, is to enforce
pasteurization. But about 85% of the milk in India
and other developing countries is sold raw, this means
they are acting illegally. But they continue selling
their raw milk, and the practice goes on without
quality control. In general, people buying raw milk
traditionally boil it before consuming.
Throughout much of the developing world live-
stock are raised in mixed farming systems, where
animals very often have different functions. Live-
stock activities are normally integrated into the ex-
isting farming systems. Animals are kept mainly for
the purpose of food security and poverty allevia-
tion, which involves millions of small, landless and
marginal farmers. Livestock in India is character-
ized by very large numbers, across all species. In
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2000, it had 218.18 million cattle, 93.77 million
buffaloes, 57.96 million sheep, 123 million goats,
16 million pigs and 402 million poultry. India ranks
first in cattle and buffaloes, second in goats, third in
sheep and seventh in poultry.
Livestock biodiversity is a valuable asset and
provide insurance and buffer in adverse situations.
The Indian sub-continent occupies a pre-eminent
position in so far as its animal genetic resources are
concerned. Over 140 breeds of livestock including
cattle (30), buffaloes (10), sheep (40), goats (20),
camel (4), horse (6), pigs, donkey, mule, yak and
mithun including poultry (18) have been distributed
over the large area spread in different agro-eco-
logical zones of the country. Livestock in develop-
ing countries contributes up to 25% of agricultural
GDP and 600 million rural people rely on livestock
related activities for their livelihood.
Animal production can be increased with or
without greatly increased feed consumption. Any of
the following scenarios or their combinations can
increase animal production:
l Increased use of feed;
l More efficient use of feed; and
l Improved animal breeds, proper management
and animal raising techniques.
Increased use of feed places further pressure
on the environment (unless new feed items can be
developed that will rely little on the natural re-
sources). However, more efficient use of feed, and
improved animal breeds and raising techniques, will
reduce feed use, or put in other word, will relatively
‘increase’ feed supply. Advances in these two areas
hold great potential to increase animal production
without much direct pressure on environment. For
example, improving the capacity of the rumen to
digest high-fiber diets could dramatically improve
prospects of animal production, particularly in ar-
eas with easy access to roughages with low feed
quality. In the case of pigs and poultry, feed-rates
have improved by 30-50 % over the past decade,
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

in part through breeding and in parts through the Table 3. Trend in the use of cereal as animal feed, 106T
addition of enzymes to feeds. Still in mono-gastric Region 1983 1993 1997 2020**
animals, only 25-35% of the nutrients consumed
China 40-49 78-84 91-111 226
are captured in the final products. Further under- India 2 3 2 4
standing of digestive physiology and biochemistry South East Asia 6 12 15 28
can be expected to improve feed utilization in these Latin America 40 55 58 101
animals (Bruinsma, 2003). Sub-Saharan Africa 2 3 4 8
Developing world 128 194 235 444
Developed world 465 442 425 511
Access to capital and information (knowledge WORLD 592 636 660 954
and education)
(** The 2020 projections are from the July 2002 version
In most countries in Asia, Africa and Latin of the IMPACT model)
America, animal husbandry services are mainly ori-
ented towards men. Veterinary services and exten- Because of taste factors and the relatively high
sion programs and advisory services have been cost of handling perishable final products, most meat
mainly designed by men for men. Extension per- and milk will be produced where it is consumed.
sonnel are often not trained to teach technical sub- Developing countries will account for 63% of meat
jects to women or to react to their specific ques- production and 50% of milk production in 2020.
tions. We need trained women, who will have China alone will account for 31% of meat produc-
empathy to deal with this issue. tion, but only 3% of milk production. The growing
population of the world needs not only more animal
proteins and products but specific constituents, and
Trend in animal product consumption: role of
there is pressure to multiply livestock species and
livestock in the household nutrition
make improvements and conservation of dwindling
The rapid rise in livestock production in devel- resources with modern biotechnologies.
oping countries has been confronted in recent years
The potential of livestock to reduce poverty is
by dwindling grazing resources for ruminant animals
enormous. Livestock contribute to food and nutri-
and a pattern of effective demand largely centered
tional security. Animal products such as meat and
on rapidly growing mega-cities fueled by non-agri-
milk are sources of high-quality protein and certain
cultural development. The latter increases pressure
vitamins and minerals help promote general health
for rapid industrial approaches to satisfying urban
and alleviate poor growth and poor mental devel-
meat demand. Together this trends help explain the
opment. The following table highlights inadequacy
large share of non-ruminants in the production in-
of animal protein and calories available to people in
creases in both the North and the South. The feed-
developing countries (source FAO 2002).
ing of cereals to ruminants in the North has de-
clined, a consequence of increased cattle grazing.
1990 2002
This, along with the much larger increase in non- Calories Protein Calories Protein
ruminant production in the South, helps explain a Developed world 938 59.1 358.0 56.9
relatively shift to the South in the use of feed cereal. Developing world 253 14.8 87.3 21.0
China will double its consumption of meat by 2020,
while India and other South Asian countries will
lead the large overall increase in milk consumption. Training in livestock management
China dominates the overall picture in both produc- Compared to women men have easier access
tion and consumption of meat (Table 3). to technology and training, mainly due to their strong
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
position as heads of the household and greater access
to off-farm mobility. In most developing countries,
research and planning activities in the livestock sec-
tor, such as breeding, handling, feeding and health
care, are largely dominated by men. Official live-
stock services are often controlled by men and
extension personal are primarily men who are not
accustomed or trained to teach technical subjects to
women. Extension programs and educational mate-
rials are mainly designed by, and oriented towards,
men at present. In many societies, women’s access
to information and training in modern livestock
management and dairying continues to be limited and
even indirect. Successful training should be oriented
towards those household members who execute these
tasks. Only through a carefully planned gender
approach can livestock production goal and suc-
cessful training of women and men be achieved.
Projects should identify and consider specific
socio-cultural conditions of women, their needs and
time constraints. Mobility of women is often limited
and illiteracy high. Successful training can only be
reached if these restrictions are considered and
activities, approaches, methods and materials
adapted according to meet the specific conditions.
Quality gender training should be practical and situ-
ational. Resource persons should be both males
and females. It is also important to consider the age
of the resource person.
Role of farmers’ organizations in education and
livestock development
There is little information on experience of
farmers’ organizations, their impact at the local and
regional level, and how they influence and impact
on gender-related issues. Farmers’ organization can
play a vital role in the livestock development pro-
cess. Input-supply organizations may grow and
become centers for services such as artificial in-
semination, bulls for breeding, veterinary assistance,
milk collection and processing, and marketing of
animal and animal products.
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
The experience of Andhra Pradesh in India
shows that the membership of dairy cooperatives
is largely dominated by men. Dairy cooperatives
offered opportunities to men from backward com-
munities to have access to benefits, emerge as
leaders and gain visibility. Women only achieved
symbolic representation and little opportunities for
them to assume positions as managers, planners
or director. In Orissa state (India) it seems that
participation in cooperatives benefits both men and
women in terms of marketing. But there is no
significant impact on increasing women’s decision
making or enhancing their leadership qualities.
However, in these societies women’s cooperatives
can only be successful if the husband first agrees
to his wife’s participation.
Nobel laureate Mohammed Yunus, with his
Grameen (Villagers’) Bank has rewritten the con-
ventional rules of banking where the poor were not
regarded as creditworthy. Over the years, the bank
has given loans totaling over $5 billion: small amount
of collateral-free, working capital to the poor for
self employment. The repayment rate is a healthy
98%. An internal survey by the bank showed that
58% of its borrowers had moved above the pov-
erty line. Women have been the greatest beneficia-
ries. Yunus says “we focused on women because
we found giving loans to them always brought more
benefits to the family”. (“Whereas, the technol-
ogy of the experiment stations has been over-
rated, that of local farmers has been under-
rated).
REFERENCES
Bruinsma, J. (2003) World Agriculture: Towards
2015/2030. An FAO Perspective. Earth scan,
London PP 169-170.
During, A.T. and Brough, H.B. (1992) Reforming
the livestock economy, in State of the World,
(Brown L.R. ed.). W.W. Norton & Co, New
York, P 66-82.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
FAO (1999) Global strategy for the management
of farm animal genetic resources – Exclusive
breed initiatives for domestic animal biodiversity
(IDAD) FAO, Rome.
FAO (2002) World Agriculture: Towards 2015/
2030. Summary Report. FAO, Rome.
OIE (1993) World Animal health. Paris, Office
International des Epizootics.
Rangnekar, S.D. (1992) Women in livestock pro-
duction in rural India. In: Proceedings of 6th
AAP Animal Science Congress held in
Bangkok, Thailand. pp 271-285.
Rathore, A.K. (2007) Endemic and emerging animal
diseases of economic importance and their
control and action plan to alleviate rural poverty
for the poor goats and sheep keepers in India.
In: National Conference on Emerging Diseases
of Small Ruminants and their Control under
W.T.O. Regime held in Makhdoom, Farrah,
Mathura , U.P. India, February 3-5, 2007.
Rathore, A.K. (2007a) Animal genetic resources:
Conservation and improvement. In: Proceed-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
ings of National Symposium on Role of Animal
Genetic Resources in Rural Livelihood Secu-
rity, held at Ranchi, Jharkhand, India, Febru-
ary 8-9, 2007, pp 89-100.
Sahai, R. (1998) Domestic animals genetic resources
of India-Biodiversity and conservation; status
reported by National Bureau of Animal Ge-
netic Resources, Karnal, India.
Sommer. J.G. (1975) U.S. Voluntary Aid to the
Third World: What is its Future? Development
Paper 20, Washington D.C. Overseas Devel-
opment Council, December 1975. pp. 12.
Stoesz E. (1972) Beyond Good Intentions. New-
ton, Kansas, United Printing Inc. p. xii.
Vidyanathan, A. (1988) Bovine Economy in In-
dia. Oxford & IBH publishing Co., Pty Ltd.,
New Delhi.
Vidyanathan, A. (1989). Research in Livestock
Economy: An overview in livestock economy
of India. Indian Society of Agricultural Eco-
nomics. Oxford & IBH publishing Co., Pty
Ltd., New Delhi.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Biotechnological advances in animal production

S. K. Gulati1, M. R. Garg2, P. L. Sherasia2, B. M. Bhanderi2, T. W. Scott1
1
Faculty of Veterinary Science (B19), University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
2
National Dairy Development Board, Anand, India

In tropical regions there is intensive pressure In India, by-pass protein feed supplements
on land use caused by the increase in human popu- have been developed by screening protein meals
lation. This influences the type of feeding systems for their amino acid composition and then develop-
for ruminants, which are typically fed on low quality ing suitable chemical treatment procedures. Com-
roughages, some supplemental green fodder and mercial by-pass protein plants have been estab-
agricultural by-products. It is recognized that vol- lished at cattle feed plants Itola, Vadodara and
untary feed intake and digestibility of tropical grasses Godhra, Panchmahal, in Gujarat State; similar plants
are lower then temperate species. Straw based diets in other locations are currently being developed.
are commonly used in the Indian sub-continent; they Table 1 summarizes the results of feeding these R-
have a poor digestibility ranging from 28-58% and BP-protein feed supplements.
low nutritive value. This results in reduced feed Table 1. Nutrient profile of protein meals
intake, often to levels below maintenance for sub-
Sunflower meal Rapeseed meal
stantial periods, severely limiting productivity.
Natural Optimally Natural Optimally
Therefore, to overcome these deficiencies re- By-pass By-pass By-pass treated
search has concentrated on the development of feed g/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg
additives and mineral supplements specifically de- Crude protein 330 330 400 400
signed for different regions. The application of feeding RUP 99 248 160 304
systems (NRC 2001) and ration balancing programs RDP 321 82 240 96
EAA available for absorption
(Anon, 2003-2004), to assist dairy farmers in im-
Cysteine 0.73 1.84 1.95 3.71
proving productivity are in progress. Methionine 0.52 1.31 1.14 2.17
In recent years the development of rumen inert Isoleucine 1.33 3.32 2.90 5.50
or by-pass nutrient feed additives and macro/micro Leucine 2.02 5.06 6.10 11.58
Phenylalanine 1.25 3.12 2.76 5.28
mineral supplements have been a focus in India to Lysine 1.14 2.85 4.12 7.82
improve ruminant productivity. This paper will sum- Hisidine 0.67 1.69 2.01 3.82
marize some of the recent developments. Arginine 2.34 5.85 4.26 8.09
Milk response, L 8.4 9.5 8.5 9.6
Net gain, Rs/animal/d
Rumen by-pass (R-BP) proteins and amino
Cow 9.61 9.44
acids Buffalo 14.99 12.41
In designing protein and or amino acid supple- Gulati et al., 2002; Garg et al., 2005a
ments for lactating ruminants it is desirable to pro-
duce supplements with an amino acid content that Rumen by-pass (R-BP) fat
is complementary to microbial protein, which is con- There are two fundamental reasons to develop
sidered to be the best available source of essential R-BP fat and apply the technology to ruminants,
amino acids for milk synthesis. these are:-
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
l To increase the supply of bio-active essential
fatty acids that influence productivity, energy
balance and nutrient partitioning.
l To improve the functional and nutritional prop-
erties of milk/meat fat.
In many dairy production systems the energy
density of rations is low and the high yielding dairy
animals loose body weight heavily in the first quar-
ter of lactation. This not only affects the lactation
yield but also reduce the reproductive efficiency;
for example in India the inter-calving period in dairy
animals is in the range 16-18 months. The use of
fat supplements is important not only for overcom-
ing the energy deficit, but is also gaining significance
in relation to improving reproductive function and
fertility (Staples, 1998). The fatty acid composition
of the fat supplement and the amount and type of
fatty acids absorbed from the small intestine appear
to positively influence ovarian follicular number and
size, life of the corpus luteum and embryo survival
- the overall effect being to improve herd fertility.
Rumen protected fat supplements containing a high
proportion (50-60%) of linoleic acid were used to
improve pregnancy rates in Hereford cattle (Wilkins
et al., 1996).
A recent development relates to the potential
role of conjugated linoleic acids (CLA's) in lactat-
ing ruminants; feeding dairy cows a R-BP CLA
mixture of isomers containing trans-10, cis-12, re-
sulted in a reduction of milk fat content, increased
milk production, improved tissue-energy balance and
nitrogen retention in cows during early lactation
(Shingfield et al., 2004).
In recent trials, feeding a R-BP CLA mixture
containing 10g /d of the trans-10, cis-12 isomer for
15 days to Jaffarabadi buffalo, reduced the milk fat
content and fat yield by 27% and 22% (8.6 vs 6.3
% and 699 vs 547 g/d, for control vs R-BP CLA
respectively); (Fig. 1).
Further long term studies are required to as-
sess the impact of RP-CLA on energy balance,
nutrient re-partitioning, reproductive performance
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
(reduced inter-calving intervals) in buffaloes to al-
low a cost-benefit analysis.
10 800
Milk Fat
Total Fat Yield
Milk Fat Yield (g/d)
8 700
Milk Fat (%)
6 600
4 500
2 400
-1 0 3 6 9 12 16 22
Days
Fig. 1 Effect of feeding R-BP CLA on the fat content and
yield of Jaffarabadi buffalo
The second reason to develop and use R-BP
fat supplements relates to the functional and nutri-
tional properties of milk fat. Majority of the dietary
fats are hydrogenated in the rumen and this together
with fatty acids synthesis in the mammary gland pro-
duce a milk, which has physically a hard fat e.g. poor
spreadability of butter and perceived to be nutrition-
ally undesirable because of the high proportion of
saturated fatty acids
The most effective procedure to protect di-
etary fatty supplements from ruminal hydrogenation
is to encapsulate the oils in a matrix of formalde-
hyde treated protein and these products contain
about 65-85% rumen inert or protected fat (Gulati
et al., 2005). Feeding these RP oilseeds supple-
ments to lactating dairy ruminants drastically alter
the fatty acid composition of milk and improves
butter spreadability and essential fatty acid content
(see Table 2).
Minerals
Supplementation of minerals helps in efficient
utilization of absorbed nutrients and in so many other
ways, for improving growth, milk production and
reproductive efficiency (McDowell, 1992). Surveys/
mineral mapping have been conducted by the Na-
tional Dairy Development Board (NDDB) and other
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Table 2. Functional and nutritional properties of milk fat

Fat fed Melting Rumen by-pass bioactive fatty acids

g/d characteristics
Liquid at Liquid at C18:1 c C18:2 C18:3 C 20:5 C 22:6
50oC 200oC
Pasture - 35.3 68.3 24.1 1.3 0.7 - -
PCS 600 68.2 92.1 32.6 7.6 2.2 - -
PSFO 570 55.2 86.5 22.8 5.6 1.1 0.51 1.09
PSBLO 563 65.1 86.4 21.5 5.5 5.1
PCS-Protected canola /soybean; PSFO-Protected soybean /fish oil; PSBLA-Protected soybean /linseed oil Gulati, et al.
2005, 2002a
Indian institutes in various states (Garg et al., 2005). l uncontrolled absorption and excretion
Based on mineral deficiency in the ration of animals l higher doses to be more effective against para-
in different agro-climatic zones, area specific min- sites
eral mixture formulations have been developed. l resulting in higher costs
With the NDDB’s assistance, fourteen mineral mix- l contribute to accumulation of residues in ed-
ture plants have been set up in cooperative sector, ible tissue/milk
in the States of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Kerala, Punjab, l residues in the environment
Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Studies have demonstrated that the most effi-
Pradesh (Table 3; Garg et al., 2007). cient parasite chemotherapy relies on improved
modes of drug presentation. More specifically, this
Rumen by-pass (R-BP) anthelmentics is directed to “intelligent” formulations that target
Anti-parasitic agents are commonly given to the anthelmentic (i.e., ABZ-Albendazole) to sites in
ruminants as an oral drench into the rumen. In the ruminant gut in a three stage release to maximise
general they are subjected to: parasite exposure (Figure 2; Table 4) (Hennessy
l chemical and bacterial degradation et al., 1992 and Gulati et al., unpublished data)
l losses of the active due to binding & associa- whilst minimizing the need for repetitive drug use
tion with fibre will be discussed.
Table 3. Mineral profiles of some feeds and fodders fed to dairy cows and buffaloes in different parts of India

Feedstuffs Macro, % Micro, ppm

Ca P Na S Cu Zn Mn Fe
Dry fodder* 0.10- 0.09- 0.10- 0.10- 1.50- 5.0- 15- 154-
0.30 0.20 0.20 0.15 7.0 38 109 691
Green fodder** 0.20- 0.15- 0.20- 0.06- 4.0- 14- 27- 237-
2.50 0.45 1.20 0.20 9.0 37 170 1500
Concentrate ingredients*** 0.01- 0.26- 0.04- 0.04- 4.0- 30.0- 7.0- 42.0-
0.27 1.62 0.10 0.34 25.0 98.0 74.0 701
Requirements 0.42 0.34 0.18 0.20 10 80 40 50
*Straws of rice, wheat, sorghum, maize, bajra , dry grasses etc.; **Sorghum, maize, oat, lucerne, berseem green grasses
etc.; ***Wheat, maize, bajra, sorghum, barley, cottonseed cake, groundnut cake, sesame cake, rice bran, wheat bran and
pulse chunies. Mineral mixture formulation for a particular zone is worked out, based on the levels of minerals in feeds and
fodder vis-à-vis requirement.
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Garg, M. R., Sherasia, P. L., Bhanderi, B. M.,

Gulati, SK, Scott, TW and George, PS (2005a)
Indian Diary Sci. 58, 420-425.
Garg, M. R., Bhanderi, B.M., and Sherasia, P. L.,
(2007) Indian Dairyman.
Gulati S. K., Scott T. W., Garg, M. R. and Singh,
D.K., (2002) Indian Dairyman, 54: 31-35.

Fig. 2 Quantity of ABZ released from protected particles Gulati S. K., May, C., Wynn, P. C. and Scott T.
relative to ABZ added W., (2002a) Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 98:
143-152.
Future challenges: Although substantial
progress has been made using many of the above Gulati, S. K., Garg M. R. and Scott, T. W., (2005)
technologies, there is a need to transfer knowledge Austr. J. Exper. Agric., 45: 1190-1203.
at the village level to educate farmers to improve Hennessy, D. R., Gulati, S. K., Ashes, J. R., Scott,
feeding regimes in a cost effective way. In the future T. W., (1992) Targeting of albendazole to sites
Table 4. Efficacy of a staged release and a conventional of parasitism in the ruminant gastro-intestinal
oral preparation tract. Joint conference of the New Zealand
and Australian societies for parasitology.
Parasites H. contortus T. colubriformis Auckland, NZ.
Worm Efficacy Worm Efficacy
count (%) count (%) McDowell, L.R., (1992) Minerals in Animal and
Human Nutrition. Academic Press. San Di-
Control 3088 0 5699 0
Valbazen 667 78 2122 62 ego, CA pp. 49-51.
S/R 358 88 633 89 NRC (2001) Nutrient Requirements of Dairy
S/R - A stage-release preparation of Albenazole (ABZ) Cattle, 7th rev ed. National Academy of Sci-
Valbazen® is an ABZ containing drench formulated by
Smith Kline & Beecham Animal Health unpublished data;
ence–National Research Council, Washington,
US Patent:5840324 DC.
Shingfield K. J., Beever D. E., Reynolds C. K.,
more effort is required in extension /demonstration
Gulati S. K., Humphries D. J., Lupoli B.,
models and it is obligatory for governments at all
Hervás G. and Griinari J. M. (2004) J. Dairy
levels to implement financial and organizational
Sci., 87: 635, 307.
policies to achieve this goal.
Staples, J. R., Burke, J. M., and Thatcher, W. W.,
REFERENCES (1998) J. Dairy Sci., 81: 856-871.

Anonymous, (2003-2004) Annual Report of Bio-
technology Laboratory, National Dairy De-
velopment Board (NDDB), Anand, India. pp.
19-21.
Garg, M.R., Bhanderi, B.M. and Sherasia, P.L.
(2005) Anim. Nutr. Feed Technol., 5: 9-20.
23
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Wilkins J. F., Hoffman W. D., Larsson S. K.,
Hamilton B. A., Hennessy D. W., Hillard M.
A., (1996) Protected lipid/protein supplements
improve synchrony of oestrus and conception
rates in beef cows. In: International Con-
gress Animal Reproduction, Sydney, New
South Wales, Australia, 13: 19.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Ruminal anaerobic fungi for improving digestion and

utilization of fibrous feeds in ruminants
J. P. Sehgal and Sanjay Kumar
Dairy Cattle Nutrition Division, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal- 132 001, India

Cereal straws and agroindustrial by products
are available in larger quantities for feeding to rumi-
nants. These are poor in nutritional quality because
of low protein and high lignin contents, but are
potential source of cell-wall polysaccharides such
as cellulose and hemicellulose. The high lignin and
silica contents of these roughages reduce their di-
gestible energy contents. In particular, lignin pre-
vents close contact between the cell wall polysac-
charides and the rumen microorganisms. Thus, up-
grading of straw quality is still a central issue as a
strategy for improving ruminant livestock produc-
tion (Preston and Leng, 1987).
During the past few decades, researchers have
shown interest in physical and chemical treatment
of straws (Jackson, 1977; Sehgal and Punj, 1983).
Of the physical treatments, only chopping and soak-
ing were feasible under village conditions. Soaking
of chopped roughages, however, did not increase
the feed intake further than up to a constant level.
Wetting of crop residues was not useful in general,
but definitely improved the intake of mechanically
thrashed paddy straw, probably due to removal of
oxalates, dust, silica and pebbles, etc. The other
physical treatments like pelleting, steam processing,
ionizing irradiation, grinding etc. were not found to
be feasible at village level because of higher cost of
equipments, increasing cost of energy for running
the equipments, and for the cost of transportation
of cereal straws and sugarcane bagasse from farm
to plant and back.
Chemical treatment of wheat straw using so-
dium hydroxide increased voluntary intake of straw
by sheep (Alawa and Owen, 1984), goat (Sehgal
and Punj, 1983) and cattle (Ng'ambi and Campling,
1991; Flachowsky et al., 1996, 1999). However,
excess requirement of water, environmental pollu-
tion and high cost of sodium hydroxide limited the
use of this treatment of straws. The urea-NH3 treat-
ment received a major attention as an appropriate
technology of chemical treatment of straws (Owen
and Jayasuriya, 1989; Brown and Adjei, 1995;
Flachowsky et al., 1996, 1999; Celik et al., 2003;
Sharma et al., 2004) but the improvements in di-
gestibility of urea-NH3 treated wheat straw is tem-
perature and moisture dependent and can not be
used in temperate climate.
The main advantage of enzymic methods was
claimed to have a much greater control of the end
products formed after the treatment and a little or
no potential environmental pollution (Nakashima and
Orskov, 1989). The two main approaches to the
use of enzymes recently examined have been re-
lated to the use of cellulase, hemicellulase and lignase
enzymes. The enzyme treatment increased the ru-
men soluble fraction and the rate of degradation of
straws, though potential degradability remained
unaffected.
The advances in biotechnology have opened
up novel approaches for increasing the nutritive value
of cereal straws with microbes and allowing natural
fermentation processes to enhance their feeding
value (Langer et al., 1980, 1982; Pradhan et al.,
1993). The solid state fermentation of wheat straw
with aerobic white rot fungi was influenced by fac-
tors such as the species of fungi, substrate, tem-
perature, moisture and nitrogen contents. Though
the dry matter digestibility of straw increased, but a

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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
huge loss of substrate dry matter during fungus
cultivation limited the applicability of this
technology.
Cereal straws treated with rumen bacterial
culture (Ruminococcus albus, Ruminococcus
flavefaciens and Fibrobacter succinogenes) in
solid state and liquid state was reported to enhance
the digestibility of nutrients (Lohakare, 1998).
Simultaneously, interests in the ruminal anaerobic
fungi were growing after their discovery by Orpin
(1975), especially on their capacity for fibre
digestion. These anaerobic fungi are unique and are
only known strictly anaerobic fungi in the bio-
sphere. The rumen fungi preferentially colonize
highly lignified thick-walled sclerenchyma and
vascular tissues. The fungal rhizoids penetrate deep
into the recalcitrant tissues and digest cell wall
components through enzymes, whereas bacteria act
on peripheral areas. Rumen fungi have a strong
fibrolytic activity, which helps in degradation of low
quality roughages. They can break the linkages
between lignin and hemicellulose. In vitro studies
with different fungal species on degradation of
cereal straws were found to improve dry matter
digestibility and cell wall constituents (Manikumar
et al., 2002, 2003, 2004 Thareja et al., 2006).
Direct administration of Orpinomyces sp, a supe-
rior fibrolytic fungus was reported to increase
growth rate, rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibil-
ity and nitrogen retention in sheep (Lee et al.,
2000, 2004) and crossbred calves (Dey et al.,
2004a,c) and buffalo calves (Tripathi et al., 2007a,b).
Also oral administration of Piromyces sp WNG-
12 isolated from wild buffalo (Tripathi et al.,
2007a,b) and Neocallimastix GR1 isolated from
grazing goats (Thareja et al., 2006) showed higher
growth rate in buffalo calves (Debanu Jit, 2006).
Direct administration of Orpinomyces sp c-14 and
Piromyces sp WNG-12 also showed higher milk
production in buffalos (Swati, 2006). Zoospores
of these anaerobic fungi have been developed in
deficient media and their incorporation in sugarcane
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
bagasse and sugarcane bagasse based TMR have
shown improvement in digestibility of nutrients and
rumen fermentation pattern in in vitro (Sachin,
2007).
Digestion and rumen fermentation of cereal
straws
Rumen fermentation of lignocellulosic feeds
occur in a complex system that is influenced by
many factors: (i) The physical and chemical nature
of the fibre, (ii) The rate of ruminal digestion, (iii)
The nature and population densities of the predomi-
nant species of fiber digesting microorganisms as
affected by the prevailing ruminal conditions.
Long back, Baker and Martin (1938) observed
bacteria within the lacunae (i.e., zones of digestion)
suggesting that adherence might be important in plant
fibre degradation. Plant tissue particles entering the
rumen are colonized by bacteria within 5 min, by
protozoa within 15 min and by fungal sporangia
and rhizoids within 2 hours (Demeyer, 1981). The
bacterial attachment with the damaged surfaces of
the substrate allows the microorganisms to control
the substrate and its surroundings, and decrease the
chance of being passed on to the omasum with the
fluid portion of the rumen contents, which passes at
a much faster rate than the solid fraction (VanSoest,
1982).
Rumen anaerobic fungi and their role in fibre
digestion
Until the discovery of the anaerobic fungi in
the sheep rumen by Orpin in 1975, the microbial
population of the rumen was believed to be made
up of bacteria and protozoa only. Since this
discovery rumen fungi have been isolated from a
wide range of herbivores (Gordon and Phillips,
1993; Ho et al., 1996; Ushida et al., 1997; Sehgal
et al., 2002; Paul et al., 2003; Tripathi et al.,
2007a,b, Thareja et al., 2006). They have a pH
optimum at 6.5 to 6.7 and a temperature optimum
at 39±1°C. It has been reported that these
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
anaerobic fungi produce a wide range of hydrolytic
enzymes viz4. polysaccharidases (endo-glucanase,
exo-glucanase, xylanase, cellodextrinase, amylase),
glycosidase (- and - glycosidase, -fructosidase,
-xylosidase, -L-arabinofuranosidase, etc), esterase
(acetyl xylan esterase, p-coumaroyl esterase, feruloyl
esterase), pectin lyase and polygalacturonase
(Pearce and Bauchop, 1985; Joblin et al., 1990;
Kopecny and Hodrova, 1995; Dey et al., 2004
b) to utilize plant cell wall components. Rumen
anaerobic fungi have a strong fibrolytic activity and
preference for the thick-walled sclerenehyma and
vascular tissues, and are capable of digesting
various fibrous forages and various types of fibrous
crop residues (Akin et al., 1983; Ho et al., 1996;
Ushida et al., 1997; Manikumar et al., 2004; Dey
et al., 2004a Tripathi et al., 2007a,b; Debanu Jit
2006, Swati 2006). The fungal rhizoids penetrate
deep into the recalcitrant tissues and digest cell wall
by means of enzymes. Rumen fungi can solubilize
part of the lignin component of plant cell walls in
culture, though there was no evidence of fermen-
tation of lignin (Bernard-Vailhe et al., 1995).
During the non-motile stage, the fungi colonize and
degrade fibrous plant materials, thus enabling them
to play a role in the digestion of fiber in the rumen.
Orpin and Bountiff (1978) reported that rumen
fungi appear to release zoospores within 30 min
after feeding. Fungal zoospores swimming freely in
the rumen fluid, locate freshly ingested plant frag-
ments by chemotaxis of soluble carbohydrates
diffusing from the damaged plant tissues. Fry
(1986) observed that rumen fungi also have pro-
tease activities. Protease may have role in plant
cell wall degradation, because the plant structural
protein, such as extensin, increases the integrity of
plant cell wall. Wallace and Joblin (1986) and Asao
et al., (1993) also observed the protease activities
and reported that possession of protease is a
unique characteristic of rumen fungi, similar to
rumen cellulolytic organisms producing cellulases.
However, major ruminal cellulolytic bacteria are not
proteolytic.
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
After attachment of zoospores to the feed
particles, flagella are detached from zoospores, and
then encystment and germination occur, followed
by penetration of plant tissues by the rhizoids and
form sporangia. Fungal colonization weakens the
integrity of plant tissues and fragmentation of feed
particles would proceed, thus causing digestion of
feed particles (Calderon-Cortes et al., 1989; Akin
et al., 1990).
Influence of superior anaerobic fungi on ani-
mal performance
Hillaire and Jouany (1989) worked with a
continuous culture system (i.e., Rusitech), and ob-
served that addition of one strain of Neocallimastix
to the mixed rumen bacteria increased the degrada-
tion rate of wheat straw by 15 per cent. The elimi-
nation of rumen anaerobic fungi from rumen of sheep
by chemical means decreased the plant fibre diges-
tion (Gordon and Phillips, 1993). Ito et al. (1994)
studied sheep rumen fungi for degradability and di-
gestibility of rice straw and found that there was
significant decrease in lignin residue content result-
ing in increased digestibility of rice straw. Studies
indicated increased IVDMD and IVOMD, but a
decreased NDF, ADF and ADL contents of straw
with use of different anaerobic fungi, viz.,
Orpinomyces, Piromyces and Anaeromyces in com-
parison to control (Manikumar et al., 2002; Sehgal
et al., 2002). It was also reported that the molar
proportion of acetate increased with the simulta-
neous decrease in the production of propionate and
butyrate by rumen anaerobic fungi. Further, it was
observed that in both the rice and wheat straws,
Orpinomyces sp (C-14) with double log dose
(106CFU/ ml) showed the maximum hydrolytic
activity and thus was found to be the most prom-
ising isolate than compared to others, i.e., Piromyces
and Anaeromyces (Manikumar et al., 2002, 2003,
2004). Similarly, incubation of cereal straws, viz.,
wheat, paddy and chickpea straws with ruminal
mixed fungal population increased dry matter, NDF,
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

ADF and cellulose degradation in cattle and buffa-
loes (Sangwan et al., 2002). It has also been re-
ported that the addition of anaerobic fungal culture
Piromyces communis significantly increased not only
the total bacteria, cellulolytic bacteria and anaero-
bic fungi but also the enzymetic activities of avicelase,
CMCase and xylanase compared to the control
(Lee et al., 2004)
Gordon and Phillips (1998) reported an in-
crease in voluntary intake of straw based diet from
7 to 12 percent, when the sheep were dosed
through mouth with cultures of monocentric fungi
isolated from herbivores other than sheep. Lee et
al., (2000) isolated polycentric fungus Orpinomyces
strain KNGF-2 from Korean native goat and ad-
ministered to sheep @ 200 ml culture incubated for
the improvement in nutritive value of wheat straw
(Dey et al., 2004a). There was also a two and half
fold increase in the fungal count in fungus-adminis-
tered group of animals in this study.
Studies conducted by Tripathi et al., (2007a,b)
to investigate the comparative efficacy in improving
the performance of buffalo calves following adminis-
tration of anaerobic fungal culture (160 ml
@106CFU/ ml/ calf on every 4th day) isolated from
domestic cow (Orpinomyces sp C-14) and wild blue
bull (Piromyces sp WNG-12) showed 29.7 per cent
increased in growth rate of buffalo calves adminis-
tered with Piromyces sp WNG-12 as compared to
Table 2. Performance of crossbred calves fed wheat straw
based complete feed mixture without or with fun-
gal culture (Orpinomyces sp) culture administration

7 days. Nutrient digestibility and nitrogen retention Particulars Control Fungal

in fungus-supplemented group was found to be more cultural
administered
than non-supplemented group (Table 1).
Growth rate, kg
Table 1. In vivo nutrients digestibility in sheep dosed Initial BW 131.0 128.7
intraruminal fungal medium, fungal enzyme or Final BW 186.3 192.5
whole fungal culture Gain in BW 55.3 63.8
Gain in BW, g/d 614.8 709.3
Item fungal fungal fungal Total DMI 366.8 363.8
medium enzyme culture DMI, kg/d 4.1 4.0
FCR 6.6 5.7
DM 71.5 70.8 75.2
Digestibility of nutrients, %
CP 68.6 69.1 71.9
EE 69.2 68.8 70.5 DM 53.9 60.0
CF 50.3 55.9
NDF 65.1 62.8 68.9
NDF 44.4 55.2
ADF 57.3 57.0 62.9 ADF 42.9 52.0
Hemicellulose 75.1 71.2 77.1
Nutritive evaluation, %
Cellulose 68.4 70.9 79.0
Cell contents 72.3 73.5 74.4 DCP 9.1 9.8
TDN 55.3 60.8
(Lee et al., 2004) (Dey et al., 2004a); a = after 90 days; Figures with different
superscripts differ significantly P<0.05.
No effect on feed intake was observed when
growing crossbred calves were dosed with poly- 20.6 per cent to calves administered with
centric rumen fungus Orpinomyces sp C-14 cul- Orpinomyces sp C-14 than the control animals.
ture (160 ml @106CFU/ml/calf/week). However, Feed efficiency of wheat straw based complete feed
the growth rate and nutrient digestion was improved mixture was enhanced by 31.5 per cent following
(Table 2) in fungus administered group in growing dosing of Piromyces sp WNG-12 to calves. The
crossbred calves (Dey et al., 2004a). Also the TDN nutrient digestibility of wheat straw based complete
content of whole diet based on wheat straw was feed mixture was increased by administration of both
increased by 14.1per cent, which clearly indicated the fungal culture (Table 3).
27
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Table 3. Effect of administration of Orpinomyces sp C-14 Oral administration of elite Neocallimastix

and Piromyces sp WNG-12 on growth rate, feed
efficiency, nutrients digestibility and rumen fer-
sp GR1 isolated from grazing goats (250 ml @
mentation pattern in buffalo calves 106 cfu/ml/buffalo calf on every 4th day) showed
an increase in growth, nutrient digestibility, feed ef-
Parameters Control +Orpino- +Piromy-
myces sp ces sp
ficiency and %TDN contents of a wheat straw
Gain/calf/d 494.2a 595.8b 641.2b
based total mixed ration than on control (Table 5).
FCR 9.7a 11.7b 12.7b Table 5. Effect of administration of Neocallimastix sp
Digestibility of nutrients, % GR1 isolated from grazing goats on growth,
DM 53.5 60.3b 62.1b nutrient evaluation and rumen fermentation of a
a
NDF 46.3 54.1 b 56.5b wheat straw based ration in buffalo calves.
ADF 41.5a 53.1b 55.7b
Rumen fermentation pattern, mg/dl Parameter Control +Fungal
pH 7.1a 6.9b 6.9b culture
TVFA, mM/dl 7.4 10.5b 11.6b
NH3 -N 17.2a 10.7b 9.1b Production performance
a
TCA ppt N 47.7 72.3b 78.1b DMI, kg/d 4.1a 4.1a
No of zoospore (105/ml) 1.0 3.0 4.2 Gain, g/d 520.2 a
659.8 b
a
(Tripathi et al., 2007b) ; Figures with different superscripts Feed efficiency, % 12.6 16.2 ab
Nutrient evaluation, %
differ significantly P<0.05.
TDN 52.8 a 59.6 b
Similarly, Swati (2006) found an increase in milk DCP 6.7 a
7.2 b
production, nutrient digestibility and %TDN contents Rumen fermentation pattern, mg/dl
Total VFA, mM/dl 10.3 a 13.4 b
of a wheat straw based total mixed ration in fungal NH3-N 13.3 a
8.7 b
culture administered groups (250 ml @ 106cfu/ml/ TCA - N 52.7 a
71.1 b
5 a 3.83 b
animal on every 7th day) of lactating buffalos than Fungal zoospore, 10 /ml 1.36
10
No. of bacteria, 10 /ml 1.47 a 1.79 b
control (Table 4). 6 a
No. of protozoa, 10 /ml 1.76 1.22 b
Table 4. Effect of administration of elite Orpinomyces sp
C-14 isolated from domestic cattle and Piromyces (Debanu Jit, 2006); Figures with different superscripts differ
sp WNG-12 isolated from wild blue bull on milk significantly P<0.05.
production, % feed efficiency, nutrients digest-
ibility and nutritive value of wheat straw based Looking towards strategies for improvement/
total mixed ration in lactating buffaloes enrichment of cereal straws especially for the fod-
Parameter Control +Orpino- +Pirom-
der scarcity period or for dry season of the year
myces yces the straws can be treated with urea- NH3 or can be
Total milk yield,kg 1446.2 1516.7 1527.1 supplemented with urea- molasses mineral blocks
Milk yield, kg/d 8.0 8.4 8.5 so as to enhance their digestible energy and protein
6% FCM yield, kg/d 9.6 10.3 10.5 value for meeting the nutritional requirements of
Feed efficiency* 67.1 73.0 81.1 ruminants in places where water supply is sufficient
Digestibility of nutrients, % and temperature is optimum to degrade urea in to
DM 52.8a 58.9b 62.7b NH3. In the coming years biotechnological ap-
NDF 42.9a 53.1b 57.0 b proaches like administration of superior rumen
ADF 39.9a 48.9b 52.8 b
anaerobic fungi viz. Orpinomyces sp (C-14),
Nutritive value, % Neocallimastix sp GR1 or Piromyces sp (WNG-
DCP 6.7 7.2 7.7 12) being isolated from domestic and wild rumi-
TDN 51.8 a 59.0 b 61.7 b
nants (Sehgal et al., 2002; Tripathi et al., 2007;
# 180 days; Figures with different superscripts differ Thareja et al., 2006) into ruminants fed with cereal
significantly P<0.05; *kg milk yield/100 kg DMI
straw based diets would enhance their digestible
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
energy for higher productivity. Thus Orpinomyces
sp. (C-14) , Neocallimastix sp GR1 and
Pyromyces sp. (WNG-12) being isolated from the
domestic cattle, goats and wild blue bull are found
to be promising fungi to break down the lignified
material through their enzymes viz. p-coumaroyl and
feruloyl esterases and can increase digestible en-
ergy contents of the fibrous feeds for ruminants.
Recently zoospores of the these anaerobic fungi
have been developed to incorporate in complete
feed blocks so that these elite fungi can enter in to
the rumen of animals those subsists on low grade
roughages for enhancing digestibility of ruminants.
Sachin (2007) produced Zoospores of
Neocallimastix Sp GR-1 and Piromyces Sp.
WNG-12 in a deficient media and showed that
their incorporation enhanced the digestibility of nu-
trients of sugarcane bagasse and sugarcane bagasse
based total mixed ration. All these experimental
results indicate that these elite fungi could be ex-
ploited as probiotics. Further research is carried
out to produce economically viable fungal zoospores
of these isolated elite ruminal fungi to incorporate
these into value added complete feed blocks con-
sisted mainly of low grade roughages such as straws,
stovers, sugar cane bagasse and small quantity of
concentrate mixture for ruminants.
Feeding ruminants with these high quality
probiotic of elite fungal incorporated complete feed
blocks can improve feed intake, nutrient digestibil-
ity, growth and milk production of a low-grade
roughage based complete feed mixture for higher
productivity.
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Bioactivity of phytochemicals in some lesser-known plants and

their effects and potential applications in livestock and
aquaculture nutrition
Harinder P. S. Makkar
Institute for Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics (480b)
University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany

According to an estimate by FAO, the human 1. Plants containing anthelmintic compounds

demand for food fish is expected to touch 110 million
metric tones by 2010 from the current level of con-
sumption of about 90 Mtn. This, along with the
'Livestock revolution' taking place, especially in de-
veloping countries, coupled to continued human
population growth, urbanization and income growth
are imposing a huge burden on the environment and
resources. Livestock production is under tremen-
dous political and social pressure to decrease pol-
lution and environmental damage arising due to
animal agriculture. Some antibiotics and growth
promoters such as monensin, avoparcin, flavomycin,
virginiamycin and somatotropin have been shown
to be effective in enhancing feed conversion effi-
ciency and increasing livestock productivity and in
reducing environment pollutants. However, these
antibiotics and growth promoters have been banned
in the EU since 2006, mainly because of antibiotic
resistance being passed on to human pathogens and
risk to humans of chemical residues in animal prod-
ucts. As a result of this, scientists have intensified
efforts in exploiting plants, plant extracts or natural
plant compounds as potential natural alternatives
for enhancing livestock productivity. The Plant King-
dom might provide a useful source of new pharma-
ceutical entities, medicines and bioactive compounds
that may be used for enhancing animal production
and health; and food safety and quality, whilst con-
serving environment. This paper discusses work on
the effects of various phytochemicals in ruminant
and fish species.
32
32
32
The gastrointestinal nematode parasitism is one
of the major constraints to livestock production,
especially when the animals have a poor nutritional
status. Subclinical infections of gastrointestinal nema-
todes such as Ostertagia circumcinta, Trichostrongy-
lus colubriformis, and Haemonchus contortus de-
crease feed intake, body weight gain, and milk and
wool production. There is a growing realisation that
chemical anthelmintic treatment, on its own, may
not provide a long-term strategy for managing para-
sites in grazing animals. The widespread develop-
ment and prevalence of resistant strains of nema-
tode parasites and public concern over drug resi-
dues excreted in animal products have stimulated
efforts to identify and use plant-based anthelmintic
compounds.
Studies conducted on calves in Bangladesh
showed that pine apple (Ananas comosus) and
neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves have anthelm-
intic effects (Akbar and Ahmed, 2006). Fresh pine
apple leaves (1.6 g/kg body weight) and fresh neem
leaves (1 g/kg body weight) (both leaves on dry
matter basis were 200 mg/kg body weight) given
as a single dose were compared with that of
albendazole given at a rate of 7.5 mg/kg body
weight. On day 7, the efficacy of albendazole (100
% reduction in faecal worm egg count) was signifi-
cantly (P <0.01) higher than those of pine apple
and neem leaves (76 and 55 % reduction respec-
tively); and on day 14, the percent reduction in
faecal worm egg counts for albendazole and pine
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
apple (88 and 82 % reduction) were significantly (P
<0.05) higher than that for neem leaves (56 %
reduction). In the same study, urea molasses
multinutrient block was used as a vehicle for giving
these plant materials to dairy cows kept on re-
search station. Freeze dried leaves were incorpo-
rated in the blocks so that the intake of these leaves
is 200 mg dry matter/kg body weight of animals.
The intake of the blocks was 500 g per day per
cow (40 mg dry matter/kg body weight of animal/
day) and the blocks were fed for a total of 5 days.
After 15 days of consumption, pine apple leaf con-
taining blocks decreased faecal worm egg counts
by 72 % and the one containing neem leaves de-
creased by 45%. On the other hand, the block free
of these leaves reduced the count by only 5 %.
These values after 60 days post-treatment were
84, 63 and 18 % respectively. Similar results were
obtained when these blocks were tested in milking
cows in farmers' houses. Both the herbal remedies
when incorporated into the block significantly in-
creased milk yield (26 %) and live weight of ani-
mals (15 %) compared to non-medicated blocks.
The feeding of blocks containing pineapple and neem
leaves increased net profit by 122 % and 33 %
respectively (Akbar and Ahmed, 2006). These ef-
ficacy data of all three treatments indicate that pine
apple leaves are better herbal anthelmintics than
neem leaves. In Vietnam and Myanmar, leaves of
pine apple and Momordica charantia (bitter gourd)
have also been found to have potential in control-
ling intestinal parasites and increasing productivity
(Doan et al., 2006; Daing and Win, 2006). The
extent of use of these blocks, cost : benefit ratio
and increase in income of farmers on using these
medicated blocks have been summarised in Makkar
(2006). Although cysteine proteases (bromelain)
present in pine apple plant is considered to have
some anthelmintic properties, there is a need to
identify active principle in pine apple leaves and to
investigate its presence in various germplasm exist-
ing in Asia and Africa and in different countries
within Asia. Another plant which seems to have
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
direct effect on gastrointestinal nematodes is Euca-
lyptus. It has been shown to be effective against
Trichostrongylus colubriformis, and Haemonchus
contortus (Lorimer et al., 1996). These effects are
attributed to the presence of tannins/polyphenols in
Eucalyptus.
2. Plants containing saponins
Saponins are steroid or triterpene glycoside
compounds found in a variety of plants. The sapo-
nin-rich plants having potential for exploitation in
ruminant and fish production systems are presented.
Effects on ruminants
Rumen fermentation: Various saponins affect
gas and microbial mass production to different ex-
tents in the in vitro gas system containing buffered
rumen microbes and feed. For example, Acacia
saponins decreased gas production, but increased
microbial protein without affecting true digestibility.
On the other hand, addition of Quillaja saponins
did not affect gas production, but increased micro-
bial protein and truly degraded substrate. The ef-
fects of Yucca saponins differed from those of
Quillaja or Acacia saponins. Yucca saponins de-
creased gas, increased microbial protein and in-
creased true digestibility, suggesting that the saponins
affected partitioning of degraded nutrients such that
higher microbial mass was produced at the cost of
gas, and/or short chain fatty acids (SCFA) produc-
tion (Makkar, 2005). These saponins increased ef-
ficiency of microbial mass synthesis. Liu et al.
(2003) showed an increase in microbial protein
synthesis in the presence of tea saponins in an in
vitro fermentation. However, Wang et al. (2000a)
showed that microbial protein synthesis increased
at a low level of Yucca saponin (15 µg/mL) but
decreased at higher concentrations (75 µg/mL).
Other in vitro studies using the RUSITEC system
did not show any significant effect of sapindus sa-
ponins (Hess et al., 2003a) or of Yucca saponin
(100 mg sarsaponin/kg feed) (Eliwiniski et al.,
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
2002) on microbial protein synthesis. At low con-
centrations Panax ginseng, Yucca and Quillaja sa-
ponins have been shown to stimulate growth of
Escherichia coli and rumen Prevotella (Bacteroi-
des) ruminicola (Sen et al., 1998a; Wallace et al.,
1994).
Abreu et al. (2004) found an increase in
duodenal flow of microbial-nitrogen in sheep fed
Sapindus saponaria fruit. However, Hristov et al.
(1999) did not obtain a significant effect of Yucca
saponin on mcrobial protein flow to the intestine in
heifers. An increase of microbial nitrogen supply,
efficiency of microbial-nitrogen supply, and fecal-
nitrogen excretion with increasing levels of Sapindus
rarak extract was observed, but this increase was
not significant. Effects of various saponins on am-
monia levels and SCFA production have been re-
cently reviewed (Wina et al., 2005a). The decrease
in rumen ammonia concentration may be due to an
indirect result of the decreased protozoa caused by
the added saponins. Fewer protozoa would mean
less predation and lysis of bacteria, hence, less
release of the products of protein breakdown.
Reduction in ammonia may also be due to the fewer
protozoa in the rumen since protozoa contribute a
substantial amount of the total rumen nitrogen. Sa-
ponins also form complexes with proteins and could
decrease protein degradability. Quillaja saponins
decreased protein degradability of the concentrate
but not of hay (Makkar and Becker, 2000). These
observations suggest that the nature of diet plays a
considerable role in determining the effects of sa-
ponins. It may be noted that saponins could also
decrease rumen proteolytic activity. The addition of
S. saponaria fruit to a sheep diet decreased plasma
urea suggesting that less ammonia was absorbed
from the rumen (Abreu et al., 2004). This would
also decrease the energy lost in detoxification of
ammonia by liver and its discharge in urine as urea,
contributing to the higher productivity. In addition,
saponin addition would provide environmental ben-
efits due to lesser discharge of feed nitrogen to the
environment.
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Rumen ecology: Some information is avail-
able on the effects of saponins on specific rumen
bacteria. Using pure culture, Wallace et al. (1994)
observed that the saponin fraction of Y. schidigera,
when added at a concentration of 1 % to the
medium, stimulated the growth of Prevotella
ruminicola, did not affect the growth of Selemonas
ruminantium, suppressed the growth of Strepto-
coccus bovis and completely inhibited the growth
of Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens. The same fraction at
much lower concentrations (0-250 µg/ml) in pure
culture exhibited anti-bacterial activity towards non-
cellulolytic bacteria, i.e. Streptococcus bovis,
Prevotella bryantii B14 (formerly P. ruminicola)
and Ruminobacter amylophilus (Wang et al.,
2000b). Fibrobacter succinogens were unaffected
but Ruminococcus albus and Ruminococcus
flavefaciens were virtually unable to digest cellu-
lose in the presence of Yucca saponins. Wang et al.
(2000b) concluded that Yucca saponin negatively
affected the Gram-positive bacteria more than the
Gram-negative bacteria. The concentration of RNA
from Fibrobacter sp. remained constant and was
not affected by S. rarak extract either in vitro or
in vivo (Wina et al., 2005b). Using RUSITEC, the
number of cellulolytic bacteria was reduced by 30
% when 0.5 mg/ml Yucca extract was added to
alfalfa hay. It was also demonstrated that cellulolytic
bacteria are more susceptible to Yucca extract than
amylolytic bacteria (Wang et al., 2000b).
In an in vivo study, Diaz et al. (1993) ob-
served a significant increase in cellulolytic and total
bacteria in the rumen of sheep fed with S. saponaria
fruit. Thalib et al. (1996) also reported that total
cellulolytic bacteria increased when sheep were fed
with a methanol extract of S. rarak. However, a
dramatic decrease in the RNA concentration of
Ruminococci in short term feeding of S. rarak ex-
tract and disappearance of this effect upon long
term feeding indicated that there may be an adap-
tation of Ruminococcus sp to S. rarak saponins.
The mechanism of adaptation of bacteria to sapo-
nin still needs to be clarified. An increase in the
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
thickness of their cell wall was observed when
Prevotella bryanti in pure culture was adapted to
Yucca saponins (Wang et al., 2000b).
Anaerobic fungi are important in the rumen for
digesting fibre, but they only comprise a small pro-
portion of the total mass of the rumen microflora.
There is little information on the effect of saponins
on ruminal fungi. In pure culture, Wang et al.
(2000b) demonstrated that fungi, Neocallimastix
frontalis and Pyromyces rhizinflata are highly sen-
sitive to Yucca schidigera saponins from, and even
at a low concentration of these saponin (2.25 µg/
ml), the growth of both fungi was completely inhib-
ited. However, Muetzel et al. (2003), using a
membrane hybridization technique showed that fun-
gal concentration was not significantly reduced when
increasing levels of saponin containing Sesbania
pachycarpa were included in an in vitro fermenta-
tion system. The fungal population was significantly
higher when sheep were fed with 25-50 g/day of S.
saponaria (Diaz et al., 1993) for 30 days. An
adaptation of fungi may occur during long term
feeding.
Studies on the effect of saponins and their
products on methanogens (archaea) have attracted
a lot of attention lately because of the potential for
improving the environment by decreasing the pro-
duction of 'greenhouse gases'. However, these stud-
ies concentrated more on the measurement of meth-
ane emission than on the methanogens themselves.
As some methanogens (10-20 % of total) live in
association with protozoa (Newbold et al., 1997;
it was expected that reducing protozoa would also
reduce methanogens, thus reducing methane pro-
duction. The addition of Yucca extract to a high
roughage diet or to a mixed diet containing hay and
barley grain did not reduce methane emission in the
RUSITEC (Sliwinski et al., 2002a, b). However,
reduced methane emissions in an in vitro system
were obtained by adding sarsaponin, extracted from
Yucca to a starch diet and to a mixed diet (Lila et
al., 2003). Pen et al. (2006) also reported de-
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crease in methane production by Yucca extract when
incubated with a roughage based diet in an in vitro
system. In this study, a decrease of protozoal num-
ber and increase in microbial population were ob-
served by both Yucca and Quillaja extracts; how-
ever, the latter did not reduce methane production.
Suppression of methane emission was also achieved
by the supplementation of S. saponaria fruit (con-
taining high levels of saponins) in the RUSITEC
(Hess et al., 2003b). The occurrence of glycosides
of diosgenin (steroidal saponin) in Fenugreek seeds
has been well recognized for several decades. Sa-
ponins may kill or inactivate protozoa, resulting in a
lower predation of bacteria by protozoa which will
result in a larger bacterial population and a slower
protein turnover in the rumen, leading to an increase
in bacterial nitrogen flow to the duodenum and in-
crease in productivity (Makkar and Becker, 2000.
As mentioned above, Yucca, Quillaja and Acacia
saponins enhanced both microbial mass production
and efficiency of microbial protein synthesis
(Makkar, 2005).
Methane emission was also suppressed when
sheep were fed S. saponaria fruit. However, the
suppression of methanogenesis was not associated
with decreased methanogen counts, suggesting a
suppression of activity per methanogen cell. Simi-
larly, saponin in S. rarak extract did not reduce the
archaeal or methanogen RNA concentration either
in vitro or in vivo studies (Wina et al., 2005a). In
most studies, methanogens have been measured
using the anaerobic culture technique and cell counts
of methanogens were measured as colony-forming
units or methanogens have been measured using in
situ hybridisation technique, and these studies are
limited to the effects of various oils and individual
fatty acid supplementation. The methanogen cell
count determination using culture-based techniques
has disadvantages of non-specificity and that not all
microorganisms can be cultured (Makkar and
McSweeney, 2005). Recently Goel et al. (2007a)
found that saponin rich plant materials such as
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) and Knautia (Knautia
arvensis) leaves and seeds of Fenugreek (Trigonella
foenum-graecum L.) increase the partitioning of
the nutrients to microbial mass and decrease mar-
ginally the methane production per unit of feed
degraded. The saponins isolated from these plants
also did not reduce the methane production; how-
ever, Fenugreek saponin rich material seemed to
have the potential to increase: the rumen efficiency
in terms of lowering C2:C3 molar proportion, am-
monia uptake without adversely affecting substrate
true degradability and total bacterial population as
indicated by lower Ct values observed using quan-
titative PCR. On the other hand, these saponins
had negative effect on fungal population with ten-
dency to increase fibre degrading bacterial popula-
tion (Ruminococcus flavefaciens and Fibrobacter
succinogens). The decrease in methanogens and pro-
tozoal numbers did not lead to reduction in meth-
ane by saponin rich materials, which highlight lack
of correlation between the protozoal reduction with
methanogenesis. A closer look on the association of
methanogens to protozoa and interspecies hydro-
gen transfer mechanisms among different microbial
communities could explain the mechanism behind
these observations (Goel et al., 2007b).
Persistency of effects: It has been observed
that some plant products lose their effects on con-
tinuous ingestion of the plants by animals. Their
effects are short-lived due to microbial adaptation.
This calls for development of strategies to beat the
microbial adaptation. A negative effect of saponin-
containing Sesbania sesban on protozoal counts or
activity was evident in the in vitro studies but not in
sheep fed S. sesban since the protozoal counts in
the rumen increased markedly after several days of
feeding (Newbold et al., 1997; Ivan et al., 2004).
Based on these results, Newbold et al. (1997)
suggested feeding saponins intermittently to prevent
a quick increase in protozoal counts in the rumen.
Thalib et al. (1996) showed that feeding saponin
extract every third day kept the protozoal counts
low even after 3 weeks. On the other hand, S.
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rarak saponins did not lose their defaunating activ-
ity until 27 days of feeding to sheep (Wina et al.,
2005a). Machmueller et al. (2000) also reported
persistent effect of coconut oil and oilseeds on
methane suppression up to 7 weeks. A challenge
would be to develop those approaches for using
plants, plant extracts or plant products, which sus-
tain their effects in the rumen microbial ecosystem.
Evidence exists on the hydrolysis of saponins to
sapogenin and epimerization and hydrogenation of
sapogenin in the rumen. The relative efficacy of
original saponins and that of aglycon (sapogenin)
and its epimerized and hydrogenated products to-
wards various effects reported above is not known.
Other effects: Saponin levels (as diosgenin)
of 0.07-1.64 % have been observed in seeds
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) of (Tay-
lor et al., 2002). In our laboratory 3 % saponin (as
diosgenin) were recorded in fenugreek seeds (Goel
et al., 2007b). The seeds are known to reduce
blood cholesterol and produce lower concentra-
tions of cholesterol in milk and also to improve the
profile of functional fatty acids (Shah and Mir, 2004).
Antiviral activity of saponins from Glycyrrhiza ra-
dix, immunostimulant activity of saponins from
Quillaja saponaria Molina, and hypo-glyceamic
and anti-diabetic activity of saponins from Fenugreek
(Francis et al., 2002c) have also been demonstrated.
Yucca, Quillaja, S. rarak and Enterolobium
cyclocarpum saponins have been shown to increase
productive parameters such as wool production,
growth and milk production in animals on roughage
based diets (Wina et al., 2005c). The effect of
Quillaja saponins was concentration and sex de-
pendent. The growth rate was significantly higher
for male lambs at 40 ppm level, and at 60 ppm the
growth rate was higher than the control but the
increase was not significant. On the other hand,
inclusion of Quillaja saponins at these levels de-
creased the growth rate of female lambs (Makkar,
2000). These effects seem to be mediated by hor-
mones. Further studies are needed in this area.
Supplementation of steroidal saponins in feeds has
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
also been shown to be beneficial to fattening lambs
and steers and monogastrics (Makkar, 2000).
Saponins have also been implicated in toxicity
to ruminants. The major symptoms are photosensi-
tization, gastroenteritis and diarrhea. Some forages
which contain saponins and produce these toxic
symptoms are Brachiaria decumbens grass, species
of the Panicum genus, and Drymaria arenaroides
and Tribulus terrestris weeds (Wina et al., 2005b).
Toxicity of other saponin-containing plants such as
Narthecium ossifragum, Tribulus terrestris, Agave
lecheguilla and Nolina texana has also been de-
scribed (Flaoyen et al., 2004).
Effects on fish
Fish mortality: Saponins have been reported
to be highly toxic to fish because of their damaging
effect on the respiratory epithelia. It was reported
that the oxygen uptake of perch, Anabas testudineus,
increased with a concomitant increase in the red blood
cells, hemoglobin and hematocrit levels, after the fish
had been in water containing 5 mg per litre Quillaja
saponin for 24 h. Penaeus japonicus that had been
previously exposed to concentrations of 20 mg per
litre of saponin for 24 h increased both respiration
rate and metabolism (measured as increase in oxy-
gen uptake and ammonia excretion) during a 6 h
detoxification process (Chen and Chen, 1997). Bu-
reau et al. (1998) observed that Quillaja saponins
damaged the intestinal mucosa in rainbow trout and
Chinook salmon at dietary levels above 1500 mg per
kg. The condition of the intestines of these fish was
similar to that of fish fed a raw soybean meal diet
indicating the role of saponins in causing the damage.
Krogdahl et al. (1995), however, did not find any
negative effects when soya saponins were included
in the diet of Atlantic salmon at levels similar to those
likely to be found in a soybean meal (30-40 %) based
diet. In the same study, an alcohol extract of soybean
meal caused growth retardation, altered intestinal
morphology, and depressed mucosal enzyme activ-
ity in the lower intestine.
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Quillaja and Yucca saponins did not have any
lethal effects on common carp. Addition of Quillaja
saponaria saponins (No. 2149; Sigma, St. Louis,
USA) at a level of 40,000 ppm in aquaria contain-
ing carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) did not lead to death
of the carp in 18 h and feed consumption was not
affected. On the other hand, yucca saponins (DK
sarsaponin 30TM, Desert King International, Chula
Vista, CA 91911, USA) at 10,000 ppm did not
cause mortality in the first 3 h, but all fish were
found dead after 18 h. These results showed that
Quillaja and Yucca saponins are not highly toxic to
fish (Makkar and Becker, 2000).
Feed intake and behaviour: Common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) and tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus) consumed standard fish meal-based di-
ets mixed with up to 1000 mg/kg of all the saponin
concentrates (QS: Quillaja saponaria saponins, No.
2149; Sigma, St. Louis, USA; YS: DK sarsaponin
30TM, Desert King International, Chula Vista, CA
91911, USA) without any hesitation. There was no
mortality or abnormal behaviour of fish fed up to
this concentration of saponins. On the other hand,
standard diets containing 2000 mg/kg of the Quillaja
saponin concentrate induced high mortality in first-
feeding tilapia larvae (Steinbronn, 2002).
Fish growth: Common carp and Nile tilapia ju-
veniles fed diets containing QS (150 and 300 mg/kg
in the diet) had significantly higher rate of body mass
gain, and the growth-promoting effects of QS were
most pronounced during the initial period of feeding
(Francis et al., 2001b). The growth promoting ef-
fects of QS was most pronounced at 150 mg/kg diet
for carp; whereas, the dietary level of 300 mg/kg in-
duced maximum effects in tilapia. The absolute in-
crease in weight was higher compared to control even
at higher dietary levels of 700 mg/kg in Nile tilapia.
Concentrated steroidal yucca saponins (YS) at
levels of 50 and 100 mg/kg also did not affect
growth of common carp significantly. Here the 50
mg group seemed to perform better than the 100 mg
group and the control group at the end of a 10-week
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
feeding experiment. The hemolytic triterpenoid
Gypsophila saponins (GS) concentrated using chro-
matography also did not significantly increase growth
rate at levels of between 5 and 250 mg/kg in diets
of common carp after eight weeks of feeding even
though absolute growth was higher in all the saponin
fed groups compared to control (Francis, Makkar
and Becker, unpublished data). The addition of QS
to the diet also reduced the amount of feed required
for the synthesis of tissue protein. The food conver-
sion ratio (FCR) was lower in carp fed a diet con-
taining 150 mg/kg and tilapia fed 300 mg/kg of QS
compared to the respective controls. Common carp
fed diets containing GS and YS did not differ sig-
nificantly from controls in regard to FCR.
The mechanisms contributing to growth-pro-
moting effects of saponins, especially QS which in-
duced significant growth increases, are yet to be
fully clarified. Diverse effects of dietary saponins
include an increase in the permeability of intestinal
membranes to dietary nutrients (Francis et al.,
2002c) and/or a stimulation of the activity of diges-
tive enzymes, which increases the efficiency of feed
nutrient utilisation. Dietary QS significantly increased
the activity of carp gut enzymes, amylase and trypsin
and liver enzymes, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
and cytochrome c-oxidase (CO). This shows that
it could stimulate digestion of proteins and carbo-
hydrates in the gut and promoted both the respira-
tory chain and lactate fermentation. The ratios of
LDH to CO decreased with QS supplementation
indicating the promotion of aerobic metabolism. In
addition, initial investigations into the effects of sa-
ponins on membrane transport reveal an increase in
paracellular transport of inert markers on applica-
tion of QS to the mucosal side of isolated tilapia
intestinal membrane (Francis, Makkar and Becker,
unpublished observations).
It also remains to be determined whether the
saponins themselves or their breakdown products
(e.g. sapogenins) in the intestines enter the blood of
the fish and cause their effects systemically. From the
extent of effects that saponins have on various physi-
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ological processes it is expected that either saponins
or their breakdown products enter the body through
the intestinal membranes. We have described the
ability of saponins to influence serum hormone levels
(Francis et al., 2002c). However, some dietary com-
ponents may produce systemic effects even without
actually entering the body (Tschöp et al., 2000). It is
to be seen whether saponins induce the synthesis and
release of such hormonal intermediaries in the diges-
tive system. Even though the results seem to indicate
a stimulatory effect of saponins, particularly QS, on
fish growth, gaps exist in our understanding of the
mechanism of action of the saponins in fish. Future
research in this area should concentrate on under-
standing the physiological mechanisms by which di-
etary saponins increase growth and feed conversion
efficiency in carp and tilapia.
Tilapia reproduction: Sexually mature female
tilapia consuming a diet containing 300 mg/kg of
QS did not spawn over a period of more than three
months. Regularly spawning adult tilapia when put
on a diet containing 300 mg/kg of QS stopped egg
laying from the next ovulation cycle onwards (Francis
and Becker, unpublished observations). In another
experiment the sex ratio of tilapia larvae fed a diet
containing 700 mg/kg of QS continuously over a
six-month experimental period deviated significantly
from the normal 50:50 ratio in favor of males
(Francis et al., 2002b). This deviation from the
normal sex ratio in favor of males was also evident
(but not statistically significant) in the treatment
groups receiving lower quantities of QS (150 mg/
kg diet) in the diet. Continued observations revealed
that production of fry was completely suppressed
in ponds where fish from the 2000 mg/kg saponin
group were stocked even after the removal of sa-
ponins from the diets (Steinbronn, 2002). This could
point to a sterility of either males or females, which
implies a potential for control of reproduction in
tilapia using QS. Normal fry production was ob-
served in fish that previously received 150 and 500
mg/kg of QS.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Saponins have been previously reported to
affect the release of hormones, such as leutinizing
hormone (LH), from the pituitary (Benie et al.,
1990) and hence this hormone is considered to
regulate all aspects of teleost reproduction (Suzuki
et al., 1988a), particularly final oocyte maturation
and ovulation (Suzuki et al., 1988b). It was there-
fore postulated that induction of changes in LH
secretory pattern by QS or its degraded products
absorbed from the intestine might be responsible
for the observed effects on reproduction. Quillaja
saponins was found to stimulate LH release from
dispersed tilapia pituitary cells in vitro (Francis et
al., 2002c). The retarding effects on egg production
in adult females and the capacity for sex inversion
in tilapia fry fed saponin-containing diets indicate
effects at the hormonal level. Data from
gonadosomatic index measurements also support
this contention. Efforts to identify any saponin-in-
duced change in the level of one of the key hor-
mones in reproductive functioning, the LH, did not
reveal any dose dependent patterns. The effect of
saponins on levels of reproductive hormones should
be further studied by monitoring of hormones such
as 11-keto-testosterone, estrogen, testosterone and
gonadotropic hormones in vivo. Once the optimum
dietary level of saponins that produces complete
sex inversion in tilapia fry or prevents egg produc-
tion in female tilapia is determined, this effect of
saponin will have considerable potential in tilapia
aquaculture where one of the major problems is
over production of fry that do not grow to market-
able size. Other effects. Saponins also have mollus-
cicidal activity. Acacia saponins had a strong mol-
luscicidal activity and Quillaja and Yucca saponins
very low (Makkar and Becker, 2000). As men-
tioned above in context to rumen fermentation,
protozoa are highly susceptible to some saponins.
The use of saponin-containing plants for possible
control of fish protozoal diseases such as White
Spot Disease, Costiasis and Trichodiniasis needs
investigation. Fish are also highly susceptible to some
saponins. A challenge would be to identify saponins
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which affect protozoa causing these diseases and
do not adversely affect fish.
3. Plants containing tannins
The multiple phenolic hydroxyl groups in tannins
lead to the formation of complexes primarily with
proteins and to a lesser extent with metal ions, amino
acids and polysaccharides. Although research on
tannins has a long history, considerable additional
research must be carried out to fully exploit benefits
of incorporating tannin-rich plants and agro-indus-
trial by-products in livestock feed and to develop
strategies to manage these resources effectively so
that tannins do not produce adverse effects. Some
of the beneficial effects of tannins are enhancement
of rumen undegradable protein and making feed
protein available post-ruminally for production pur-
poses, enhancement of efficiency of microbial pro-
tein production, and protection of ruminants from
bloat. Some tannins are also known to have strong
anti-carcinogenic and anti-oxidant activities.
Protection of protein from degradation in the
rumen. The potential benefits of tannins containing
temperate forages, e.g. Lotus corniculatus, Lotus
pedunculatus, and Hedysarum coronarium have
been demonstrated in numerous studies in New
Zealand Min et al., 2003). Lately few studies have
appeared showing beneficial effects of strategically
feeding of tannin-rich tropical plants.
Feeding of 100 g of air-dried Acacia
cyanophylla leaves with 200 g of soya bean meal
increased daily gain of lambs, offered oaten hay-
based diets, by 55 %, possibly as a result of pro-
tection of soya bean protein from degradation in
the rumen by the leaf tannins and an increase in
protein availability post-ruminally. To achieve such
effects, soya bean meal should be offered after
consumption of the acacia leaves. Under these
conditions, diet total phenols (as tannic acid equiva-
lent) : diet protein, and total tannins (as tannic acid
equivalent): diet protein ratios were 0.043 and
0.021 respectively. Inclusion of higher amounts of
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Acacia leaves to the concentrate had adverse ef-
fects on productivity (Ben Salem et al., 2005).
Similarly, Bhatta et al. (2000) showed inclusion of
7.5 % of tamarind (Tamarindus indica, Linn) seed
husk in the concentrate diet (0.75 % tannin content
in the diet) increased milk production and growth
rate, which was attributed to the protection of di-
etary protein from degradation in the rumen. Nsahlai
et al. (1999) also demonstrated the potential use of
tropical tanniniferous shrub/tree foliage to increase
the proportion of rumen undegradable protein in
sheep diets. They ascribed the increased growth
rate in sheep fed on teff straw and supplemented
with oilseed cakes with small amounts of Acacia
albida pods, rich in condensed tannins, to increased
organic matter and nitrogen intake and/or to a more
efficient use of nutrients. A simultaneous benefit
obtained in these studies was the partitioning of
excreted nitrogen in a manner that lower nitrogen
was excreted in the urine and higher in the faeces,
thus making available manure with higher level of
nitrogen for crop production. In the tropical coun-
tries, up to 70 % of urine-nitrogen can be lost to
the environment. Lower release of nitrogen in urine
by tannins will decrease environmental pollution.
Increase in efficiency of microbial protein syn-
thesis. Microbial protein synthesis in vitro, expressed
as 15N incorporation into microbes per unit of short-
chain fatty acid production is higher in the presence
of tannins. Although tannins decrease the availability
of nutrients, they cause a shift in the partitioning of
nutrients so that a higher proportion of available
nutrients is channelled to microbial mass synthesis
and lesser to short-chain fatty acid production
(Makkar, 2003). These results suggest that the in
vivo beneficial effects of tannins, at low levels of
intake, could also be due to higher efficiency of
microbial protein synthesis in the rumen.
Decrease in the protein degradability of feed
protein in the rumen and increase in the efficiency
of microbial protein synthesis are beneficial for ru-
minants, since they increase the supply of non-am-
monia nitrogen to the lower intestine for production
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purposes. In addition, these effects lead to protein-
sparing effects in ruminants and decrease methane
emission and nitrogen excretion to the environment,
thereby reducing emission of environmental pollut-
ants besides producing more meat, milk and wool.
It is important to know the levels of tannins for such
positive effects to realise. The concentration of tannins
should not be too high so that the true digestibility
of the substrate is appreciably decreased. At these
high concentrations of tannins, the advantage pro-
vided by the higher efficiency of microbial protein
synthesis (higher proportion of truly degraded sub-
strate leading to microbial mass synthesis) will be
offset by the absolute lower amount of truly de-
graded substrate. Feeding strategies need to be
designed to exploit the beneficial effects of tannins.
Other beneficial effects of tannins. Tannins also
protect ruminants from bloat and have anthelmintic
effects (Kahn and Diaz-Hernandez, 2000). In the past
decade, many reports have emerged showing anthel-
mintic effects of tannins/polyphenols and the benefits
they could provide to livestock by decreasing nema-
tode load in extensive production systems based on
grazing (Singh et al., 2003). These effects on nema-
tode are attributed to an improved protein supply due
to increased rumen undegradable protein and their
availability postrumen and to the direct action of
tannins against nematodes. Recently in Tunisia, it was
shown that Acacia cyanophylla foliage, a tannin-rich
legume shrub species, has an anti-parasitic effect in
sheep. The faecal worm egg count in Barbarine lambs
fed previously on oaten hay reduced by 68 % on
feeding Acacia foliage for 25 days. However, inclu-
sion of the legume did not affect the composition and
the structure of the parasite genera recovered after
copro-culture (Akkari et al., 2006).
Legume tannins could also enhance quality of
the silage by preventing excessive degradation of
feed proteins. Tannins from browses are also effec-
tive against Clostridium perfingens and can be used
to control C. perfingens mediated diarrhoea in pigs
during the change of feed from liquid to solid feed
(Makkar, 2003).
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Hydrolysable tannins, 4,6-0-isoterchebuloyl-D-
glucose and isoterchebulin present in terminalia
macroptera bark have antimicrobial activity against
Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis
(Conrad et al., 2001). Another hydrolysable tannins,
punicalagin present in some Ethiopian medicinal
plants was active against Mycobacterium tubercu-
losis strains (Asres et al., 2001). Tannins from
Vaccinium vitis-idaea could be used for treatment
of periodontal diseases since they have antimicro-
bial activity against Porphyromonas gingivalis and
Prevotella intermedia (Ho et al., 2001). Tannins
from bearberry and cowberry have also been shown
to have antibacterial effects against Helionactor
pylori (Annuk et al., 1999), Syzygium jambos,
Styaphyloccus aureus and Yersinia enterocolitica
(Djipa et al., 2000). The use of tannins for control
of mastitis should be considered. This is of particu-
lar importance in organic animal agriculture.
Proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins), both
in free form and bound to proteins, have been
shown to have free radical scavenging abilities and
decreased the susceptibility of healthy cells to toxic
agents. Tannins isolated from leaves of various
multipurpose trees and browses have
anticarcinogenic activity (Perchellet et al., 1996).
Most polyphenols have strong antioxidant proper-
ties and inhibit lipid peroxidation and peroxygenases.
Pistafolia A, a gallotannin has strong free radical
scavenging properties (Wei et al., 2002). A num-
ber of hydrolysable tannins including ellagitannins
and 1-o-galloyl castalagin and casuarinin (present
in Eugenia jambos) have been shown to have ac-
tivity against cell carcinomas and tumor cell lines
(Yang et al., 2000). Catechins, polyhydroxylated
flavonoids are widely present in browses and tree
leaves. These undergo considerable microbial and
tissue biotransformations, which are present in
blood. Efforts need to be directed on evaluation of
these novel compounds for enhancing animal health.
Tannins have also been found to affect meat
colour. Feeding of tannin-containing acacia or sulla
leaves or carob pulp has been found to produce
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
meat of lighter colour. The addition of tannin-inac-
tivating agent, polyethylene glycol reversed this ef-
fect, suggesting that the lighter colour produced is
due to tannins (Priolo et al., 2005). Decrease in
blood heamoglobulin and iron utilization by tannins
(Garg et al., 1992) could contribute to the lightness
of the meat. The lighter meat produced as a result
of tannin feeding could have consumer preference
in some regions. Fatty acid composition is associ-
ated to the risk or the prevention of several human
illnesses. Tannin-containing feeds could also increase
n-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid, and
lower n-6 fatty acids in meat, thus enhancing its
nutritional properties for human consumption. This
change possibily results from the inhibition of rumi-
nal biohydrogenation (Priolo et al., 2005).
Skatole exerts negative effects on meat flavour
and quality. Skatole is originated by deamination
and decarboxylation of the amino acid tryptophan
by rumen microbes. In vitro studies have shown
that condensed tannins from Lotus corniculatus
reduced the production of skatole, which was at-
tributed to decreased rumen protein degradation by
Lotus tannins (Schreurs et al., 2004). Tannins could
play a role in decreasing fat skatole in meat from
animals allowed to graze good quality grass and
other pastures containing high protein content (Vasta
and Priolo, 2006).
Toxicity by tannin-containing plants: The
presence of tannic acid, a hydrolysable tannin at a
level of 2 % in the fish (common carp; Cyprinus
carpio L.) diet produced adverse effects after day
28 of feeding. No such adverse effect was ob-
served in common carp on inclusion of 2 % que-
bracho tannin (a condensed tannin) in the fish diet.
In carp, toxicity of tannic acid is higher than of
quebracho tannin. Protein sources of plant origin
containing high amounts of tannins and in particular
hydrolysable tannins should be used with caution as
fish meal substitutes in carp diets (Becker and
Makkar, 1999). Oak poisoning from the consump-
tion of oak leaves and yellow-wood toxicity from
the leaves of Terminalia, Clidemia, and Ventilago in
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
livestock have been attributed to the presence of
hydrolysable tannins, in particular gallotannins
(McSweeney et al., 2003). Rumen microbes are
capable of degrading hydrolysable tannins. The
toxicity, therefore, appears to be due to absorption
of degraded products of hydrolysable tannins and
higher load of phenols in the blood stream, which
is beyond the capability of liver to detoxify them.
4. Plants containing multi-bioactive com-
pounds
Two widely occurring tropical plants, Moringa
oleifera and Jatropha curcas are discussed in this
section.
Moringa oleifera
Moringa oleifera Lam (synonym: Moringa
pterygosperma Gaertner) belongs to a monogeneric
family of shrubs and trees, Moringaceae. It is con-
sidered to have its origin in the northwest region of
India, south of the Himalayan Mountains.
Moringa seeds contain between 30-42 % oil,
which is edible and the press cake obtained as a
by-product of the oil extraction process contains a
very high level of protein. Some of these proteins
(approximately 1 %) are active cationic polyelec-
trolytes having molecular weights between 7-17 K
Dalton. The cationic polyelectrolytes proteins have
antibacterial properties and bind strongly with ru-
men microbes. At high levels of their incorporation,
rumen fermentation is inhibited, but at low levels
these protect feed proteins from degradation in the
rumen (Makkar and Becker, 1998 and hence can
be used to enhance rumen undegradable protein.
Gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria patho-
genic for humans showed only a slight reduction of
viability with the Moringa protein (Suarez et al.,
2005), while viability of E. coli was inhibited by
four orders of magnitude. The use of antibacterial
Moringa proteins for controlling mastitis is also being
investigated by us.
Moringa seeds have several compounds like
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
4-(á-L-rhamnopyranosyl-oxy)benzyl glucosinolate,
4-(4’-O-acetyl-á-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl
isothiocyanate, 4-(á-L-rhamnopyranosyl-oxy)benzyl
isothiocyanate, Niazimicin, and Pterygospermin,
Flavonoids (quercetin and kaempferol, quercetin,
kaempferol, rhamnetin, isoquercitrin, and kaemp-
feritrin) etc. with interesting activities. These com-
pounds are known to have anticancer, antibacterial
and hypo-tensive activities. Antioxidant activity of
these compounds has also been reported (Wim and
Jongen, 1996). These compounds also have the
potential to control agricultural and public health
insect pests (Tsao et al., 1996). Helicobacter py-
lori is a major cause of gastric and duodenal ulcers
and a major risk factor for gastric cancer. This bac-
terium was found to be highly susceptible to 4-(a-
L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate and
various other isothiocyanates, which are degraded
products of glucosinolates (Fahey et al., 2002;
Haristoy et al., 2005).
Pal et al. (1995) have reported that the metha-
nol fraction of moringa leaf extract possesses anti-
ulcer activity against induced gastric lesions in rats.
Flowers of Moringa are considered to possess
medicinal value as a stimulant, aphrodisiac, diuretic,
and cholagogue, and they have been also reported
to contain flavonoid pigments such as quercetin,
kaempferol, rhamnetin, isoquercitrin, and
kaempferitrin (Nair and Subramanian, 1962). The
administration of extracts of Moringa leaves along
with high-fat diet to rats decreased the high-fat diet
induced increases in serum, liver and muscle cho-
lesterol levels (Ghasi et al., 2000). Studies con-
ducted in our laboratory show that Moringa leaves
have very strong antioxidant activity. The flavonoids
such as quercetin and kaempferol were identified
as the most potent antioxidants in Moringa leaves.
Their antioxidant activity was higher than the con-
ventional antioxidants such as ascorbic acid which
is also present in large amounts in Moringa leaves
(Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003). Moringa leaves have
also been shown to increase breast milk produc-
tion. In Philippines, women consume Moringa leaves
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
to enhance breast milk production. In India, tribal
and indigenous people use fresh leaves as a natural
antioxidant in buffalo and cow ghee (butter oil)
preparation, which is considered to enhance shelf
life of ghee. The extracts of these leaves also ap-
pear to have cancer preventive effect, which was
assayed by the differentiating activity against human
promyelocytic leukaemia cells (HL-60) (Siddhuraju
and Becker, 2003).
Moringa seeds contain phytate, cyanogens and
glucosinolates. The pods of M. oleifera contain a
glycoside niazine possessing an o-nitrile
thiocarbamate group alongwith thiocarbonate, car-
bamate, and isothiocyanate glycosides, which are
considered to have hypotensive effects (Faizi et al.,
1997).
Jatropha curcas
Jatropha curcas (L), although a native of tropi-
cal America, is now available throughout Africa and
Asia. Various parts/products of the plant hold po-
tential for use as bio-fuel, animal feed, inclusion in
medicinal preparations and source of honey. Jatro-
pha plants have been mainly investigated as a source
of oil. The seed kernel of the plant contains about
60 % oil that can be converted into biodiesel. The
seed cake remaining after oil extraction is an excel-
lent fertilizer. The level of essential amino acids of
the defatted kernel meal are higher than that of
FAO reference protein except for lysine (Foidl et
al., 2001). However the presence of high levels of
antinutrients (trypsin inhibitor, phytate and lectins)
and a toxic factors (phorbol esters) prevent its use
in animal feeding (Makkar and Becker, 1997a; Goel
et al., 2007c).
The Carp (Cyprinus carpio L) were found to
be highly susceptible to phorbol esters present in
the seed meal of the toxic variety of Jatropha curcas.
The threshold level at which phorbol esters caused
adverse effects was 15 ppm (15 µg/g) in the diet
(Becker and Makkar, 1998). Carp could be a useful
species for bioassay of phorbol esters.
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43
TROPNUTRICON - 2007
The phorbol esters are effective bio-pesticides
against diverse fresh water snails. Snails act as in-
termediate hosts of schistosomes in many tropical
countries. Extracts from J. curcas L. was found to
be toxic against snails transmitting Schistosoma
mansoni and S. haematobium (Rug and Ruppel,
2000). The phorbol esters from the Jatropha plant
could become an affordable and effective compo-
nent of an integrated approach to schistosomiasis
control. Jatropha oil or methanol extract of Jatro-
pha oil containing phorbol esters has also been
shown to have strong insecticidal (Mengual, 1997),
and pesticidal effects (Solsoloy and Solsoloy, 1997).
Jatropha seeds are also a good source of
phytate (Makkar and Becker, 1997b). Several ben-
eficial effects of phytate including cancer preven-
tion, reduction in iron-induced oxidative injury and
reversal of initiation of colorectal tumorigenesis, and
prevention of lipid peroxidation have been reported
(Singh et al., 2003).
Jatropha leaves are used to cure various dis-
eases. A novel cyclic octapeptide named as
curcacycline has also been isolated from Jatroph
latex. This cyclic octapeptide has been shown to
inhibit classical pathway activity of human comple-
ment, and proliferation of human T-cells (van den
Berg et al., 1995). Anti-inflammatory compounds
isolated from leaves are flavonoids apigenin and its
glycosides vitexin and isovitexin, the sterols stig-
masterol, beta-D-sitosterol and its beta-D-gluco-
side (Chhabra et al., 1990). The Jatropha latex
has a proteolytic enzyme, curcain which was found
to better wound healing properties than nitrofura-
zone (Nath and Dutta, 1997).
5. Conclusions and future perspectives
In the last decade there has been changing per-
ceptions regarding the therapeutic potential of vari-
ous plant secondary metabolites, which traditionally
have been termed as antinutrients. It is hoped that
the information collated and discussed here would
lead to further exploration and usage of plants or
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
natural plant products as a sustainable and environ-
mentally friendly approach (clean, safe, and green ag-
riculture) for decreasing environment pollutants and
enhancing animal productivity, which will be a 'win-
win' situation for both farmers and the society.
Levels of phytochemicals are both environ-
mentally induced as well as genetically controlled.
The concentrations of plant secondary metabolites
and their activities in biological systems vary with
maturity of the plant and plant parts, in addition
to soil conditions, water and light availability and
other environmental conditions in which the plant
is growing. This poses a challenge in the use of
plants or plant products in livestock, food or
cosmetic industry, because of batch-to-batch varia-
tion in the product quality. This demands the
availability of a simple but robust bioassay to
evaluate the quality of the product, based on the
property for which it will be used. A robust
bioassay could enable the estimation of the bio-
logical activity of a batch/product in a defined unit,
and different batches could be harmonized to
produce a product containing the same number of
unit every time. Another challenge, particularly for
ruminants, would be to beat the microbial adap-
tation and develop supplementation strategies to
obtain persistent effects. The activities of
phytochemicals are also diet dependent. Equally
challenging would be to integrate the use of plants
containing bioactive compounds in livestock and
aquaculture production systems.
6. Acknowledgement
The suggestions and inputs of Drs. George
Francis and Klaus Becker on the effects of sa-
ponins on fish growth and reproduction are thank-
fully acknowledged.
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Combined strategies guarantee mycotoxin control
Devendra S. Verma
Biomin, India
Numerous strategies are evolving for control
of mycotoxins, some clearly more practical and
effective than others. Novel approaches
combining different strategies that counteract
mycotoxins through diverse biological and
dietary interventions show greatest promise.
Mycotoxins are toxic chemical products formed
by fungal species, mainly those belonging to the
genera Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium, that
colonise crops in the field or after harvest and thus
pose a potential threat to human and animal health.
There are hundreds of mycotoxins known, but few
have been extensively researched and even fewer
have good methods of analysis available. The major
classes of mycotoxins, in terms of agricultural
relevance, are aflatoxins, zearalenone, trichothecenes
(e.g. deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin), ochratoxin A,
fumonisins and the ergot alkaloids. In farm animals
a mycotoxin-contaminated diet may lead to
substantial economic losses due to feed refusal, poor
feed conversion, diminished body weight gain,
immune suppression, interference with reproductive
capacities and residues in animal products.
Mycotoxins exhibit a great variety of biological
effects in animals: specific tissue damage, central
nervous system effects and digestive disorders, to
name a few. However, mycotoxin-related losses in
performance, reproductive disorders and immune-
suppression, resulting in a higher susceptibility to
disease, are of major concern.
Even though recommended agricultural
practices have been implemented to decrease
mycotoxin production during crop growth,
harvesting and storage, the potential for significant
contamination still exists. According to the Food
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), at least 25%
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of the world’s crops are contaminated with
mycotoxins, despite increased efforts of prevention.
The significance of these unavoidable, naturally
occurring toxicants to human and animal health are
reflected in the increase in mycotoxin regulations
and global trans-shipment of agricultural commodities
and highlight the need to provide successful
counteracting strategies.
No single treatment
Certain treatments have been found to reduce
levels of specific mycotoxins. However, no single
method has been developed that is equally effective
against the wide variety of mycotoxins which may
co-occur in different commodities. Moreover,
detoxification processes that appear effective in
vitro (i.e. in the laboratory) do not necessarily retain
their efficacy when tested in vivo (i.e. in feeding
trials).
The efficacy of physical treatments (e.g.
washing, separation, roasting, UV irradiation, solvent
extraction) depends on the level of contamination
and the distribution of mycotoxins throughout the
grain. Subsequently the results obtained are uncertain
and often connected with high product losses.
Moreover, some of these physical treatments are
relatively costly and may remove or destroy essential
nutrients in feed.
Chemical methods require not only suitable
reaction facilities but also additional treatments
(drying, cleaning) that make them time consuming
and expensive. Only a limited number of tested
chemicals are effective without diminishing the feed’s
nutritional value or palatability. Treatment of
contaminated feed with ammonia was once the most
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
attractive method. Although early studies showed
this technique to be safe and effective, ammoniation
has not been approved by the US Food and Drug
Administration due to the potential toxicity and
carcinogenicity of the resulting products.
Over the course of several extensive research
projects involving scientists from all over the world,
a unique, continuously improved concept has been
developed to successfully deactivate agriculturally
relevant mycotoxins present in feed. The new
concept is based on three different mycotoxin-
counteracting strategies: (1) elimination of the toxin
(adsorption), (2) elimination of the toxicity (biotran-
sformation) and (3) elimination of toxin-related
effects.
Adsorption eliminates aflatoxins
The most well-known approach to
detoxification of mycotoxins involves the use of
nutritionally inert adsorbents with the capacity to
tightly bind and immobilise mycotoxins in the
gastrointestinal tract of animals, thus reducing their
bioavailability. In several independent scientific
studies, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates
(HSCAS) have proven to be the most promising
adsorbents. Mixed into feed they markedly diminish
aflatoxin uptake by the blood and distribution to
target organs, thus avoid aflatoxin-related diseases
and the carryover of aflatoxins into animal products.
Unfortunately the efficacy of these adsorbing
substances is quite limited against zearalenone
(ZEA), ochratoxin A (OTA) and fumonisins (FUM)
and totally ineffective for trichothecenes such as
deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 toxin and diacetox-
yscirpenol (DAS).
However, today adsorption is not only an
economically feasible, but a well-established and
scientifically proven approach to prevent
aflatoxicoses in farm animals. The efficiency of
aflatoxin-adsorption mainly depends on the chemical
properties of the adsorbent used. Several screening
studies carried out in cooperation with Austrian
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universities in order to find the best adsorbents with
regard to aflatoxin-deactivation and safe application
showed that a synergistic blend of minerals afforded
maximum, pH-independent activity at an inclusion
rate as low as 0.5 kg/t without removing essential
nutrients from the diet.
Biotransformation of trichothecenes, ZEA and
OTA
In the course of extensive research activities in
the field of biological detoxification (1988 – 2004),
“biotransformation” has been shown to be a unique
practical method to successfully counteract less- and
non-adsorbable mycotoxins. Defined as the
enzymatic degradation of mycotoxins leading to non-
toxic metabolites, biotransformation has been
successfully applied since 1991. Continuous
research finally led to the most recent development
of patented microbial supplements able to detoxify
all kinds of trichothecenes, zearalenone and
ochratoxin A.
A safe bacterial strain (Eubacterium sp.) was
found to have trichothecene-detoxifying activity and
was named BBSH 797 after the research team that
discovered it in July 1997: During its metabolism
BBSH 797 produces specific enzymes that eliminate
toxicity of trichothecenes by selective cleavage of
their toxic 12,13-epoxy group. Both in vitro and
in vivo efficacy of the strain were scientifically
proven.
In the course of a several-year research project,
the efficacy of the live yeast species Trichosporon
mycotoxinivorans, named after its unique property
to “eat” and thus detoxify both, zearalenone and
ochratoxin A was established. Incubation
experiments with the strain and subsequent cell
culture studies at the University of Utrecht in the
Netherlands proved successful in the degradation
of 1 ppm ZEA. Additional in vitro studies with
OTA-concentrations as high as 5 ppm revealed a
complete detoxification within a maximum of 1 hour.
In vivo activity of T. mycotoxinivorans was
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
investigated at the University of Gödöllö in Hungary.
Addition of the yeast strain to the diet clearly
improved weight development and feed conversion
rate of animals. Moreover, animal losses and cases
of diarrhea were lower in control and trial groups
(A, C, D, E, F) than in the toxin group (B).
A feeding trial conducted at the University of
Maribor in Slovenia revealed that the negative
influence of high OTA-doses (1 ppm) on the
performance of broilers could be totally neutralised
by addition of T. mycotoxinivorans. The final
weight of the trial group (toxin and yeast added)
was on average 83 g higher than that of the positive
control (toxin, no additive) and even better than the
negative control.
Elimination of toxin-related effects
The total number of mycotoxins is not known,
but toxic metabolites of fungi could potentially
number in the thousands. The number of mycotoxins
actually known to be involved in diseases is
considerably less, but even this number is difficult
to assess, due to the diversity of their effects on
animal systems.
Natural intoxications by mycotoxins are often
more complex than can be related to those
experimental studies utilising one mycotoxin.
Therefore, natural responses may be the result of
two or more toxins. The immune system, for instance,
is not only a key target of the major classes of
mycotoxins, but also of ergot and fescue alkaloids,
citrinin, patulin and gliotoxin, to name a few.
Hepato-toxic effects are not exclusively attributed
to aflatoxins, ochratoxins and fumonisins, but also
to sporidesmin (New Zealand, Australia: facial
eczema), rubratoxins and phomopsins (Australia,
New Zealand, South Africa, USA: lupinosis). All
of these will produce significant liver damage when
given to animals.
Finding successful detoxification strategies for
agriculturally relevant mycotoxins is not an easy task;
several years of intense research were necessary to
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the develop methods described above. However,
finding respective strategies for minor classes of
mycotoxins, that might act synergistically and
contribute to various mycotoxicoses, is probably
impossible. Thus, different methods are advised for
non-adsorbable and non-degradable toxins.
A blend of scientifically studied and carefully
selected plant and algae extract are have been
studied that are able to eliminate toxin-related effects
such as immune suppression, liver-damage or
inflammation. Herbs that support immune function
are general immune-system-stimulators
(immunostimulants). They increase resistance by
mobilising “effector cells” which act against all foreign
particles rather than just one specific type. Immune-
stimulating extracts have been selected using different
in vitro test systems. Numerous preparations of
plant and algae origin were compared in a
macrophage activation assay. Macrophages are one
of the major cells of the unspecific immune system
responsible for consuming invading microbes (i.e.
for phagocytosis of pathogens). Thus, substances
which are able to enhance the activity of
macrophages lead to enhanced phagocytic activity
and subsequently to a strengthened immune system.
A synergistically acting blend of plant and algae
extracts finally gave the best results. The immune
stimulating effects of these substances were further
confirmed in a lymphocyte proliferation test.
The liver-protecting effect of some plant derived
substances was demonstrated in a broiler feeding
trial carried out at the National University of
Colombia. A total of 144 chicks were fed a
commercial starter mash ration which contained the
hepato-protective additive and/or two hepato-toxic
substances: pyrrolizidine alkaloids and aflatoxin B1
(200ppb). A clear difference (52.5 g) in body weight
gain was observed between the toxin and the trial
group. Feed intake and relative liver weights
followed a similar trend, indicating that the birds
completely overcame the adverse effects caused by
the hepato-toxic substances.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Conclusion
The isolation and characterisation of
microorganisms that are able to bio-transform
mycotoxins in the intestinal tract of animals is a
major breakthrough in successful mycotoxin control.
The biological methods described above may
become the technology of choice, as enzymatic
reactions offer a specific, irreversible, efficient and
environmentally friendly way of detoxification that
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leaves neither toxic residues nor any undesired by-
products. Research teams working in this field are
convinced that combinations of selected adsorbing
agents and bio-transformation methods will ensure
an effective control against mycotoxins taken in with
contaminated feeds. Selected plant and algae extracts
that counteract effects of non-degradable and non-
adsorbable toxins complete the picture for control
of mycotoxins to bare minimum possibility.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Nutritional challenges for poultry and pigs in the

post antibiotic era
S. S. Sikka and Jaswinder Singh*
Department of Animal Nutrition, *Department of Veterinary & Animal Husbandry Extension,
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana-141004, India

Use of antibiotics as growth promoters (AGP)
in pig and poultry feeds started with from their dis-
covery in the late 40’s. The exact mechanism as to
how AGP’s promote growth is not entirely clear. It
is widely assumed that AGP’s act mainly through
their effect on intestinal flora. With less than 10% of
intestinal microflora identified, there has been little
chance of fully understanding AGP’s mode of ac-
tion. It is postulated that AGP’s allow the animal to
express their natural potential for growth which is
achieved through their direct influence on bacteria
in the gut ( Bedford 2005). AGP’s benefit the live-
stock by reducing the total number of intestinal
micro-organisms and /or creating a more favourable
balance between beneficial and non-beneficial ones.
AGP’s are directly responsible in depressing the
microbial growth in the gastro-intestinal tract which
in tern results in reduced gut motility, reduced mu-
cin secretion, reduced toxin (eg ammonia and bio-
genic amune from protein formulation) production,
increase digestive enzyme output, the uptake of nu-
trients along the alimentary canal hereby improving
the dig. and reduce the opportunity for harmful bac-
teria to establish in the gut.
The overall outcome of use of AGP’s is the
availability of more nutrients for growth and produc-
tion. Antibiotics as routine feed additives are used at
low concentration which appears to prevent some
diseases. Over use of antimicrobials may diminish their
effectiveness and the strains of resistant bacteria
would arise. Of the 1,415 micro-organisms known
to cause diseases in humans 60% are ZOONOTIC.
The situation become more alarming as resistant
genes, through the food chain, are flowing freely be-
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tween animal and human bacteria. Of great concern
was the possibility that resistance generated on the
farm could lead to a loss of effectiveness of key anti-
biotics in human medicine. Therefore EU has banned
the most of AGP’s in the feed from 2006. Ban on use
of AGP’s has created the need to explore the alter-
natives that can improve the general health status and
enhance the immunity to fight against disease (Bosi
& Trevisi, 2006).
Barriers: Prevention of harmful bacteria from
entering the intestines by the oral route is the first
line of defence. Acidic conditions of the stomach
due to the secretion of hydrochloric acid acts as a
powerful antimicrobial barrier. This mechanism is
inadequately developed in the newly weaned pig-
lets. Lactic acid originating from the fermentation of
lactose by lactic acid bacteria (naturally occurring
and probiotic additives) is helpful but limited by the
relatively small amount of bacterial activity in the
stomach and proximal small intestine. Anything that
increases acid production post weaning (Prebiotic
SCFA, Probiotic Lactic Acid) can enhance antimi-
crobial competence and improve the barrier to orally
acquired pathogens.
Bacterial metabolism: The main end prod-
ucts of bacterial carbohydrate metabolism are ac-
ids, short chain fatty acids (SCFA) mainly acetic,
propionic and butyric acids. SCFA are weak or-
ganic acids with bacteriostatic properties in com-
mon with the organic acids used as preservatives.
SCFA play an important role in the prevention of
potentially harmful bacteria escaping the stomach
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

and migrating forward through the small intestine, the number of cells in the pig body. The intestinal mi-
but more important is the reverse flux of harmful croflora have important and differing effects, includ-
bacteria from hind gut to small intestine. The pres- ing regulation of epithelial cell turnover, competition
ence of fermentable carbohydrates in the pigs diet for ingested nutrients, modification of digestion, com-
reduce protein fermentation, reducing toxic sub- petitive exclusion of pathogens, metabolism of mu-
stances such as ammonia, amines, skatol and in- cus secretions and modulation of mucosal immunity
dole. Higher butyrate concentrations contribute to a (Hooper et al., 2002). To make the environment con-
healthier intestine because butyric acid is a strong ducive for the beneficial bacteria pre and probiotics
stimulator of the gastrointestinal cell growth, not only are added in the feed. These are beneficial nutritional
for the colonocytes, but also for the enterocytes of modifiers for monogastrics. The use of the AGP’s is
the small intestine. (Pouillard 2003). Immune cells declining and the recent trends are to use their alter-
form part of the intestinal epithelial lining who’s native (Table 1).
function is to monitor, react and coordinate a re-
Table 1. Potential alternatives to AGP
sponse to the components of the intestinal microf-
lora. Pre and probiotics increase the chances of a Compound Relative Comments
favourable response to the monitoring process, effecti-
veness
minimising immune activation with its highly benefi-
AGP +++++ Standard for comparison
cial impact on appetite and nutrient partitioning to
Zinc oxide ++++ Decrease in scoured & im-
growth. Growth responses to Pre and Probiotics proved performance
achieve statistical significance during the first 14 days Plasma protein +++ Increased feed intake and im-
after weaning of piglets which confirms they can be proved growth performance.
fast acting in their influences. (Corrent, 2002). Specific antib- ++ Limited data but potentially
odies (egg yolk) promising
Balance of gut microflora: There is a deli- Organic acids +++ Most effective in newly
cate balance between the beneficial bacteria (Lac- weaned pig and grower chick
tobacilli, Bifidobacteria and Eubacteria) and the DFM ++ Promote beneficial bacteria in
potential pathogenic bacteria (E Coli, Salmonella, the gut
Staphylococci, Listeria, Shigella, Veillonella, Prebiotics ++ Promote beneficial bacteria in
the gut
Brachyspiro (Serpulina), Clostridia and
Enzymes ++ Improve digestibility of feed
Coliforms) in the gut . The ideal ratio between ingredients and subsequent
beneficial and pathogenic bacteria should be 9:1 improved gut health
which is subject to alteration due to factors like Botanicals/ + Many potential products
drug administration, stress, environmental and man- nutraceuticals which promotes growth
agemental changes, spoiled feed or change in gas- Essential oils + Improve growth
tric pH. The pig monitors what bacteria are within
its gut and reacts to what is there. Pigs grow faster The search for replacements has been severely
or slower according to what it ‘sees’ in its gut! hampered by a lack of understanding of how AGP’s
work. The interest of nutritionists is increasing to-
The digestion efficiency in poultry and pigs de- wards natural substances like botanicals, herbs,
pend upon the microorganisms which live naturally in nutraceuticals, enzymes etc. During the recent past,
its digestive tract. The microbial population present
research activities were focused on the area of use
in the intestine of chicken comprises more than 90%
of phytogenic feed additives and botanicals / herbs.
of all the living cells in the bird. At least five hundred
bacterial species colonise the pigs intestine ( 1011 cfu/ Several foods/feeds contain certain compounds
g intestinal contents). This is ten times more cells than that improve the growth and production efficiency
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
by providing either the nutritional balance, improv-
ing the metabolism or preventing the disease. More-
over at the same time there is increased interest
over the food safety, environmental contamination
and the general health risks which have made
NATURAL the norm, promoting the trend towards
alternative strategies to manage and feed the poul-
try birds and pigs without reliance on antibiotics.
Such foods are labeled as pronutrients, adaptogens,
dietetics, nutracines, nutraceuticals or multifunctional
additives.
Nutraceuticals: The term nutraceuticals is a
combination of nutrients and pharmaceutical. Their
use is not a newer concept, but it is an example of
history which is repeating itself.
Year Prevailing medical advice
2000 BC Here eat this root
1200 AD This root is heathen , say this prayer
1500 AD Prayer are superstitious, drink this potion
1900 AD This potion is snake oil, Swallo this pill
1950 AD This pill is ineffective, take this antibiotic
2000 AD This antibiotic is synthetic, eat this root.
Word ‘Nutraceutical’ was first coined by
Stephen Defelice, the founder Chairman of “Foun-
dation for Innovation in Medicine (FIM)”. Booth
(1997) defined veterinary nutraceuticals as a non
drug substance that is produced in purified or ex-
tracted form and administered orally to provide
agents required for normal body structure and func-
tion with the intent of improving health and well
being of animals.
Recently, Sarah (2003) reported that
nutraceuticals must improve the performance effec-
tively & economically, with little therapeutic use,
without causing cross resistance to other antibiotic
at actual use level, without involving with transfer-
able drug resistance, without causing any deleteri-
ous disturbance to the normal gut flora and should
not create environmental pollution. Moreover these
must be non toxic to the animals and its handlers.
Nutrition based health (NbH):- A new con-
cept, according to this concept feed and feeding
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
programmes must be designed to reduce stress and
to assist the animals in resisting disease challenges
(Adams, 2005). Judicious use of various nutrients
and bioactive feed components like acidifiers, anti-
oxidants, bacterial inhibitors, enzymes, flavours etc.
to support animal health is the right approach of
NbH.
A term ‘pronutrient’ i.e. a micro ingredient
included in the formulation of animal feed in rela-
tively small amounts with specific physiological and
microbiological functions different from any other
nutrient is included in the feed additive list. Many
active ingredients from plants must be considered
pronutrients due to their effects against the coloni-
zation of different pathogenic organism and stimu-
lation of beneficial bacteria eg zinger for the treat-
ment of dysentery.
Broadly nutraceuticals / natural therapy is clas-
sified as Herbs & Botanicals, Antioxidants (Vita-
mins C, A, beta carotene), Enzymes and Prebiotics
and Probiotics or Direct Fed Mcrobials (DFM).
Herbs/botanicals: Vegetative parts of the
plants (leaves, bark, fruit, roots, seed and their ex-
tract) containing a variety of chemical compounds
that are used as body restoratives are called herbs.
While drugs are made from any part of plant,
(root, leaves, bark etc) essential oils or any of a
class of volatile oils obtained from plants, possess-
ing the odour and other characteristic properties of
the plant, used chiefly in manufacture of perfumes,
flavours and pharmaceutical extract after hydro dis-
tillation.
These chemical compounds are active in alter-
ing the physiological and biochemical processes in
the body. Herbs and spices have compounds with
antibacterial effects for example garlic contain alli-
cin and ajoene which exhibits broad spectrum anti
microbial properties (Naganawa et al., 1996) and
is effective in reducing cholesterol of liver, breast
and thigh muscle (Kopnjufca et al., 1997). Another
example is of Yucca Schidiger which improve growth
& FCR (Headon et al. 1991).
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Botanicals / herbs help in improving the per-
formance by several ways like reducing the stress
associated with handling, transport and poor health
by providing nutrients and or active principles which
act as anti stress agents, Being adaptogenic manage
stress and improve egg production in birds, Increase
the feed consumption due to the flavours present,
Ensure the normal gut functioning, Improve the di-
gestion by activating digestive secretions, Improve
the feed conversion efficiency there by growth and
production, Improve the liver functioning, Act as
toxin binder and reduce the risk of mycotoxicosis,
Normalize the kidney functioning, Improve the im-
munity as an immune modulater, Antioxidant, Act as
coccidiostat and anti helminthic, Stimulate endocrine
system, Stimulate intermediate nutrient metabolism,
Stabilize gut environment, Ameliorate the effect of
ANF’s present in the feed, Used for the treatment
of bacterial (Yuan et al., 1993), viral (Yu & Zhu,
2000) and parasitic diseases (Pang et al., 2000),
Reducing ammonia and other noxious gases in the
GI tract through their binding to the saponins and
excreted in the excreta and Reducing the ascitic
mortality in broilers (Menocal, 1995).
These properties of various herbs are due to
the active secondary metabolites which belong to
class of isoprene derivatives, flavonoides and
glucosinolates. Intercation between different active
components within and between extract may have
either cummulative or antagonistic effect. Use of
herbs in poultry and pig feeds are now gaining
momentum as it claim to have no side effect, safe
and eco friendly. A term botanical / natural broiler/
pig can be used when only botanical / natural materials
are used for enhancing performance and prevention
of disease. Use of some herbs in poultry feeds is
recently reviewed by Sikka and Singh, (2007).
Activity of herbs: Do the herbs have always
the same activity? No, the desired activity of herbs
is not always same due to variability of the compo-
sition of plant secondary metabolites, environmental
conditions, different harvesting time, stage of matu-
56
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
rity, method of extraction and conservation, anti nu-
tritional factor and nature of diet in which it is supple-
mented because it have to compete with nutrients
present in the feed.
Prebiotics: Prebiotics are short chained non-
digestible compounds present in feed ingredients.
These are mainly oligosaccharides (2-20 units of
monosaccharides) and are found in soybean and
rapeseed meal. Legumes, cereals and yeast cell walls
contain respectively á-galactooligosaccharides
(GOS), fructooligosaccharides (FOS) and
mannanoligosaccharides (MOS). Some prebiotics
are selectively fermented by Lactobacilli,
Bifidobacteria and Eubacteria. Whilst being poorly
utilised by the potentially harmful bacteria listed
above. Both pre and probiotics modify the gut
microbial population balance by promoting the
growth of beneficial flora in the intestines (Flickinger
& Fahey 2002) thereby providing a healthier intes-
tinal environment.
It is generally accepted that high villi : crypt
depth ratios are indicators of a healthier and more
efficient intestinal mucosa. Prebiotics have a benefi-
cial effect on the gut integrity especially in the distal
end of small intestine, the area with the greatest
levels of fermentation. In a recent experiment, it
was observed that ratios were enhanced in distal
area, with enhanced fermentation along the entire
small intestine (Decuypere, 2003).
Through a variety of mechanisms prebiotics
are thought to increase resistance to infection. Vari-
ous proposed modes of action are enhancement of
the physical barrier (modulation of paracellular per-
meability, mucosal trophic action), Improved
functional barrier (mucosal immunity), Competitive
adhesion to epithelial receptors. Increased SCFA
production along the gastro-intestinal tract, Induc-
ing a shift to a more saccharolytic (carbohydrate
fermenting) flora, Reduction of intestinal pH and
reducing the colonization of harmful bacteria, Ex-
creting harmful bacteria, Competitive exclusion
(colonisation resistance).
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Galacto-oligosaccherides (GOS), Mannanolig-
osaccharides (MOS), Fructo- oligosaccharides
(FOS) are frequently used in poultry (Ishihara et
al., 2000, Zhang et al., 2003) diets. FOS (deriva-
tive of inulin) stimulate the growth of Bifido bacte-
ria, improve the mucosal morphology of the colon
(Howard et al., 1995) and inhibit the growth of
pathogenic microorganism such as clostridia and
salmonella(Wang & Gibson 1993). Chen et al.,
(2005) revealed the increase in egg production and
feed efficiency of layer with the use of dietary
oligofructose and inulin. The inulin is required for
the growth of Lactobacilli (Gibson, 1999). FOS
has been reported to improve growth in the weaned
pigs by 5.1 % and feed efficiency by 2.0% (Mul &
Perry, 1994) On the other hand MOS found to
improve daily weight gain by 7.4% and feed utili-
zation by 5.2 % in nursery pigs. Spring and
Privulescu (1998) revealed that oligosaccharides
stimulate the secretion of cytokine and there by
enhance the immune system of the pig to resist
pathogenic bacterial challenge.
Probiotics : The live microbial food supple-
ment which when fed improve the intestinal micro-
bial balance of the host are called probiotics or
Direct Fed Microbials (DFM’s). Probiotics im-
prove the survival with better growth, better feed
conversion and inhibition of diarrhea in piglets. Lac-
tobacilli, Streptococci, Bi-fidobacteria, Bacillus,
Bacteriods, Pediococcus, leuconostoc, Propionibac-
terium, and some yeast (Saccharomyces cerevesiae)
and fungi (Asperzillus oryzae) are commonly used
DFM’s. B Subtilis and B licheniformis are com-
monly used in nursery pig rations as they are spore
forming and are able to resist the environmental
conditions of high temperature and moisture occur-
ring during the pelleting process. Probiotics should
be given once or twice, after which the bacterium
should establish itself in the alimentary canal and
replace disease-promoting micro-organisms but
results are not convincing. Furthermore, it is prac-
tically impossible that probiotic bacteria could es-
tablish themselves in a stable alimentary canal sys-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
tem. Therefore these must be added to the feed on
a daily basis. Use of probiotic bacterial cultures
have greater effect during the early stages of growth,
when, the gut is sterile and when the alimentary
flora of pigs are unstable, viz after weaning and
subsequent to an extended period of treatment with
antibiotics. Probiotics, improve health and growth
by modifying intestinal microbial balance by several
ways given below.
Competitive exclusion, Adhering to intestinal
mucosa (Jonsson and Conway, 1992), Preventing
attachment of pathogens, (Green & Sainbury, 2001),
Production of antimicrobial compunds (Hentges,
1992) such as bacteriocins and organic acids,
Competition with pathogens for nutrients (Freter,
1992), Stimulation of intestinal immune responses,
affect the permeability of the gut and Increase up-
take of nutrients; Lee et al., 1999).
Some bacterial cultures when fed in single or
multiple (few doses) to newly hatched birds estab-
lish an intestinal flora quickly and it prevents colo-
nization by pathogenic bacteria. For example lacto-
bacilli acidophilus produces lactocidin which has an-
tibacterial effects on E Coli. Lactobacilli modify gut
pH, competition for nutrients and absorption sites,
boost cell immune response, inhibition of bacterial
growth by hydrogen peroxide production and cell
signaling to turn off pathogenic function (Fuller,
1999). Competitive Exclusion(CE) preparations are
not always pure cultures of bacteria and their mi-
crobial composition may not be completely known.
Some CE cultures have proven effective in protect-
ing chicks from Salmonella infections.
Interest in the use of probiotics in poultry and
pig diets is to curtail sub-therapeutic doses of an-
tibiotics in feed. Like antibiotics, probiotics appear
to have a more pronounced effect on farms where
housing and hygiene are not optimal. Thomke and
Elwinger, 1998). Supplementation of probiotics
containing Lactobaccilus acidophilus, Streptococ-
cus faecium and yeasac @ 0.025% in the diets of
broilers were found to be beneficial in early stage
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
of growth. Supplementation of yeast culture at 0.1
% level increased the body weight and performance
of broilers due to quantitative and qualitative alter-
ation in the digestive tract flora with better nutrient
utilization. Use of combination of several strains at
a time improved the weight gain and feed efficiency
in broilers (Mazurkiewicz et al. 1992) and in chicks.
Feeding of mixture of S. Cerevisae, L.Bulgaricus
and S. thermophilus did not show any effect on the
production of layers (Svetic et al. 1996).
In pigs the intestinal microflora is capable of
resisting the establishment of certain intestinal patho-
gens (Lopez & Marquez 1994). Bera & Samanta
(2005) fed probiotics ( alone or in combination) to
the piglets and reported superior growth perfor-
mance in the pre and post weaning periods with
yeast+MOS (YMOS), followed by Yeast + lacto-
bacillus (YL) and control (C) with higher profit.
Better FCR in pigs with yeast+lactobacillus and
yeast+MOS was observed (Bera & Samanta, 2005.
Inconsistent results reported earlier (Bhatt et
al., 1995, Bolder et al., 1993; Yadav et al., 1994,
Ramarao et al., 2004 and Panda et al., 2005) for
chicks ,broilers and layers, Mohan et al. 1996)
with the use of probiotics were due to variations in
bacterial cultures used, age, factors related to feed
composition and management practices adopted.
Variability in the results may be due to difference in
strain of organism used, dose levels, diet composi-
tion, feeding strategy, feed form and interaction with
other dietary feed additives (Chesson 1994)
Antioxidants : Nutrients in the body on oxi-
dation release energy for various metabolic processes
and physiological activities and to transform dietary
nutrients into body tissue along with generation of
heat. Autooxidation results in the production of free
redicals which damage the cellular tissue and cause
many disorders. To prevent autooxidation antioxidants
are frequently used. Nutritional antioxidants are very
helpful in reducing physiological stress both at an or-
gan and cellular level due to free radical formation.
Feed antioxidants help the birds and pigs by
58
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
protecting the feed nutrients during storage, Helping
the absorption of the oxidation sensible substances
in the GIT, Reducing aging by keeping the mem-
brane intact, Enable the system for better exploita-
tion of genetic potential, Improving the meat quality
of broilers and pigs.
In poultry diets mostly vitamins A, beta- caro-
tene, E, C and its calcium and sodium salts,
ethoxyquin, lecithin, butylated hydroxytoulene
(BHT), propyl gallate, chelated metal ions are used
as antioxidants. The beneficial effects of antioxi-
dants are due to their scavenging nature for free
radicals (Bulger & Hilton, 1998), maintaing the
potency of dietary vitamins and stimulating bird’s
immuno- responsiveness to infections. Antioxidant
defence system includes the enzyme superoxide
dismutase, catalase, & glutathione peroxidase. Dur-
ing stress free radicals in the body increase while
the level of these enzymes decrease. Ascorbic acid
also play a role in collagen synthesis, carnitine syn-
thesis along with its primary function of antioxidants
(Gross et al., 2000). It scavenges neutrophill oxi-
dants, hydroxyl radicals, hydrogen peroxide and hy-
pochlorous acid (Bulger & Hilton, 1998). Raju et
al. (2005) revealed that herbal Vit C (0.025%)
improve the performance of bird by alleviating the
effect of aflatoxicosis. Similarly the primary physi-
ological role of Vitamin E is to act as antioxidant
(Matthai, 1996). Many studies have shown that
supplementation of Vitamin C, E & A can attenuate
the side effects due to extreme environmental stress
(Njoku, 1986). Brahma Rasayana a polyherbal an-
tioxidant was found useful in ameliorating the ef-
fects of free redicals generated due to heat stress
(Ramnath et al., 2007). Herbs like garlic, green
tea, amla also posses antioxidant properties.
Organic acid/acidifiers: Organic acids pos-
ses antibacterial, anti mould activity and therefore
have long been used as preservative to prevent
spoilage of by checking microbial growth and are
also used to maintain the proper gut health. Gener-
ally two types (Feed and Gut) of acidifiers are used
in the feed industry. Feed acidifiers lower the pH of
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
the feed and inhibit the growth of pathogenic mi-
croflora. This inhibition reduces the micro flora
competing for the host nutrients and prevent the
occurrence of diseases which results in better growth
and performance. On the other hand gut acidifiers
(organic acid) acidify the intestinal tract and modu-
late the intestine bacterial population in a positive
and natural way. Since many harmful bacterial
species have pH optimum for their growth around
7 where as useful bacterial species such as Lacto-
bacillus and Enterococcus have their best growth
pH around 6., Maintenance of healthy gut for
proper productivity is of utmost importance.
Amongst various options available to poultry and
pig feed industry, short chain fatty acids have shown
tremendous promise in maintaining gut health through
their varied modes of action.
Acidifiers have various functions in monogas-
tric animals like help in maintaining an optimum pH
in stomach, Stimulate feed consumption, Inhibit the
growth and colonization of pathogenic bacteria,
Prevents damage to epithelial cells of intestines,
Reduce microbial competition with host for nutri-
ents, Reduce endogenous nitrogen losses, Lower
the incidence of sub clinical infections, Reduce the
production of ammonia and other growth depress-
ing microbial metabolites, Increase pancreatic se-
cretions, Increase protein and amino acid digestibil-
ity by correcting activation and function of pro-
teolytic enzymes, Improve energy digestibility, In-
crease mineral digestibility as acid ion complex with
minerals, Serve as substrates in intermediary me-
tabolism and have energy content, Check problem
of Salmonella, E. coli, entritis and diarrhoea in pigs.
Supplementation of organic acids improve the
weight gain, feed consumption and feed utilization
(Denli et al., 2003) reducing the production of toxic
components by pathogenic bacteria and reduces the
colonization of pathogens on the intestinal wall, thus
preventing the damage of the epithelial cells (Langhout,
2000). In poultry diets organic acids are mainly used
in order to sanitize the feed to avoid the problems
59
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
releated with salmonella (Berchieri & Barrow,1996).
However, the inability of citric acid at the dietary con-
centration up to 1 % to prevent the salmonella colo-
nization of the caeca. In poultry nutrition organic acid
have not gained as much attention as in swine nutri-
tion (Langhout, 2000). Edwin (2000) reported that
addition of 2% lactic acid to the diet without growth
promoters increased the weight gain by 2.6 % with
improved FCR. Propionic acid based products were
found effective in alleviating the enteritis and mortal-
ity syndrome in turkey poults ( Roy et al. 2002).
Several organic acid like citric acid, fumaric acid,
formic acid, propionic acid were tried on pig for their
impact on the growth performance (Partanen &
Mroz, 1999). Their supplementation in weaning pig
diets give most pronounced impact on the growth
performance (Roth & Kirchgessner, 1998). The in-
corporation of organic acids into nursery pig rations
has been shown to reduce bacterial load and increase
the digestibility of energy and amino acid in the ileum,
resulting in improvement in feed efficiency and re-
duction in the incidence of diarrhea. These pigs often
suffer from digestive problems due to infection of E
coli. An insufficient production of HCl, digestive en-
zymes and feeding of high protein pre starter diets
are another reasons for the digestive upset at this stage.
Supplementation of organic acid increases the gas-
tric proteolysis, protein and amino acid digestibility.
The acid anion has been shown to complex with Ca,
P, Mg, and Zn which results in an improved digest-
ibility of these minerals. Kirchgessner and Roth (1988)
also revealed the role of organic acid as substrates in
the intermediary metabolism. Supplementation of
1.5% citric acid to control diets did not significantly
effect the pH, concentration of VFA’s / non VFA or
microflora (total anarobes, Lactobacilli, Clostridia,
E. coli) in the contents from the stomach, jejunum,
caecum or lower colon of weanling pigs. Similar re-
sults were reported for the Fumaric acid. Sodium fu-
marate when added to a control pig diet at a level of
0.3%, no significant effect of acid on the concentra-
tion of SCFA and the density of lactobacilli or E coli
along the GI tract was observed. Supplementation
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
of 1 % lactic acid lower the gastric pH (Thomlinson
& Lawrence, 1981) and reduced the level of E coli
in the duodenum and jeunum of 8 week old piglets
(Cole et al. 1968). The addition of formic acid or
potassium diformate reduces the pH, (Fevrier et al.
2001) and number of coliform bacteria in stomach,
duodenum, jejunum and rectum of growing pigs
(Overland et al., 2000). It was reported the reduc-
tion of caecal pH with the addition of a formic acid/
propionic acid blend in a concentration of 1% in the
broiler chicken. Supplementation of benzoic acid
though not approved as an additive or preservative
in the pig or poultry feed but it is extensively used as
food preservative in human nutrition. The preliminary
results from the experiment with broiler chicken indi-
cate the positive influence on growth. It seems that
these short chain fatty acids can nearly compensate
for the effects of antibiotic growth promoters in pigs
, although these effects are less consistent.
Excess level of strong dietary acid can reduce
the pH too quickly after feed ingestion but the stom-
ach may not develop its parietal secretary cells that
produced HCl. This inhibits the normal gut devel-
opment. Therefore use of organic acids must be
done judiciously.
Essential oils: Essential oils are highly con-
centrated extracts produced by further refinement
of botanicals by hydro-distillation. Essential oils are
used as flavouring agents to increase their attrac-
tiveness of the feeds. Essential oils have antimicro-
bial, antioxidant, coccidiostatic and even antiviral
properties. (Wenk, C, 2003). Claims are also made
for increased digestive enzyme secretion and im-
proved immune function.
Essential oils are standardised products, often
based on a blend of plant metabolites such as
allylisothiocyanates, thymol, carvacrol, cinnama-
ldehyde, capsaicin, piperin etc. Use of Essential oils
in pig diets have improved performance with in-
creased appetite (Janroz,et al., 2003). There are
reports of synergy between organic acids and es-
sential oils. The synergy is thought to come from the
60
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
ability of the essential oils to weaken bacterial cell
walls, increasing its permeability to the organic acids.
Enzymes: Non starch poysaccahrides or NSP
( cellulose, glucans and xylans etc) ) of the cereal
grains (Henry, 1985) like wheat, rye, oats possess
antinutritive activity (Annison & Choct, 1991) which
leads to the formulation of viscous gel in the gut that
intrferes the proper absorption of nutrients (Choct
& Annison, 1992) and also produces sticky drop-
pings in poultry. Similarly phytic acid and its salts as
phytates present in the feedstuffs also binds minerals,
carbohydrates, proteins and form insoluble com-
plexes which make these nutrients especially miner-
als like phosphorus unavaiable to the birds and pigs
and are excreted in faeces. The supplementation of
exogenous enzymes in the diets decrease gut viscos-
ity and improve the availability of nutrients from
feed, lower the feed cost and help in reducing the
environmental pollution by minimizing the waste ex-
cretion. Exogenous enzymes in the diets young
animal complement the endogenous enzymes. Their
use in the poultry and pig feed industry has become
a routine (Sikka, 2003).
The enzymes in pig and poultry feeds are
added to counter ANF’s present in feed, To in-
crease the availability of dietary nutrients, To im-
prove the AME level of the feeds, To release the
bound nutrients, To supplement the enzymes pro-
duced by young chicks/piglets due to immature di-
gestive system, Pre treatment of certain feeds / in-
gredients such as feathers and offals.
Phytase enzyme was found to improve the
availability of phyatate phosphorus as well as other
organic nutrients. Eeckhout et al. (1992) revealed
that supplementation of phytase at 1000U/kg diet
increases P digestibility by 36-55% in maize soy
bean and 54-68% in wheat soybean diets given to
5 week old weaner. The supplementation of phytase
improve performance and mineral retention.
Similarly supplementation glycosidase has been
found to increase the energy utilization in birds.
Higher body weight gain and better feed efficiency
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
in Japanese Quails with supplementing of 0.05%,
non starch polysaccharidase (Edwin et al., 2004)
and in broiler Srivastava et al. (2005) with en-
zymes mixture of amylase, cellulose, lipase and
protease and in weaner pigs (Owsley et al. 1986)
with diminsihing digestive disturbance (Partridge &
Hazzledine,1997). The improvement was more in
young pigs than older one. The use of beta glucanase
and xylanase are beneficial with high fiber grains
like wheat, barley and their by products (Sikka &
Chawla 2002).Thomke et al. (1980) also reported
that b-glucanases could improve performance in
barley fed pigs. Alpha galactosiadse is used to
breakdown the galactose units in raffinose and
stachyose found in soyabean. The efficacy of en-
zyme supplementation depends upon types of diet,
animals, chemical linkage in the substrate that need
to be cleaved etc.
Augmentation of immunity - immuno modu-
lators: Nutrition and disease have close connec-
tion as the nutritional status of animal influence im-
munological function and resistance to disease.Health
status of the organism is influencing the animals
nutritional requirements. Many nutrients like protein
& energy (Praharaj et al. 1999), methionine (Swain
& Johri 2000), Vitamin A (Friedman & Sklan 1997),
Vitamin E &Se, Singh et al. 2006), Vitamin C and
trace element like Zn, Fe, Cu & Mn (Derdone
2002) have the immuno modulating ability. In pigs
nucleotides, B glucans (Diluzio & Jacques 1985),
vitamins, PUFA, antibodies from products such as
blood derivatives (eg, plasma protein), freeze dried
eggs containing pig related antibodies and possibly
some whey protein products have been reported
to improve the immune response. Reduced immune
activity promotes growth by increasing appetite and
partitioning nutrients to growth.
Idea concept: Immuno modulation through
nutrition gave birth to a new concept the ‘IDEA’
which stands for Impulse, Digestibility, Economic
and Advance. The IDEA concept seeks to enhance
immunity development, Giving opportunity for bet-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
ter nutritional management of birds, Reduce feed
costs, Reduce intestinal challenges by coccidia and
bacteria without the use of drugs, Conditioning the
gut for better coccidiosis management especially in
broilers. The IDEA concept is simple but an inno-
vative approach to feed management which rede-
fines the birds nutritional and management needs
during critical phases.
Supportive dietary modification: Bacterio-
static approach is supported by alteration in the diet
to reduce the amount of substrate available to the
intestinal microflora. Diets must be modified to re-
duce “By-Pass Nutrients”! This is best achieved
through increased digestibility of ingredients by the
addition of enzymes, herbs, probiotics, acidifiers etc.
The aim is to reduce the protein and carbohydrate
fraction of the diet which can escape digestion and
absorption and remain available as a food source for
microbial fermentation by intestinal microflora. Bac-
terial fermentation of indigestible protein produces
ammonia and biogenic amines which are toxic and
increase the risk of diarrhoea. Piglet starter diets must
be highly digestible and must encourage a shift to
protein fermentation in the hind gut by being ‘carbo-
hydrate’ deficient. The addition of fermentable car-
bohydrates (prebiotics) to pig diets reduces protein
fermentation through increased carbohydrate fermen-
tation in the hind gut. The reduced efficiency of bile
salts can be countered by adding emulsifying agents
(lecithin) directly to the diet and by improving the
saturated to unsaturated fatty acid ratio in the diet to
aid absorption. Alterations such as switching from
DL-Methionine to Liquid MHA-FA, an organic acid,
is another small change which can increase the anti-
microbial status of a pig diet. The efficiency of the
intestinal epithelium structure and function can be
upgraded with the use of Betaine
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Score of utilizing unconventional phophorus
supplements in broilers
R. P. S. Baghel
Department of Animal Nutrition
College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, JNKVV, Jabalpur, India
The poultry industry in India is the fastest grow-
ing sector of Indian agriculture. The production of
poultry meat has increased from 350.578 thousand
tons in 1995 to 600 thousand tons in 1999 (Mohanti
and Rajendran, 2003). Broiler production forms a
major segment of poultry industry. In the year 1997,
it was 630 million compared to mere 4 million in
the year 1971. As per the latest report, India has
about 650 million broilers and ranks 6th position in
broiler meat production (Executive guide, 2003-
2004). Broiler meat production at the same time
increased to 1,050,000 tones in 1997 from 1,
21,000 tones in 1971 (ICAR, 2002). At this age
of globalization poultry especially broiler industry is
facing many problems leading to poor margin of
profit.
In broiler farming, feed contributes about 65-
70 % of the total cost of production. Besides en-
ergy and protein the next important input in their
ration is mineral mixture. One of the acute mineral
problems that have been constantly faced by the
feed dealers and poultry owners is use of expensive
phosphorus supplement. Singhal and Baghel (2003)
reported the use of mineral mixture containing 57.6%
DCP @ 3% or that containing 74.9% DCP @ 2%
in broiler diet for their economical weight gain.
Animal protein supplements are rich in phosphorus
and are generally considered as totally available.
While, vegetable protein supplements are low in
phosphorus and their availability is only about 30%
of total phosphorus (NRC, 1994). Phytate and
phytic acid (or phytin) present in the plant sources
are generally regarded as a main storage form of
phosphorus in plant tissue. The amount of total
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
phosphorus bound as phytate phosphorus was high-
est in by product (73-84%) than oilseed meals (51-
82%) and cereal and millets (60-73%).
Now days, animal protein supplements spe-
cially fish meal which contain higher amount of phos-
phorus are being used in lower quantities in place
of vegetable protein supplements mainly due to pres-
ence of E. coli and Salmonella in them. Hence,
there is demand for higher use of inorganic phos-
phorus in poultry diet. But the production and avail-
ability of traditional phosphorus supplement (DCP)
is continuously decreasing in developing countries
like India because of ban imposed on use of bone
based dicalcium phosphate (DCP) in livestock feeds.
As a result their cost is steeply increasing. There-
fore, situation demands for use of alternate phos-
phorus supplements. A few alternate phosphorus
sources such as bone meal (BM), rock phosphate
(RP), heat treated rock phosphate (HTRP),
diammonium phosphate (DAP), single super phos-
phate (SSP) are available at relatively low price
compared to DCP and are being tried for their use
in poultry diet.
Use of rock phosphate (RP)
Rock phosphate is available economically. The
Ca: P present in it is like that of bone meal, which
is thought to be optimum. But, as the RP contains
high level of fluorine hence its inclusion in poultry
diet is limited due to possible risk of fluorine tox-
icity. The concentration of fluorine in RP varies
depending on the geographic sources (Lal and
Prasad, 1989; Rama Rao, 2001) and utilization of
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
phosphorus from it has been found to depend on
the concentration of fluorine. Elimination of fluorine
would render RP as a relative inexpensive source
of phosphorus and calcium for poultry feed. The
de-fluorinated RP contains fluorine in the range found
in steamed bone meal (0.05%).
Kick et al. (1933) reported that chicks could
not tolerate fluoride levels higher than 3,600 ppm in
their diet. While, Phillips et al. (1935) indicated that
growth of chicks was inhibited by feeding 70mg of
fluoride per Kg body weight per day. This level of
fluoride was found to cause reduced growth and feed
intake. Haman et al. (1936) observed that young
chicks and adult poultry exhibited higher tolerance
levels for fluorine than most mammalian species. Gerry
et al. (1947) reported that in growing chicks maxi-
mum safe dietary level of fluoride was 300-400 ppm
when fed as rock phosphate. Gerry et al. (1947 and
1949) further reported that raw rock phosphate con-
taining about 3.4 per cent of fluorine, even at 1 per
cent level depressed their growth. Weber et al.
(1968) observed that increased level of fluorine in
diet caused depression in growth rate but no signifi-
cant difference were obtained in FCR, total plasma
protein, body fat deposits, dietary metabolizable en-
ergy and liver and kidney enzymes (LDH, cytochrome
oxidase and succinic dehydrogenase) activity. How-
ever, significantly higher levels of alkaline phosphatase
were obtained in 1000 ppm fluorine fed group. Suttie
et al. (1982) reported that the dietary fluoride toler-
ances were at least 400 ppm for leghorn chicks, 300
ppm for broiler chicks and 200 ppm for turkey poults.
Abdelhamid et al. (1999) observed that feed-
ing graded levels of fluorine (0, 25, 125, 625 and
3125 ppm fluorine) from sodium fluoride for four
weeks (4-7 weeks of age) to broiler chicks re-
sulted poor growth, feed conversion, high mortality,
bone disorder, decreased relative weights of pitu-
itary, adrenal, heart, liver, spleen, lungs, kidney,
gizzard and changes in intestinal dimensions. Odongo
et al. (2002) used varying levels (0, 25, 50, 75 or
100 %) of Busumbu rock phosphate (BRP) on
performance and the mechanical properties of bone
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
in growing chicks and observed that DCP replace-
ment significantly reduced the weight gain and dry
matter digestibility but increased the feed to gain
ratio in chicks. Further, increasing levels of BRP in
the diet linearly reduced the % bone ash, Ca, Ca:
P ratio, ultimate breaking force, bending moment,
stress, and modulus of elasticity. These results sug-
gest that excessive ingestion of fluorine from the
BRP caused the reduction in chick’s performance.
Thomas et al. (2007a) observed that use of RRP
instead of DCP (40, 60, 80 and 100%) was highly
economical when DCP was replaced @ 40% and
it did not exert any detrimental effect on the carcass
traits of broilers (Thomas et al., 2007b). Further,
they also observed that HTRP can be used eco-
nomically instead of DCP in broiler diet (Thomas et
al., 2007c). The most economical level of replace-
ment DCP with HTRP was 80%.
Measures to reduce fluorine toxicity
Research indicates that addition of aluminium
sulphate greatly reduces the flurosis in hen. Storer
and Nelson (1967) observed the response of chicks
to various aluminium compound added to a purified
diet. When 0.5% aluminium from four water-soluble
compounds acetate, chloride, nitrate and sulfate was
fed, mortality approached or reached 100%. Lower
levels of aluminium as the chloride and the sulphate
adversely affected the rate of growth, feed effi-
ciency and bone mineralization. While, water-in-
soluble aluminium as the oxide and the phosphate
caused no adverse effect on performance. Cakir et
al. (1978) studied the alleviation of fluorine toxicity
in starting broiler chicks and turkey with aluminium.
Added fluorine level from sodium fluoride ranged
from 0 to 1000 ppm, whereas aluminium levels
varied from 0 to 800 ppm. Aluminium was fed ei-
ther as aluminium oxide or aluminium sulphate. When
fed as sulphate salt, 800 ppm of aluminium com-
pletely prevented toxic effect of at least 1000 ppm
of fluorine. Aluminium oxide was not effective as an
alleviator of fluorine toxicity. Johnson et al. (1985)
indicated that feeding high level of supplemental
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
niacin (0.8% calcium and 0.4 or 0.5% available
phosphorus with 0.5, 0.1 or 0.3% aluminium or
1.0 or 1.5% niacin or both resulted in decreased
bone strength in chicks with no change in mineral
content of the tibia. Aluminium fed at the level of
0.3% of diet caused a decrease in bone strength
with concomitant change in bone mineral content.
Thomas et al. (2007a) observed use of aluminium
sulphate @ 1% of fluorine content in the diet along
with RP either had no significant influence or re-
duced the net return significantly (P<0.05). Further
on similar type of diets Thomas et al. (2007b)
observed that use of RRP with aluminium sulphate
had no significant (P>0.05) influence on the carcass
traits of broilers.
Use of phosphatic fertilizers
To reduce the cost of mineral mixture uncon-
ventional phosphorus sources have been found to
replace DCP in broiler diet. It was observed that
ammonium phosphate can be used as a source of
phosphorus in practical chicken diet. However, its
use was found to reduce the weight gains in broilers
but differences were not significant. The inclusion of
ammonium polyphosphate, 17:17:17 or 28:28:0
(N :P :K) replacing 50% DCP in broilers diet re-
sulted in comparable body weight gains with those
fed DCP reference diet. However, significant de-
pression in weight gain and feed intake on feeding
ammonium phosphate or single super phosphate was
observed. Morever, performance of birds was de-
pressed in birds fed agricultural grade as compared
to feed grade phosphate.
Rama Rao and Reddy (2003) studied the rela-
tive bioavailability and utilization of phosphatic fer-
tilizer (ammonium phosphate, ammonium
polyphosphate, single super phosphate and NPK)
as a source of phosphorus in broilers and observed
that relative bioavailability of phosphorus from am-
monium polyphosphate was better for body weight
gain than ammonium phosphate, single super phos-
phate or NPK while the reverse was true for bone
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
calcification. They also observed that fertilizers con-
taining high fluorine (ammonium phosphate and single
super phosphate) or NPK reduced performance in
broilers and caused microscopic changes in liver,
kidney and intestine in broilers.
Barley et al. (2004) observed better perfor-
mance and economical weight gain in broilers as-
signed mineral mixture containing agriculture grade
mineral sources for zinc, manganese, and copper.
They concluded that agriculture grade mineral
sources can be safely used instead of laboratory
grade mineral sources.
Di Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) is a phos-
phatic fertilizer which contains nitrogen as well as
phosphorus. It contains about 17% N and 20%
phosphorus. The phosphorus content in it was much
more similar to the value present in DCP. Sharma
et al. (2003) tried to incorporate DAP instead of
DCP in broiler diet and observed that increase in
the level of DAP from 0 to 60% increased the
performance of broilers significantly. Examination of
visceral organs as liver, spleen, kidney, heart, proven-
triculus, gizzard and intestine confirmed that diet
had no significant effect on these organs. Grossly
no abnormality was observed. However, micro-
scopically liver showed hyperaemia only in few cases
especially in those fed higher levels of DAP. Further
Sharma and Baghel (2004) reported maximum
weight gain and better feed utilization along with
performance index in broilers assigned 60% DAP
instead of DCP in their mineral mixture. They real-
ized that even complete replacement of DCP pro-
duced better performance in broilers. However,
most economical performance was noted when
DCP was replaced by DAP @ 60% in their min-
eral mixture.
Like DAP, single super phosphate (SSP) a
phosphatic fertilizer has been also tried in broilers
diet as a source of phosphorus. Mishra et al. (2003)
indicated that use of 20% SSP instead of DCP did
not influence the weight gain significantly but when
it was increased to 40%, increased their weight gains
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
significantly. Gross and microscopic examination of
visceral organs like liver, spleen, kidney, heart,
proventriculus, gizzard and intestine did not reveal
any significant changes. Further, Mishra and Baghel
(2004) reported that use of 40% SSP instead of
DCP was responsible for significantly better perfor-
mance in broilers and higher use of it led to significant
reduction in their performance. Mishra and Baghel
(2007) also reported that dressed weight of broilers
were not influenced significantly due to use of vary-
ing levels of SSP instead of DCP with and without
ionophore. But use of ionophores led to significant
reduction in eviscerated and drawn weights of broil-
ers except in groups receiving 60% and 80% SSP
diets where lower drawn weights were observed.
Mishra and Baghel (2007a) indicated that use of SSP
with and without ionophore did not produce any
specific trend on the organ weights of broilers. As
regard processing losses Mishra and Baghel (2007b)
observed that use of SSP with and without iono-
phore had significant influence on the blood, feather,
wing tips, and shank and visceral fat losses but had
no influence on the head weight significantly. Use of
ionophore mostly did not exert any specific trend on
the processing losses.
Deo et al. (2005) evaluated the efficacy of
different phosphorus sources (calcium hydrogen
phosphate, diammonium phosphate and single su-
per phosphate) supplemented at graded levels in
broiler diet in comparison to feed grade DCP. The
performance of chicks in terms of body weight gain,
feed intake and FCR was superior in groups fed
DCP and single super phosphate supplemented diet
than calcium hydrogen phosphate and diammonium
phosphate supplemented diets. However, the di-
etary phosphorus levels did not affect body weight
gain, feed intake, FCR and serum calcium concen-
tration in chicks. They concluded that fertilizer grade
SSP can be used in broiler diet in place of costly
DCP as a phosphorus source without affecting
growth performance and blood parameters, at di-
etary available phosphorus level of 0.4%.
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
Use of phytase enzyme
To increase the phosphorus utilization in poultry, now
a days enzyme phosphate is used as a tool. Denbow
et al. (1995) studied the effect of phytase supple-
mentation on phosphorus availability in soybean meal
diet in broilers and observed that phytase supple-
mentation improved the body weight gain and feed
intake but the magnitude of response was greatest
at low phosphorus diets. A high mortality (35-45%)
was observed for 0.20 and 0.27% non-phytate diet
without added phytase but decline to normal level
with the addition of 200-400 U phytase per Kg diet.
Ash percentage of toe and tibia and shear force and
stress of tibia increased with added phytase. They
also observed that the amount of phosphorus re-
leased increased with increasing level of phytase but
the amount released per 100 U of phytase decreased.
Released phosphorus ranged from 31-58% of phytate
phosphorus for 250-1000 U of phytase per Kg diet.
It was showed that microbial phytase supplementa-
tion of a low phosphorus diet increased growth and
relative retention of total phosphorus, calcium, cop-
per and zinc and improved bone mineralization in
broiler chicken. Rama Rao et al. (1999) studied
enhancement of phytate phosphorous availability in
the diet of commercial broilers by adding phytase
enzyme. Phytase supplementation @ 500 and 250
U per Kg diet, respectively significantly (P < 0.05)
improved weight gain compared to un-supplemented
basal diet.
Viveros et al. (2002) reported that phytase
supplementation had a favourable effect on the
weight gain at 3 and 6 weeks of age and on feed
consumption only at 3 weeks, while, their feed ef-
ficiency was not affected. The supplementation of
phytase also increased Ca, P, Mg and Zn retention,
increased tibia weight, tibia ash, Mg and Zn con-
centration in tibia and reduced the relative liver
weight. Phytase supplementation also increased the
plasma phosphorus level and serum AST activity,
reduced plasma calcium and Mg contents and re-
duced serum ALT, ALP and LDH activities. For
broilers 500-700 U of phytase per Kg of diet was
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
equivalent to 0.5% of mono calcium phosphate or
0.6% DCP in maize-soybean based diet. Thomas
et al. (2007c) observed that use of phytase im-
proved the performance of broilers only with 80%
level of HTRP but it did not produce any beneficial
effect on the carcass traits of broilers (Thomas et
al.; 2007d).
Use of ionophores on performance of broilers
and mineral utilization
Ionophore has been found to affect the avail-
ability of minerals by influencing their absorption and
is exclusively used in diets to improve efficiency and
rate of gain. The inclusion of 90mg/kg of either
monensin or lasalocid in broiler diets does not alter
the balance of electrolytes required for optimum
growth performance of broiler chickens. Use of iono-
phore had no significant effect on the growth perfor-
mance in the starter phase while, in finisher phase use
of lasolocid utilized food less efficiently than those
given diets containing monensine. Spears (1990) re-
ported that apparent absorption of phosphorus, mag-
nesium, zinc and selenium increased by ionophore
supplementation. Prasad et al. (1998) observed that
monensin produced best result at the dose rate of
121 mg/kg diet. It was observed that coccidiosis
decreased retention of calcium, zinc, and phospho-
rus during the acute stage of disease. So, anticoccidial
ionophores certainly improved the absorption and re-
tention of these minerals. Nejad and Pourreza (2000)
indicated that addition of ionophores lasalocid and
salinomycin caused significant reduction in body weight
gain and feed consumption but increase the feed con-
version. Further monensine at the level of 100 ppm
in feed of broilers positively affected feed gain ratio.
Body weight gains were not affected even with re-
duced feed intake. Mishra and Baghel (2004a) ob-
served that use of maduramycine along with SSP did
not produce any beneficial effect on the performance
of broilers. While, Sharma and Baghel (2004a) re-
ported that along with ionophore, utilization of phos-
phorus was better from DAP in broilers.
69
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
It was concluded that to reduce the cost of
broiler production dicalcium phosphate a conven-
tional phosphorus supplement can be replaced
using unconventional phosphorus supplements like
rock phosphate (40%), heat treated rock phos-
phate (80%), diammonium phosphate (60 to 100
%) and single super phosphate (40%) partially or
completely. To improve the availability of phospho-
rus use of phytase enzyme was found beneficial.
While, to reduce the fluorine toxicity addition of
aluminium sulphate was found beneficial only at
higher level of fluorine in the diet. At lower level
of inclusion of rock phosphate its addition was not
beneficial.
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Mishra, R.K. and Baghel, R.P.S. (2007) Use of
single super phosphate instead of dicalcium
phosphate with and without ionophore on the
carcass quality traits of broilers. Presented in
National symposium on “Recent trends in policy
initiatives and technological interventions for
rural prosperity in small holder livestock pro-
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duction systems”. Organised by Sri
Venkateswara Veterinary University and
ISAPM at Tirupati, 20-22 June, 2007. A-33,
p245.
Mishra, R.K. and Baghel, R.P.S. (2007a) Effect of
using single super phosphate instead of
dicalcium phosphate with and without iono-
phore on the organ weight of broilers. Pre-
sented in National symposium on “Recent trends
in policy initiatives and technological interven-
tions for rural prosperity in small holder live-
stock production systems”. Organised by Sri
Venkateswara Veterinary University and
ISAPM at Tirupati, 20-22 June, 2007. A-33,
p246.
Mishra, R.K. and Baghel, R.P.S. (2007b) Process-
ing losses of broilers influenced by use of single
super phosphate instead of dicalcium phosphate
with and without ionophore in their diet. Pre-
sented in National symposium on “Recent trends
in policy initiatives and technological interven-
tions for rural prosperity in small holder live-
stock production systems”. Organised by Sri
Venkateswara Veterinary University and
ISAPM at Tirupati, 20-22 June, 2007. A-33,
p247.
Mishra, R.K., Baghel, R.P.S. and Swami, Madhu
(2003) Effect of single super phosphate on the
pathological changes in broilers. Presented in
National Symposium on “Basic pathology and
Animal Disesases- A need for fresh approach
in Indian Scenario” and XX Annual Confer-
ence of IAVP 2003 at College of Veterinary
Science and A.H., JNKVV, Jabalpur, Novem-
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Mohanti, S. and Rajendran, K. (2003) Poult. Voice
of India. 9: 32.
N.R.C. (1994) Nutrient Requirements of Poul-
try, 9th edition. National Academy of Sciences,
National Academy Press, Washington D.C.,
U.S.A.
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Nejad, Y.E. and Pourreza, J. (2000) J. Sci.
Technol. Agric. Natur. Res., 4: 93-104.
Odongo, N.H., Plaizier, J., Van Straaten, P. and
Mc Bride, B. (2002) Trop. Anim. Health
Prod., 34: 349-358.
Phillips, P.H., H.E. English and E.B. Hart (1935) J.
Nutr., 10: 399-407.
Prasad, A., Venketeshwarlu, V. and Ravikumar, P.
(1998) Vety. Bulletin. 68: 284.
Rama Rao, S.V. (2001) Br. Poult. Sci., 42: 376-
383.
Rama Rao, S.V. and Reddy, V.R. (2003) Br. Poult.
Sci., 44: 96-103.
Rama Rao, S.V., Reddy, V. and Ravendra, V.
(1999) Arch. fur Guflugelkunde,. 60:
75-79.
Sharma, K.V. and Baghel, R.P.S. (2004) Studies
on utilization of diammonium phosphate as a
source of phosphorus in broilers. Presented in
XI Animal Nutrition Conference on “Nutritional
Technologies for Commercialization of Animal
Production Systems” organized by ANSI and
ICAR, New Delhi at College of Vety. Sci. and
A.H., JNKVV, Jabalpur, 5-7 January.
Sharma, K.V. and Baghel, R.P.S. (2004a) Effects
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gies for Commercialization of Animal Produc-
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New Delhi at College of Vety. Sci. and A.H.,
JNKVV, Jabalpur, 5-7 January.
Sharma, K.V., Baghel, R.P.S. and Swami, Madhu
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tion. Presented in National symposium on
“Recent trends in policy initiatives and techno-
logical interventions for rural prosperity in small
holder livestock production systems”. Organised
by Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University and
ISAPM at Tirupati, 20-22 June, 2007. A-35,
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symposium on “Recent trends in policy initia-
tives and technological interventions for rural
prosperity in small holder livestock production
systems”. Organised by Sri Venkateswara
Veterinary University and ISAPM at Tirupati,
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

20-22 June, 2007. A-36, p242.
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(2007d) Use of heat treated rock phosphate
with or without phytase on the carcass charac-
teristics of broilers. Presented in National sym-
posium on “Recent trends in policy initiatives
and technological interventions for rural pros-
perity in small holder livestock production sys-
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Nutrition and nutrient delivery system

for fish farming
Vijay Anand and G. Ramesh
ASA-International Marketing Asia Subcontinent, New Delhi, India

20,000,000
Aquaculture is the cultivation of fish, shellfish, 18,000,000
bivalves and aquatic plants and. Thus aquaculture is 16,000,000
14,000,000
an industry that encompasses a large group of 12,000,000
aquatic animals and plants. Globally, there are hun- 10,000,000
8,000,000
dreds of farmed aquatic animal and plant species.
6,000,000
Global production from aquaculture is increasing by 4,000,000
2,000,000
about 9 -11% per year and is, “The world’s fastest
0
growing food producing sector,” according to the Carp Shrimp Tilapia Salmonids

United Nation’s Food and Agriculture Organiza- Major aquaculture species groups globally
tion.
Aquaculture accounts for almost half of all sea- nated by carp production: about 80% of India’s
food consumed globally. Seafood currently provides aquaculture production is composed of carps of
approximately 16% of all animal protein in the hu- Indian and Chinese origin. Most carp production
man diet. While the ocean capture fisheries have occurs in extensive, polyculture systems throughout
reached maximum sustainable yields the demand India. But, in the last 20 years, carp production has
for fishery products are increasing and will continue intensified in several parts of India. The traditional
to increase along with the growth in projected hu- polyculture has given way to the dominance of one
man population. China or two species: catla and rohu. These fishes fetch
India
high market prices. Typical pond yields range from
Philippines
three to eight tons per hectare per year. The ponds
are fertilized, but not aerated. Farm-mixed feed com-
Indonesia
prising of rice bran and a plant protein source such
Japan
as peanut oil cake or cottonseed oil cake is given
Vietnam
to the fish. As farming operations have intensified,
Thailand
the limitations of farm-mixed feeds have become
Bangladesh
more apparent. Procuring and storing larger lots of
Chile
raw materials, and preparing and administering larger
Norway
quantities of feeds, stretch the logistic capabilities of
US A
farmers. More importantly, much of farm-mixed
Egypt feeds is not eaten by the fish and only fertilizes the
Global aquaculture production pond. Excess organic loading pollutes pond bottom
and cause a wide variety of production problems.
Aquaculture in India
The profitability and long-term sustainability of in-
India is the second-largest aquaculture pro- tensive carp farming are threatened by continuing
ducer in the world. India’s aquaculture is domi- the existing feed use practices.
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

3,000,000
naturally available diet with extra protein, carbohy-
2,500,000
drate and/or lipid.
Fish, especially when reared in high densities,
2,000,000
require a high-quality, nutritionally complete, bal-
1,500,000
anced diet to grow rapidly and remain healthy.

1,000,000 Protein
500,000 Because protein is the most expensive part of
fish feed, it is important to accurately determine the
0 protein requirements for each species and size of
95

96

97

98

99

00

01

03

05
cultured fish. Proteins are formed by linkages of
0

00
19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20
2

India aquaculture production
Use of formulated feed for carp cultivation is
thus a sharp deviation from the existing traditional
methods. As carps also fetch low value, the farmer
usually puts off use of formulated feed, as it is a price
sensitive issue. Nevertheless, the American Soybean
Association- IM trusts that there is a scope for feed
usage and demonstration of profitability if the com-
plete technology package is developed and prac-
ticed.
Fish nutrition
Good nutrition in animal production systems is
essential to economically produce a healthy, high
quality product. In fish farming, nutrition is critical
because feed represents 40-50% of the production
costs. Fish nutrition has advanced dramatically in
recent years with the development of new, balanced
commercial diets that promote optimal fish growth
and health. The development of new species-spe-
cific diet formulations supports the aquaculture (fish
farming) industry as it expands to satisfy increasing
demand for affordable, safe, and high-quality fish
and seafood products.
In contrast, supplemental (incomplete, partial)
diets are intended only to help support the natural
food (insects, algae, small fish) normally available
to fish in ponds or outdoor raceways. Supplemen-
tal diets do not contain a full complement of vita-
mins or minerals, but are used to help fortify the
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individual amino acids. Although over 200 amino
acids occur in nature, only about 20 amino acids
are common. Of these, 10 are essential (indispens-
able) amino acids that cannot be synthesized by
fish. The 10 essential amino acids that must be
supplied by the diet are: methionine, arginine, threo-
nine, tryptophan, histidine, isoleucine, lysine, leu-
cine, valine and phenylalanine. Of these, lysine and
methionine are often the first limiting amino acids.
Fish feeds prepared with plant (soybean meal) pro-
tein typically are low in methionine; therefore, extra
methionine must be added to soybean-meal based
diets in order to promote optimal growth and health.
It is important to know and match the protein re-
quirements and the amino acid requirements of each
fish species reared.
Protein levels in fish feeds generally average
28-32% for catfish, 32-38% for tilapia, 38-42% for
hybrid striped bass. Protein requirements usually are
lower for herbivorous fish (plant eating) and omnivo-
rous fish (plant-animal eaters) than they are for
carnivorous (flesh-eating) fish, and are higher for fish
reared in high density (recirculating aquaculture) than
low density (pond aquaculture) systems.
Protein requirements generally are higher for
smaller fish. As fish grow larger, their protein re-
quirements usually decrease. Protein requirements
also vary with rearing environment, water tempera-
ture and water quality, as well as the genetic com-
position and feeding rates of the fish. Protein is used
for fish growth if adequate levels of fats and carbo-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
hydrates are present in the diet. If not, protein may
be used for energy and life support rather than growth
Lipids
Lipids are high-energy nutrients that can be
utilized to partially spare (substitute for) protein in
aquaculture feeds. Lipids supply about twice the
energy as proteins and carbohydrates. Lipids typi-
cally comprise about 15% of fish diets, supply es-
sential fatty acids (EFA) and serve as transporters
for fat-soluble vitamins.
A recent trend in fish feeds is to use higher
levels of lipids in the diet. Although increasing di-
etary lipids can help reduce the high costs of diets
by partially sparing protein in the feed, problems
such as excessive fat deposition in the liver can
decrease the health and market quality of fish.
Simple lipids include fatty acids and
triacylglycerols. Fish typically require fatty acids of
the omega 3 and 6 (n-3 and n-6) families. Fatty
acids can be: a) saturated fatty acids (SFA, no
double bonds), b) polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA, >2 double bonds), or c) highly unsaturated
fatty acids (HUFA; > 4 double bonds). Marine fish
oils are naturally high (>30%) in omega 3 HUFA,
and are excellent sources of lipids for the manufac-
ture of fish diets. Lipids from these marine oils also
can have beneficial effects on human cardiovascular
health.
Marine fish typically require n-3 HUFA for
optimal growth and health, usually in quantities rang-
ing from 0.5-2.0% of dry diet. The two major EFA
of this group are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA:
20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA:22:6n-
3). Freshwater fish do not require the long chain
HUFA, but often require an 18 carbon n-3 fatty
acid, linolenic acid (18:3-n-3), in quantities ranging
from 0.5 to 1.5% of dry diet. This fatty acid cannot
be produced by freshwater fish and must be sup-
plied in the diet. Many freshwater fish can take this
fatty acid, and through enzyme systems elongate
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
(add carbon atoms) to the hydrocarbon chain, and
then further desaturate (add double bonds) to this
longer hydrocarbon chain. Through these enzyme
systems, freshwater fish can manufacture the longer
chain n-3 HUFA, EPA and DHA, which are nec-
essary for other metabolic functions and as cellular
membrane components. Marine fish typically do not
possess these elongation and desaturation enzyme
systems, and require long chain n-3 HUFA in their
diets. Other fish species, such as tilapia, require
fatty acids of the n-6 family, while still others, such
as carp or eels, require a combination of n-3 and
n-6 fatty acids
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates (starches and sugars) are the
most economical and inexpensive sources of en-
ergy for fish diets. Although not essential, carbohy-
drates are included in aquaculture diets to reduce
feed costs and for their binding activity during feed
manufacturing. Dietary starches are useful in the
extrusion manufacture of floating feeds. Cooking
starch during the extrusion process makes it more
biologically available to fish.
In fish, carbohydrates are stored as glycogen
that can be mobilized to satisfy energy demands.
They are a major energy source for mammals, but
are not used efficiently by fish. For example, mam-
mals can extract about 4 kcal of energy from 1
gram of carbohydrate, whereas fish can only ex-
tract about 1.6 kcal from the same amount of car-
bohydrate. Up to about 20% of dietary carbohy-
drates can be used by fish.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds necessary in
the diet for normal fish growth and health. They
often are not synthesized by fish, and must be sup-
plied in the diet.
The two groups of vitamins are water-soluble
and fat-soluble. Water-soluble vitamins include: the
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

B vitamins, choline, inositol, folic acid, pantothenic cro-minerals) based on the quantity required in the
acid , biotin and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Of these, diet and the amount present in fish. Common macro-
vitamin C probably is the most important because minerals are sodium, chloride, potassium and phos-
it is a powerful antioxidant and helps the immune phorous. These minerals regulate osmotic balance
system in fish. and aid in bone formation and integrity.
The fat-soluble vitamins include A vitamins, ret- Micro-minerals (trace minerals) are required
inols (responsible for vision); the D vitamins, chole- in small amounts as components in enzyme and
calciferols (bone integrity); E vitamins, the tocopherols hormone systems. Common trace minerals are cop-
(antioxidants); and K vitamins such as menadione per, chromium, iodine, zinc and selenium. Fish can
(blood clotting, skin integrity). Of these, vitamin E absorb many minerals directly from the water through
receives the most attention for its important role as their gills and skin, allowing them to compensate to
an antioxidant (Table 1). Deficiency of each vitamin some extent for mineral deficiencies in their diet
has certain specific symptoms, but reduced growth (Table 1).
is the most common symptom of any vitamin defi-
ciency. Scoliosis (bent backbone symptom) and dark Energy and protein
coloration may result from deficiencies of ascorbic Dietary nutrients are essential for the construc-
acid and folic acid vitamins, respectively. tion of living tissues. They also are a source of
Table 1. Vitamin and mineral premix stored energy for fish digestion, absorption, growth,
Nutrient Unit As fed
reproduction and the other life processes. The nu-
Vitamin A IU/kg 1200000
tritional value of a dietary ingredient is in part de-
Vitamin D3 IU/kg 200000 pendant on its ability to supply energy. Physiologi-
Vitamin E IU/kg 20000 cal fuel values are used to calculate and balance
Biotin mg/kg 40
available energy values in prepared diets. They typi-
Folic acid mg/kg 1800
Niacin mg/kg 40000 cally average 4, 4, and 9 kcal/g for protein, carbo-
Pantothenate mg/kg 20000 hydrate and lipid, respectively.
Pyridoxine, B6 mg/kg 5000
Riboflavin, B2 mg/kg 8000 To create an optimum diet, the ratio of protein
Thiamin, B1 mg/kg 8000 to energy must be determined separately for each
Vitamin, B12 mcg/kg 2000 fish species. Excess energy relative to protein con-
Ethoxyquin mg/kg 500
tent in the diet may result in high lipid deposition.
Mineral premix PMX-F11
Because fish feed to meet their energy requirements,
Iron ppm 40000 diets with excessive energy levels may result in de-
Manganese ppm 10000
Copper ppm 4000 creased feed intake and reduced weight gain. Simi-
Zinc ppm 40000 larly, a diet with inadequate energy content can re-
Iodine ppm 1800 sult in reduced weight gain because the fish cannot
Cobalt ppm 20
Selenium ppm 200 eat enough feed to satisfy their energy requirements
1
Premix ingredient quantities are per kg of premix.
for growth. Properly formulated prepared feeds have
a well-balanced energy to protein ratio.
Minerals
Minerals are inorganic elements necessary in Floating fish feeds
the diet for normal body functions. They can be Floating feeds are typically in the density range
divided into two groups (macro-minerals and mi- of 300 to 400 g per liter. They are expanded pel-
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

lets varying in diameter from 1.5 to 10 mm in size. feedmills were then provided with the technical
Fish farmers have proven that floating feeds result expertise to produce extruded, soy-optimized feeds.
in better feed conversions due to the fact that the The farmers were trained to practice feed-based
feed consumption can be monitored and adjusted production protocols and collect data. Profitability
so that feed is not wasted. Many fish species that was used as the primary criterion for evaluating the
consume floating feeds are fed on the basis eating economic feasibility of the new technology.
all feed in a certain time frame. If fish consume all In 2004 and 2005, we conducted full-fledged
feed in less than the specified time then it is an commercial demonstrations to show feedmills and
indication to the farmer that more feed can be given. farmers that soy-based extruded floating fish feeds
If feed is left over in the pond after the specified perform well when used correctly. Results were dis-
time frame, then it is an indication that over feeding seminated by conducting frequent extension pro-
has occurred. Floating feeds are extrusion cooked grams, seminars, on-farm consultations and by ren-
at about 24 to 27% moisture and expand 125 to dering services for business development activities
150% of the die hole size. Floating fish feeds are for feed companies. Nutritionally balanced soy based
gradually becoming popular for commercial use in feed was used for the trial (Table 2).
India.
Important considerations for use of floating fish
The biggest advantage offered by floating fish feeds
feeds is that it brings in a situation that is close to Pond size: For a feed based system with float-
farming terrestrial animals where feed given to ani- ing feeds, the ideal pond size should be less than
mals can be seen. When feed can be seen, the
farmer is able to obtain a complete feedback on Table 2. Formula of the ASA 32/6, soymeal-based feed in
3-mm and 4-mm pellet sizes.
feeding status and all related feed management as-
pects. Floating fish feeds, which float on the water Ingredient CP, % Inclusion rate
surface, make feeds visible to the fish farmer and Soybean meal 47.5 50.00
help monitor feeding. Assessment on feeding there- Wheat, Feed flour 11.7 26.40
fore is direct. One needs to feed fish only as much Corn gluten meal 60.0 6.00
Rice bran 15.0 5.00
as it demands. Feed wastage in case of floating
Wheat midds 15.0 4.00
feeds is minimal or absent depending on the exper- Blood meal, Ring-dried 93.0 1.00
tise of the manager. In sinking feeds, visibility of Fish oil, Unspecified 3.50
feeds is absent and therefore feeding assessment is Calcium phosphate, Mono 2.30
always indirect and there is scope for wastage of Soy lecithin 1.00
Vitamin Premix 0.50
feed. Waste feed increases water nutrient and
Mineral Premix 0.25
deteriorates water quality. Stay C*-35% 0.03
Ethoxyquin**-100% 0.02
Overview of ASA-IM approach Stay C is ascorbic acid polyphosphate manufactured by
DSM and the % indicates the active level of ascorbic
Based on the experience of ASA-IM in China, acid in the product**. Ethoxyquin is an antioxidant and
it was decided that promoting a feed-based system the % indicates purity of the antioxidant.
for intensive carp production in India would involve
both education and actual demonstrations of the one hectare with a water depth of not more than 1.2-
technology on a practical level. This required iden- 1.3 m. Smaller ponds are desired because the farmer
tification of farmers and feedmill cooperators. The needs to determine the feed quantity visually once in

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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
10 days. Note that in floating feeds, the fish tells the
farmer how much to feed and it is not the farmer who
determines how much to give. Visual determination
of feeding response in a large pond is difficult and
will lead to feed wastage and escalation of produc-
tion cost. Also, deep ponds are not advocated as
thermal stratification sets in during summers and
causes acute water quality problems in ponds.
Pond bottom: About three inches of the pond
bottom carrying organic top soil should be removed
after drying the pond. Not doing this is like having
a ready fertilizer/pond nutrient that makes water
too rich with plankton. Organic matter also acts as
a ready inoculum for bacteria to proliferate. This is
not desired in the feed based system.
Pond water fertilization: In a feed based
system no manure is advocated as total nutrition for
fish is given through nutritionally balanced feed. Due
to waste of fish in the pond, natural productivity of
the pond water and soil, plankton will automatically
develop and this is enough to sustain natural pro-
ductivity. Plankton density is measured using a sechi
disc and the ideal reading recommended is between
25-35 cm. In case plankton does not develop,
addition of urea and super/triple phosphate as an
initial dose can be applied to water. Excess fertili-
zation is not recommended as it generates too much
of plankton which makes the water too green and
increases the organic load in pond water. Too much
of plankton also compete with fish for oxygen and
most often lead to critical dissolved oxygen levels
(below 3 mg/l) that lead to fish mortality.
Weaning fish on to floating feed: Fish in nurs-
eries are usually habituated to taking plankton and
the mash feed. It is a must to train fish for a minimum
of one week on the floating feed on maintenance ra-
tions to train them onto floating feed. Not doing this
will result in extra time taken for fish to accept feed
and they loose growth for more than a week’s time in
grow-out ponds. In addition to this, feed leftover in
the pond due to non-recognition by fish will be an
economic waste to the farmer. Satiation technique of
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
feeding is the most important tool in managing float-
ing fish feeds and is explained later in this article. Sa-
tiation should be set by the third day of stocking to
ensure that fish are getting complete feed right from
the beginning. Non-feed trained fish will not facilitate
satiation setting on the third day. In order to wean the
fish prior to transferring them to grow-out ponds, feed
should be on site at least 10 days in advance. Wean-
ing of fish onto the floating feed is best done in sepa-
rate small ponds.
Satiation Feeding as an Important Feed Manage-
ment Tool
Satiation feeding method: This is the most
important tool for the feed based system to be-
come successful. Feed is money and little saved is
lot of money saved to the farmer. The satiation
method steps are as follows:
l One the first day fish are fed to full satiation in
30 min strict time cut off.
l Satiation can be efficiently done only if the
fingerlings have been trained on to feed before
stocking into grow out ponds.
l Rohu feeds actively for 30 min and the frenzy
fades off after that. Only the active feeding
time/behavior is considered.
l As total nutrition for fish is intended through
feed, three feeds per day are a must.
l Keen observation is a must. Keep track of the
feed eaten in 30 min. If for example 600 g
feed was given and the fish consumed only
500 g then the satiation will be set for 500 g
feed per feeding. This will be 1.5 kg feed per
day.
l The leftover feed should be gauged to deter-
mine the feed consumed and the quantity left
behind in the pond. Note that the fish has given
the feedback on how much to feed it has
consumed.
l After having determined the feed quantity re-
quired per day the farmer automatically weighs
and feeds this quantity for the next 10 days.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

l The 10-day period should be followed strictly tons of fish/ha in less than 150 days. The average
to change satiation. Even if the fish consumes economic return in the demonstration was based on
all feed in 20 min instead of 35 min the original a set average farm gate price of 45 INR/kg (~ US$
quantity should be maintained. The intention 1/kg). The negative return on investment in the TP
here is to slightly under feed the fish. Scientifi- method appears to be due to low production output
cally this has proven to yield better results. against significant input costs. Probably farmers in
l Towards the 8th and the 9th day the farmer the area are farming many different animals and row
should determine how much time the fish is crops concurrently that without keeping accurate
taking to consume the feed. Usually the fish records of input and output costs for each activity
will take less time to consume the feed when the farmers are not fully account for all costs associ-
compared to time taken on the first three days. ated with fish production.
l Getting to know the feeding time on the 8th Table 3. Fish production achieved in 2005 demonstration
and 9th day will give the farmer a feedback on Traditional ASA-IM
roughly how much feed can increased while Practice Method*
setting the satiation for the next 10 days. Method*
Date of stocking 26 Feb. 26 Feb.
l Throw the feed into the pond all at one spot
2005 2005
along with the wind direction to avoid it from
Date of harvest 24 Aug. 24 July
getting washed on to dykes. Wind direction may 2005 2005
change with season and at times on a daily ba-
Number of days of culture 179 147
sis. There is no need to distribute the feed over
Initial weight of rohu, g 43 47
the entire pond. Note that feed will disperse by
itself due to water and wind action. Final weight of rohu, g 401 494
Estimated survival of rohu, % 95 100
l On cloudy days or during sudden environmen-
tal change fish may show reduced feeding. Total harvest weight, kg/ha 2634 6483
Keep watch for feeding response during these Feed conversion ratio 5.29 1.34
conditions and reduce feed in the next feed. *Average return on -28 13
Normal feeding is resumed once the weather investment, %
conditions become normal.
The feed-based ASA-IM method resulted in What the ASA-IM demonstration did show
consistently faster fish growth, higher fish yield, bet- to the farmers was in addition to the use of a
ter feed conversion and better economic returns than nutritionally balanced feed the right nutrient delivery
the traditional practice of feeding fish with a farm- system such as the use of floating feeds which
mixed feed (Table 3). Though the desired target for brings about a system close to the feeding of
rohu in the TP method was an average of 500 g, water terrestrial animals has the ability to predictably
quality deterioration and consequent risk of high produce a high target biomass at minimal feed
mortality from low dissolved oxygen syndrome wastage with no disease or water quality issues
(LODOS) stress led to harvest at about 400g aver- and to return a positive profit. Other advantages
age size. Though stocking density in the ASA-IM included healthy pond bottoms without significant
ponds was slightly more than twice that of the tradi- organic load, ease of operation with reduced labor,
tionally managed ponds, the ASA-IM ponds were reduction in grow-out period and marketing ben-
able to support the higher biomass and produced 6.5 efits owing to uniform sized fish.

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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Pasture based feeding systems for small ruminant production
and its relevance in tropics
S. A. Karim and A. K. Shinde
Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar 304 501, India
Sheep husbandry is an integral component of
livelihood and life style of millions of small holder
farmers in difficult areas of the country. Sheep are
reared on common property resources (CPR), range-
lands, orans, stubbles, wasteland and fallow land
under extensive system. Moreover sheep rearing in
the country is not grain based and hence small ru-
minants do not compete with human and organized
dairy sector for food and shelter rather live in ab-
solute harmony with man and nature. Sheep hus-
bandry plays a significant role in supplementing fam-
ily incomes and generating gainful employment in the
rural unorganized sector particularly among the land-
less, small and marginal farmers and women besides
providing cheaper and nutritious meat and milk to
rural people. Sheep population as per latest live-
stock census of 2003 stood at 58.2 million as
compared to 39.1 million in 1951, with an increase
of 49 percent. During the same period, population
of goats has increased by 155 per cent. Total area
available for grazing of sheep and goats in 1951 was
82.1 million ha, which included unculturable land,
other uncultivated land, fallow land and permanent
pastures: the grazing land has now decreased to
43.3 million ha due land reclamation for conventional
agriculture and conversion of culturable land to
concentrate jungle in process of colonization. Total
area under grazing has deceased by 47 % during the
last five decades while during the period the small
ruminant population has increased by 105 %. This
has resulted in over stocking and over grazing of
available land by the animals. There is an urgent need
to maintain stable grazing resources for sustainable
small ruminant production in future by rehabilitating
the community grazing land through establishment of
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
perennial greases and trees, and gradually eliminat-
ing the unproductive animals from population to spare
available feed resources for optimization of produc-
tion of quality animals. In the present paper, sheep
and goat production systems followed by the farm-
ers in the desert, hilly and mountainous areas of the
country and strategies for improvement in produc-
tivity by better feeding on pasture based feeding
system has been discussed. Most prevalent systems
followed in the country are as below
Migration system in plains of dry zone
Sheep are reared either under sedentary or a
migratory system under extensive range manage-
ment. Sedentary system may be stall-feeding follow-
ing cut and carry system, semi intensive stall-feeding
or extensive grazing system. Migratory system may
be long distance migration in dry plains or transhu-
mance in hilly or mountain region of the country. The
small ruminant production systems are influenced by
availability of wasteland, community grazing land
and forest areas and by market prospects. About
70-80 % of sheep flocks in arid region of the country
are managed under migratory system. In spite of
advancement of agriculture and effective land rec-
lamation, migration still exists as a prime system for
sheep rearing in semiarid and arid zone of the coun-
try. Only in very few cases nomadic/migratory sys-
tem of sheep rearing has changed to settle life sed-
entary livestock rearing. Nomadic and transhumance
production is found to be the best suited system for
the use of fragile ecosystems of country. The topog-
raphy, feed resources and socio-economic condi-
tions of people besides, low and erratic rainfall,
frequent drought and low intensity of crop produc-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
tion are some of the factors responsible for prevalent
of migratory system in semiarid and arid region.
Sheep during migration graze on barren and marginal
land of dry zone followed by fallow lands in high
rainfall areas of neighboring states. In migration fre-
quent change of grazing land often provide them
wide variety of vegetation, rich in minerals and other
nutrients, which help meeting the requirement thereby
improving production. In pastoral, rain fed and ir-
rigated tracts of semiarid region, migration of one to
two months is common practice. In earlier days, the
migration and sheep rearing was complementary but
in the recent years, with the socio-cultural and tech-
nological transformation, the functional relationship
has undergone considerable changes. The tempo-
rary and permanent migration of sheep from the
region is related with the rainfall. The number of
movement of flock on migration is less in normal
rainfall than in drought and famine years. In the
recent year, the migratory routes followed by the
shepherd have narrowed down due to extension of
crop cultivation. The sheep population on migration
and over crowding of grazing lands has exaggerated
the problems of the shepherds. Deforestation and
felling of trees for earning their livelihood by the
communities living on the periphery and some times
in the heart of the forest have further magnified the
fodder the crisis for sheep and goats en route mi-
gration. Other vagaries of migration include expo-
sure to seasonal stress, predators, poachers and loss
of lambs, weaker animals and hurried disposal of
wool. Moreover occasionally violent confrontation
arises between the owners of migratory flocks and
local population for sharing meager feed resources
for their livestock.
The problems faced by the sheep raisers dur-
ing migration are: higher charges for entry of ani-
mals in other states, insufficient watering points thor-
ough out the route of migration, decrease in area
under grazing land with the establishment of wild
life parks and sanctuaries, prohibition for entry of
animals in developed forest, protection by local
peoples for grazing of animals in their areas, prob-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
lems of theft and dacoits in certain areas, inad-
equate marketing facilities in the migratory route for
sale of lambs and spent ewes/rams and wool and
improper distribution of animals during migration
resulting in over crowding in certain areas. Addi-
tionally inability of new born lambs to walk long
distances further magnifies the problems of migrat-
ing flock therefore they are transported along the
migration on camel back, bullock carts, donkey,
ponies and in some cases lambs are forced to walk
with adult stocks in migration. Lambs under such
harsh condition suffer from stresses of movement in
migration resulting in poor growth and high mortal-
ity losses. It is therefore suggested that entrepre-
neurs/progressive farmers may adopt organized lamb
rearing for mutton and breeder ram production by
purchasing the weaner lambs from the farmers and
rearing them under semi intensive and intensive
system of production near some exist port or me-
tropolis. Adoption of envisaged production system
will render sheep raring as a profitable venture for
sheep farmers and entrepreneurs ensuring quality
meat for the consumers.
Some of the suggestion for smooth functioning
of migration system of sheep are: avoiding frequently
change in route of migration and construction of
enclosures by local shepherds in migratory route,
establishment of check post in collaboration with
Forest, Animal Husbandry, Police and Revenue De-
partments with communication facilities, provision
of shelter in route of migration for protection of
shepherds and animals from inclement weather,
provision of Veterinarians for treatment and pro-
phylaxis measures, provision of licensed weapon
for protection of their properties while migrating
through dacoits infested routes, controlled opening
of forest areas for grazing of animals, development
of shearing and marketing facilities of wool, animal
insurance cover for preventing economic loss dur-
ing casualties and provision of nutritional supple-
ments at strategic locations to the animals as well as
shepherds in migratory route.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Sedentary system in hills and mountain areas
In low and mid- hills, lower valleys and Tarai
region, sheep are reared under sedentary system
where sheep are maintained in one area throughout
the year and penned at homestead during night.
The animals are managed either in stall-fed, semi
stall-fed or free range grazing system. Majority of
the sedentary flocks are maintained under an exten-
sive system, where the sheep are driven to the
grazing land for grazing during the day and are not
supplemented at the stall. In the mid-hill and valley
rotational grazing of sheep are followed. This sys-
tem allows adequate re-growth of grasses and veg-
etation in between grazing. However, grazing of
sheep in a limited areas round the year leads to
heavy parasitic burden.
Transhumance system in hills and mountains
areas
In the high hills and mountain areas, sheep are
reared under transhumance system. Sheep move to
different areas through out the year, and maintained
entirely under grazing system. The flocks migrate
from the foot hills to high Alpine ranges during sum-
mer months. Sheep move to upper hills after begin-
ning of arable cropping and return later in the year
after the crop has been harvested. Migratory flocks
normally constitute 200-250 sheep and vary in size
from 50- 600 sheep. Sheep belong to different
owners and the shepherd usually own only part of
flock. Every owner contributes to the shepherds
food and clothing, and in addition the shepherd
receives one or two sheep from the owner in kind
for year long grazing charges. Some of the profes-
sional shepherds are Jaunsartes inhabiting at
Dehradun, Jad of Tehri, Gaddis shepherd of Kangra,
Kanoras from Rampur Bushahr, Bhakarwals and
Karnahis of Muzzfarabad of Jammu and Kashmir
and Garhwalis from hills of Garhwal who take sheep
to alpine pasture for grazing. The flock follows a
typical annual migration route, initiating migration
during late February: flocks commence moving
upward to the higher villages, reaching the foot hill
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by April. During late spring and early summer, flocks
continue to remain at a low altitude. Flocks leave
the village for the Alpine pasture between April and
May. During May to early July, flocks move steadily
upward through the forest. During this season, shrubs
and trees of deciduous forest are in flush, and growth
of green forest is clearly evident. The sheep derive
adequate fodder from summer pasture and improve
their body weights. By July flock reach Alpine
pasture and remain there up to early September.
The alpine meadows provide them the most nutri-
tion feed available throughout the year and at this
time they attained maximum body weight. Flocks
start descending from late September to early
October through the forest in a similar manner as to
their ascent route of movement.
Feeding systems
Extensive range management system: Ex-
tensive system of sheep rearing is most prevalent
system in dry semiarid and arid zone of the country
having excess grazing land and cheaper labor, where
sheep is maintained on sole grazing with occasional
top feed supplementation in lean season. Two sys-
tems of rearing are common in dry regions viz. ex-
clusive extensive system where sheep migrate to
long distance during feed scarcity and sedentary
system where sheep are grazed around 4- 5 km
from homestead. Poor vegetation cover is a routine
feature in most of the grazing land and sheep on
such land have access to poor quality and meager
quantity of forage in round the grazing system ex-
cept during 3-4 months of monsoon. Common graz-
ing land in semiarid region of Rajasthan during
monsoon and winter yield 4.92 and 1.36 DM q/ha
respectively while the stubble after harvesting of
kharif crops have standing biomass yield of
20.39DM q/ha. Tribulus terrestiris, Indigofera
cardifolia, Crotolaria burhia, Zizyphus
nummularia, Dactyloctenium aegyticum,
Melilotus indica, are major native grasses, consti-
tuting sheep's diet during monsoon and Crotolaria
burhia, Zizyphus nummularia, dead litter and
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Azardirachta indica leaves during winter. Male and
female lambs born from ewes maintained on com-
mon grazing land have birth weights of 3.47 and
3.26 kg and weaning weights (3 month of age) of
14.11 and 13.47kg respectively. Male lambs are
sold @ Rs.400- 500 due to famine and scarcity of
feed and fodder in the region at only 3 months age.
In present rearing system the males and females
lambs in farmers field during pre weaning phase
have average daily gain of 118 and 113 g. Adult
sheep maintained on grazing alone on these lands
exhibit seasonal changes in body weight gain with
peak weights during the month of November fol-
lowed by gradual decline reaching the exhibiting
lowest weight of year in March. In routine prac-
tices of sheep rearing under field condition, male
and female are kept together in the flock through-
out the year, resulting in round the year mating and
lambing. The average lambing percentage of 83.8
in round the year free mating was reported in field
flocks. Sheep in field flocks are shorn three times
in a year and average wool yield of 407, 295 and
450g in June, September and March clips respec-
tively with annual yield of 1151g per sheep. The
sale of wool in the local markets provides Rs.54.60
per sheep (Singh et al., 2003). The production
performance and economics of sheep rearing under
intensive, semi-intensive and extensive systems in
semiarid region Rajasthan has been studied (Porwal
2005). The cost of feed and labor inputs is major
factors contributing for higher cost of rearing in
intensive system in comparison to extensive system.
However in relative term, sheep rearing under ex-
tensive system is more remunerative, provided the
grazing lands ensure sufficient forage to animals
through out the year.
Semi-intensive System: In this system sheep
are grazed for 4-5hours in a day then they are stall
fed agricultural byproducts or tree leaves or hay or
green fodder or supplemented concentrate mixture.
Some amount of supplementation is provided to
these animals in addition to grazing, In present sys-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
tem of utilization of grazing land for raising of the
sheep, it would not be possible to harvest desirable
production because of poor to very poor condition
of grazing resources, rapid shrinking of land and
yield. Under such situation grazing plus supplemen-
tation is the choice of system for sustaining the sheep
production in the tropics.
The finishing weight of the male lambs is lower
and the age at which it is attained is higher than
desired. The production system required concen-
trate input, which although cost effective and eco-
nomical, yet was notn adopted by the sheep farm-
ers due their poor socio-economic conditions. The
work carried out in the country has been reviewed
that supplementation of limited amount of concen-
trate (1.5- 2.0 % of BW) in addition to free grazing
provided marketable finishing weight of 25- 30 kg
at six months of age. The weaner lambs maintained
on Cenchrus pasture with concentrate supplemen-
tation @ 1.5 % BW were able to attain 27.3 kg at
six months of age (Shinde et al., 1995). Growth
study conducted on farmers Kheri weaner lambs
maintained under extensive and semi intensive sys-
tem of feeding management indicated that the fin-
isher lambs at six months of age attained 22.7 and
30.3 kg with ADG of 70, 175 g with cost of feed
input/kg gain nil and Rs.23.62, respectively. These
lambs further continued during 6- 9 months period
on free grazing with ad lib. concentrate supplemen-
tation attained 36.2, 42.7 and 37.6 kg providing
ADG of 137 and 134 g indicating higher cost of
concentrate input/kg gain in live weight in semi in-
tensive (Rs.53.76) than in extensive (Rs.44.50) of
feeding management. The results indicated that un-
der organized feeding management, the feeding cost
was uneconomical at 6- 9 months of age. In an-
other study relative growth performance and feed
conversion efficiency of Kheri weaner lambs
adopted from the farmers indicated that grazing with
concentrate supplementation @ 1.5 and 2.5% BW
and ad lib. provided finishing weight of 20.9, 23.2
and 27.2 kg with ADG of 77, 98 and 151 g with
cost of feed input/kg gain Rs. 28.99, 29.37 and
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
31.11 in the three feeding protocols respectively.
Better growth rate and feed conversion efficiency
with almost similar cost of feed input/kg gain in live
weight in ad lib. concentrate fed lambs indicated
that higher level of concentrate feeding has com-
mercial applicability.
Intensive system: Sheep are intensively
reared either on complete stall-feeding on cultivable
fodders or complete feeds or crop residues or ag-
ricultural byproducts. Stall-feeding of sheep is not
common in the country except in male lambs where
prime objective is to achieve maximum body weights
at an early age. Stall-feeding is favored for milk and
meat production in goats in urban and sub-urban
areas. Lambs fed on complete feed consisting of
concentrate (maize, barley grains, oilcakes, wheat
and rice bran and molasses and roughage (tree
leaves, cultivated grasses and legume) in ratio of
40:60, 50:50 and 60:40 attained body weights of
25-27kg at 6 month of age. The hot carcass weight
of 10.3, 14.5 and 14.3kg in the extensive, semi-
intensive and intensive systems and dressing yield
of 44.9% in the extensive and 48.8% in semi-inten-
sive and 50.9% in the intensive system has been
reported. The lean, fat and bone contents of 63.40,
8.52 and 15.32% in the extensive system, 61.85,
11.84 and 14.24% in the semi-intensive and 59.34,
16.29 and 12.34% respectively in the intensive sys-
tem in lambs maintained under different systems has
been reported (Karim, et al., 2007). Bharat Me-
rino a promising genotype for wool production yields
desirable carcass of acceptable quality with carcass
fat ranging from 7- 10% under grazing and concen-
trate mixture supplementation at 9 month of age
(Karim and Mehta 2007). Male kids after weaning
at 3 months of age and fed on feedlot ration at-
tained body weight of 25kg at 6 month with a
dressing yield of 48- 51% and feed efficiency of
10- 12%. Intensive feeding of kids improved dressing
yield and increased fat content of carcass but re-
duces bone and lean content when compared with
semi-intensive system (Singh and Sahu, 1997).
Native and crossbred lambs fed on ration consist-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
ing of concentrate and roughage in 50:50 combina-
tion attained growth rate of 150 and 170g daily
during 3- 6 month of age with feed efficiency of
12- 15 % (Karim and Rawat, 1996). Weaner
lambs and kids maintained on intensive feeding during
3- 6 month of age provided higher dressing yield in
sheep than goats, goats yield leaner carcass but
tough meat than sheep (Sen et al., 2004). Eco-
nomics of weaner lambs raised in different system
of rearing has been worked out. It was found that
lambs in intensive system and semi-intensive pro-
vided net return of Rs 1235 and Rs 1179 as against
Rs 867 in extensive system through sale of meat.
Avikalin and Malpura genotypes maintained under
intensive feeding or grazing with concentrate mix-
ture supplementation provided desirable carcass of
acceptable quality with fat content of 7-11% at 6
month of age. Similarly the Awassi X Malpura
crosses developed in the Institute were evaluated
for carcass characteristics indicated that growth rate
and feed efficiency was higher in Malpura X Awassi
crosses than Malpura while dressing yield and cut-
ability was similar in both the genotypes (Karim et
al., 2002). Pre weaning growth of lambs under
field condition is always found poor due to poor
nutrition resulting in poor carcass weight and dress-
ing yield at slaughter age. If these lambs are put
under better nutrition during post weaning phase,
they show compensatory growth during post wean-
ing stage and desirable carcass traits (Karim et al.,
2001).
Grass pasture
Major limitation to sheep and goat production
from native ranges in dry zone of country is short
supply of forage for longer part of year. Native
ranges rehabilitated by perennial grasses improve
the forage yield and ensures forage supply for longer
period. The most suitable perennial grasses for arid
and semiarid region are Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus
setigerus and Lasirus sindicus. Cenchrus ciliaris
pasture yields 27-33 q DM/ha in semiarid region
and under favorable conditions (rainfall and soil types)
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
yield 29-49 q DM/ha in Cenchrus ciliaris (Rai et
al. 1995). Lambs grazing on degrade rangelands
attained 8- 9 kg body weights at 3 month and 14-
16k g at 6 months of age while on cenchrus pasture
body weight of 18 kg at 3 month of age with 163
g average daily gains in lambs has been achieved.
Birth, 3 and 6 months weights of 3.2, 13.9 and 20.6
kg respectively in Mutton Synthetic lambs grazed on
Cenchrus ciliaris pasture has been reported by
Singh, et al. (2003). Major limitation with cenchrus
pasture is deteriorating yield and quality with matu-
rity and found inadequate to support the optimum
growth of lambs in late winter and summer seasons.
Some kinds of supplementation either in the form of
concentrate mixture or tree leaves are required. The
supplementation of concentrate mixture at the rate
of 1.5% of body weight in lambs and kids grazing
on cenchrus pasture achieved body weight of 27-
26kg at 6 month of age. While lambs and kids under
routine grazing system in field hardly achieved 16-
18kg at same age.
Silvipasture
Three strata forage system known as
silvipasture in the drier and low rainfall areas in
combination with arable cropping can sustain sheep
production system with requirement of food for
human consumption. Silvipasture can meet feed
requirement of sheep and goats, with improvement
of healthy environment. The crops (cowpea, ground-
nut and moth) with shrubs and trees can meet the
need of food for human and feed for animals.
Silvipasture comprising of grasses, shrubs and tree
leaves can serve the purpose of forage and wood
supply with environmental conservation for poor soil
and water conditions. A hectare plot of three-tier
silvipasture of Ailanthus excelsa trees and
Dicrostachys nutans and Cenchrus ciliaris pro-
vided 31q fodder on DM basis (Sankhyan et al.,
1996). Weaner lambs and kids attained body weight
of 22- 24 kg at 6 month of age in silvipastoral
system (Sankhyan et al., 1996). Hoggets gained
body weight of 30 kg at 1 year of age on silvipasture
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
and 5 kg more than those maintained on cenchrus
pasture. Avivastra sheep yielded 0.970 and 1.430
kg wool during autumn and spring clips under
silvipastoral grazing system. It was found that feed-
ing of Ailanthus excelsa leaves in silvipasture im-
proved the milk yield in lactating sheep and goats
(Shinde et al., 1996, Bhatta et al., 2002) other
beneficial effect of pod bearing trees in silvipasture
has been demonstrated by several workers.
Prosopis cineraria and Acacia tortolis shrubs
supplied good quality pods rich in protein, which
plays an important role in flushing of sheep and
goats during summer months in dry zones of coun-
try. The supplementation of tree leaves grown in
silvipasture at stall in addition to grazing and ad lib.
concentrate mixture feeding appears to be most
desirable combination for intensive lamb production
program (Tripathi et al., 2006).
Pasture utilization system
Rotational system, continuous system, deferred
rotational, cut and carry, forward grazing and stripe
grazing are in vogue system for pasture utilization in
the developed countries. In India established pas-
ture are limited and most prevalent system is con-
tinues grazing system with no provision of rest for
rejuvenation of vegetation. Some of the studies
conducted at CSWRI, Avikanagar, Rajasthan and
IGFRI, Jhansi, UP indicated that rotational grazing
help in applying equal pressure to all the areas and
maintain stable resources. It also control growth of
obnoxious weeds and improve edible vegetation
species in the pastures and help in better regenera-
tion and growth of grasses. In tropics pasture has
little growth in other than monsoon season because
of negligible precipitation and soil moisture. More-
over life cycle of native herbaceous species found
in arid regions is completed within 3- 4 months. As
such benefits of rotational system over others are
not evidenced in tropics due to limited pasture growth
for 3- 4 months. The study indicated that rotational
grazing of pasture by sheep and goats reduced water
run off and soil losses in semiarid region. Lambs
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
and kids gained higher body weights at 6 months in
rotational than in continuous grazing system. De-
ferred rotational grazing is another system for pas-
ture utilization where one portion of area or pad-
dock is protected from grazing during active veg-
etation growth phase for preparation of hay. Teth-
ering of sheep and goats in cropped areas is adopted
to prevent animals wandering into areas under in-
tensive cropping. The goats are tethered on waste
grazing areas close to crop field to regulate stubble
grazing or close to stacks of crop straw to allow
self-feeding.
Grazing behavior and forage selection
A better understanding of how herbivores graze
in heterogeneous areas will help to improve animal
production and to determine the impact of these
herbivores on plant species and plant community
change. Sheep make several adjustment in grazing
intensity, pattern, diet selection and shade seeking to
ameliorate the adverse condition of environment.
Sheep and goats follow rhythmic periodicity in graz-
ing pattern, where they grazed actively during morn-
ing and evening hours. Sheep makes several adjust-
ments in food processing for efficient utilization of
forage. Bite per minute declined from 35 in medium
pasture allowance to 24 in low level of allowances
(Shinde et al., 1997). Forage quality mainly fibre
content of forage influenced the food processing
behaviour. Ruminating rate (chew/bolus) of sheep
increased from 62 to 67 while masticating rate (chew/
min) decreased from 69 to 63 with rise of acid
detergent fibre of diet from 42 to 52%. Ruminating
rate increased from 45 chew/min in monsoon when
diet contained 68 % shrub and 32 % grass to 70
chew/min in summer when diet consisted of shrub
alone. Shrub in comparison to grass contained more
fibre and greater consumption of fibre in animals
increased rumination rate for better utilization. Goats
of north-western region are considered to be well
adapted to high ambient temperature and spend
considerably lesser hours of day under shade. Graz-
ing hours of goats on pasture is negatively correlated
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
with ambient temperature, relative humidity, and for-
age supply from ranges (Bhatta et al., 2001). Goats
have characteristic bipedal stance, which help in
consumption of overhead portion of shrub species.
This characteristic behavioural of goats helps them
to maintain higher CP in diet despite sizable dete-
rioration of CP content of ground vegetation in dry
periods (Bhatta et al., 2001).
Better knowledge of palatable species over
other helps us to improved distribution of edible
species in the grazing land and animal production.
Animal species generally differ in their preference,
and within each species consistent diurnal patterns
of preference are frequently observed in herbivores.
On pastures and rangelands, vegetation constraints
become important because they alter rates of en-
counter of preferred forages. The availability of the
different sward components can limit preference
expression. Herbivores those have broad and flat
muzzle have lesser ability to feed selectivity than
species with narrow mouths and incurred incisor
arcades. Sheep have a high ability to sort preferred
plant components from others. The ability to walk
long distances enables sheep to explored wider areas
and influenced their encounter rates of preferred
species. Sheep are basically a grazier animal, diet
of sheep mainly constituted of grasses and forbs
and little of browse species. Contrary to sheep,
goats are browser species and their diet mainly
consisted of browse and little of grasses. Goats in
semiarid region preferred grasses only in monsoon
when they were green and succulent in nature while
in other season their preference is almost negligible
probably due to maturity and fibrous nature. Goat
diet contained 76 % shrubs and 24 % grasses in
monsoon, while in winter and summer; diet was
constituted of 100 % shrubs in semiarid rangeland
of India (Shinde et al., 2000).
The Prosopis cineraria shrub in desert envi-
ronment is one of the main sources of foliage to
goats. The P. cineraria constituted 93.2 g/kg of diet
in monsoon, 166.6 g/kg in winter and 540 g/kg in
summer. In summer, when most of the ground veg-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
etation dried off and very few shrubs species are
available in the grazing lands, the goats diet primarily
comprised of Prosopis cineraria (546g/kg), Aca-
cia tortolis pods (158.0 g/kg) and Acacia senegal
(158.0 g/kg). Cocculus pendulus, the most palat-
able climber, widely found only on Prosopis ciner-
aria and remained green throughout the year. It
constituted 102.4, 83.9 and 138.0 g/kg of goat diet
in monsoon, winter and summer seasons, respec-
tively. Sheep preferred quality nutrients with dete-
rioration of pasture conditions to meet their dietary
requirement. Preference index for CP in sheep on
Cenchrus pasture progressively increased from 1.2
in monsoon to 2.1 in winter and 3.0 in summer,
respectively (Shinde et al., 1998a) and 1.35 in mon-
soon to 1.78 in winter and 2.25 in summer in goats
on native ranges (Bhatta et al., 2001). The increase
selection intensity of CP helped them to maintain 13
% CP in diet throughout the year irrespective of
sizable decline of pasture vegetation content.
Nutrition of sheep and goats on pastures
In arid and semiarid region sheep and goats
depend on native ranges for the main source of
forage supply. The deciduous plant species and a
heterogeneous vegetation type of shrubs with an
annual herbaceous understorey are the main com-
ponent of these ranges. Prosopis cineraria, Aca-
cia senegal and Acacia tortolis are the dominant
shrub species and their leaves and pods offer a
potential source of protein to animals during winter
and summer. Melilotus indica, Tribulus terrestris,
Crotolaria burhia, Celosia argentea and
Indigofera cordifolia grass and forb species are
occupied by understorey. Native vegetation showed
typical pattern of growth in response to short pe-
riod of rainy season followed by long spell of dry
period. Such seasonal pattern has sizable influence
on diet composition and intake of grazing sheep
and goat in semiarid pastures and ranges. Goats on
these ranges consumed 64.0 g/kgW 0.75 or 2.4 %
of BW in monsoon when vegetation in grazing land
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was sufficient and intakes decreased to 54.0g/kg
W 0.75 or 2.0 % BW in winter and summer with
maturity and deterioration of vegetation. Goats have
ability to maintain constant level of intake despite
wide variation in forage supply in different seasons
because of their flexible and opportunistic grazing
behaviour that enable them to adapt to various range
conditions (Shinde et al., 2000). Sheep on Cenchrus
pasture consumed 36.9 g/kg W 0.75 dry matter in
monsoon, 64.0 g/kg W 0.75 in winter and 53.0 g/
kgW 0.75 in summer (Shinde et al., 1998b).
Sheep consumed 3.44 g/kg W0.75 DCP in
monsoon, 2.42 g/kg W0.75 in winter and 1.05 g/
kg W0.75 in summer on native ranges of semiarid
region. The protein intake remained low and inad-
equate for growth and production. Cenchrus pas-
ture improved forage yield and quality and sheep
consumed 4.70 g/kg W 0.75 DCP in winter and
2.10- 2.50 g/kg W 0.75 in monsoon and summer.
Sheep are unable to meet DCP requirement of
pregnancy and lactation stages on Sewan and
Cenchrus pastures and require the supplementa-
tion. In general protein intake of animals from pas-
ture in semiarid regions is just enough for mainte-
nance requirement during rainy season while in other
seasons 25-30% below the requirement. Goats have
better ability to meet their protein requirement be-
cause of greater consumption of browse species
and overhead portion of shrubs. Goats on native
ranges has DCP intake of 4.8, 3.1 and 4.5 g/kg W
0.75 in monsoon, winter and summer seasons and
maintained 67- 95 g DCP per day, which was found
sufficient for maintenance and out door activities
(Shinde et al., 2000). In Cenchrus pasture goats
has disadvantage because of poor cover of browse
species. Goat intake on Cenchrus pasture declined
from 4.10 g/kgW 0.75 in monsoon season to 2.90
g/kg W 0.75 in summer (Shinde et al., 1996). It is
useful to have browse species for improving the
nutrition of goat in Cenchrus pasture.
In arid and semiarid region, forage from range-
lands and pastures are usually poor in energy con-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
tent. Average energy content ranges between 6-
7MJ/kgDM. Sheep and goats on an average con-
sumed 1.0-1.5 kg DM daily are able to get 6- 9
MJ/kgW0.75, which is insufficient for maintenance
and outdoor requirement. Sheep on Cenchrus pas-
ture consume 0.74 MJ/kg W0.75 in monsoon and
0.42MJ/ kgW0.75 in summer. Energy intake of
sheep sizably decreased from monsoon to summer.
Energy intake of sheep during later winter on
Cenchrus pasture was 0.37, 0.38 and 0.40 MJ/kg
W0.75 during dry, pregnant and lactation stages.
Goat consumed 0.90, 0.78 and 0.80 MJ ME/ kg
W0.75 in monsoon, winter and summer (Shinde et
al., 2000). Energy intake of goats remained low
during dry, pregnancy and lactation. It was esti-
mated as 1.22 in dry, 1.00 in pregnant and 1.04
MJ ME/ kgW0.75 in lactation in goats grazing on
semi-arid rangeland of India.
Energy expenditure at pasture
Majority of sheep and goat flocks in the coun-
try are managed under extensive system where they
traveled long distance while foraging in field. The
energy expenditure of sheep and goats on pasture
is more than those maintained on stall-feeding.
Maintenance energy requirement of animals on
pasture includes sum of basal metabolism, heat in-
crement of feeding, muscular activities and ther-
moregulation. In general sheep on pasture spend
60-70% more energy than stall-fed animals. In dry
zone of country, about 60-70% of flocks are main-
tained on temporary to permanent migration. These
flocks would be spending sizably higher energy for
maintenance because of longer distance covered.
Sheep on pasture exposed to wide range of ambi-
ent temperature ranging from 8-10° in winter to
40-45°C in summer in semi-acid region of
Rajasthan. Grazing of sheep on pasture at higher
ambient temperature spend more energy for ther-
moregulation resulting in greater energy expenditure
for maintenance. Sheep and goats in hilly and ter-
rain graze on steep land and travel long distance in
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
the mountain region requiring still higher energy re-
quirement for muscular activities than those flocks
grazed in plains: sheep on ascent spent 10 times
more energy than on plain land. The maintenance
energy requirement of sheep on pasture of semiarid
Rajasthan was reported as 43% (Shinde et al.,
1998a) more than stall-fed. Sheep grazing on pas-
tures of semiarid region spent 136.7kJ/kg BW in
winter to 161.1 kJ/BW in summer and 223.7 kJ/
BW in monsoon (Shinde et al., 1998a).
Role of small ruminants in environment con-
servation
It is often believed that grazing of small rumi-
nants help natural generation of trees and shrubs
and also creates opportunities for local plant com-
munities and their ecosystem. On the other hand,
prevention of grazing results in dominance of shrubby
plants, loss of grasses and eventually woodland.
Grazing of sheep and goats in woodland also pre-
vents fire by making breaks of dense flora. This
implies small ruminants themselves provide more
specific roles in the ecosystem: their dung is an
important source of food for many insects and other
wildlife. Small ruminants also help in dispersion of
seeds in new areas. Goats help in dispersal of grass,
bush and tree pods while browsing and defecate
hard coat undigested seeds especially of pod bear-
ing and xerophytes after acid treatment while pass-
ing through digestive system and fortifying it with
nutrients in the form of fecal pellets and spread
more uniformly all over the grazing areas (Acharya
and Singh 1992). These seeds germinate in large
number as soon as soil moisture conditions are
favorable. Higher stocking density damages soil top
layer and cause run off losses. The stocking density
of 2- 4 goats/ha had no effect on runoff and soil
loss in hot arid regions of Rajasthan in normal rain-
fall years. Similarly 3 sheep or goats/ha had no
effect on deterioration of physical and chemical prop-
erties of soil rather improved it. Goat browsing tend
to reclaim saline soil by consuming salt-laden leaves
of range plants and contribute fertility to soil by
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
even distribution of fecal pellets on land they grazed.
Sharma and Ogra (1987) reported 27% more veg-
etative regeneration in goats paddock comprising
of Cenchrus ciliaris, Dichrostachys nutans and
Leuceania leucocephala. Goat saliva left on the
bitten foliage adds nitrogen directly to the plant cells
inducing quick growth. The biting of tender leaves
and twigs by goats also induce number of tillers and
faster regeneration of branch and foliage.
In arid zones, overgrazing because of high
stocking density of livestock, extensive cutting of
fuel wood and cultivation of fragile lands has re-
sulted in loss of plant cover and change of vegeta-
tion composition. The utilization of rangeland be-
yond the limit of their capacity, long history of mis-
use of rangeland resources has resulted in over-
grazing. The misuse is caused by overstocking,
usually associated with reduction in grazing areas,
inappropriate use of rangeland resources with re-
spect to grazing season, reduction in grazing areas
and inappropriate distribution of animals.
Livestock numbers have increased in arid
zones at a rate close to demographic ones. The
increased livestock populations in the country have
overstocked rangeland. The higher livestock popu-
lations in fragile zones is ascribed to greater animal
rearing because of surplus labor, lower landowner-
ship and poor crop cultivation. Continuous utiliza-
tion of range resource by all kind of livestock has
caused overgrazing since it reduced plant vigor,
reproduction and regeneration. The dry land agri-
culture is expanding, which has reduced the size of
grazing areas and put more pressure on the remain-
ing rangeland. The concentrations of animals in
certain areas are the main cause of overgrazing.
The main factors that affect animal distribution are
proximity to watering points, proximity to areas of
better grazing quality and shepherding. The increas-
ing grazing pressure increases the proportion of bare
soil and more important reduce the amount of veg-
etation litter and soil fertility. The increased grazing
pressure in common access lands leads to progres-
sive erosion and decrease of soil fertility, lowering
of water tables and loss of biodiversity. Higher
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grazing intensities results also in soil compaction,
higher run off and less infiltration.
The present paper concludes that grazing land
in the country are shrinking both in area as well as
in yield and vegetation cover hence there is urgent
need to rehabilitate these lands by establishment of
perennial grasses or silvipasture to meet the forage
requirement of small ruminants.
REFERENCES
Acharya, R.M. and Singh, N.P. (1992) The role of
goats in conserving of ecology and livelihood
security, Pre-conference Proceeding Plenary
Papers and Invited lectures. V International
Conference on Goats, held at New Delhi, 2-
4 March.
Bhatta Raghavendra, Shinde, A. K., Sankhyan, S.
K.,Verma, D.L. and S. Vaithiyanathan (2001)
Indian J. Anim. Sci.
Bhatta Raghavendra, Shinde, A.K, Sankhyan, S.K.
and Verma D.L. (2002) Indian J. Anim. Sci.,
72: 84-86.
Karim S. A., Santra, A., Sen, A. R. and Sharma,
V. K. (2001) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 71: 955-
958.
Karim, S. A. and Rawat, P. S. (1996) Indian J.
Anim. Sci., 66: 830-832.
Karim, S. A., Santra, A and Verma, D. L. (2002)
Asian-Aust J. Anim. Sci., 15: 377-381.
Karim, S.A., Porwal, Kuldeep., Kumar, Suresh and
Singh, V.K. (2007) Meat Sci., 76: 395-401.
Karim., S.A. and Mehta, B.S. (2007) Indian J.
Anim. Sci. 77: 187-190.
Porwal, Kuldeep. (2005) Status of sheep produc-
tion in farmers flock and its improvement
by scientific feeding practices. Ph.D. thesis
submitted to Dr B.R. Ambedkar University,
Agra.
Rai, P.K., Yadav, M.S. and Sudhakar, N. (1995)
Annals Arid Zone., 34: 111-114.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Sankhyan, S. K, Shinde, A. K, Karim, S. A, Mann,
J. S, Singh, N. P. and Patnayak, B. C. (1996)
Indian J. Anim. Sci., 66: 1194-1197.
Sen, A. R., Santra, A. and Karim, S. A. (2004)
Meat Sci., 757-763.
Sharma, K. and Ogra, J. L. (1987) Reaction of
component of plant species of synthesized
pasture under three-tier system to high inten-
sity of grazing by goats and sheep in semi-arid
zones. Proc. 3rd International Conf. on Goat,
Brazil.
Shinde, A. K., Karim, S. A., Patnayak, B.C. and
Mann, J.S. (1997) Small Rumin Res., 26:119-
122.
Shinde, A. K., Sankhyan, S. K., Raghavendra
Bhatta, Verma, D. L. (2000) J. Agri Sci.,
Camb., 135: 429-436.
Shinde, A. K., Karim, S. A., Sankhyan, S. K. and
Bhatta, Raghavendra. (1998a) J. Agri. Sci.,
Camb., 131: 341-346.
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Shinde, A. K, Karim, S. A, Sankhyan, S. K. and
Bhatta, R. (1998b) Small Rumin. Res., 30:
29-35.
Shinde, A. K, Sankhyan, S. K, Karim, S. A, Singh,
N. P. and Patnayak, B.C. (1996) World Rev.
Anim. Prod., 31: 35-40.
Shinde, A. K., Karim, S. A., Singh, N. P. and
Patnayak, B. C. (1995) Indian J. Anim. Sci.,
65: 830-833.
Singh, N. P., Sankhyan, S. K., Shinde, A. K. and
Verma, D. L. (2003) Establishment, utiliza-
tion and management of different types of
pastures and silvipastures for sheep produc-
tion. Annual Report CSWRI, Avikanagar.
Singh, N.P. and Sahu, B.B. (1997) Indian J. Anim.
Sci., 67: 87-89.
Tripathi, M. K., Karim, S. A., Chaturvedi, O. H.
and Singh, V. K. (2006) Livestock Res. Rural
Devel., 18: 1-12.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Sustainable intensive meat production system for goats
and sheep in tropics
N. P. Singh
Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom, Mathura-281 122, India
Two-third of the world's poor live in Asia
below nationally defined poverty line and 65 % of
them are poor livestock keepers who derive a large
part of their household from domesticated animals.
The rapidly changing patterns of demand for live-
stock and livestock products point to livestock
production being an increasing component of the
agricultural economies of Asia. The extent to which
the rural poor will benefit from these changes de-
pends on how livestock can be integrated into
developing markets and whether cheaper livestock
products benefit the rural poor as consumers as
well as producers. There is scope for the two small
ruminants - goats and sheep-to play an important
role for smallholder farmers in accessing these new
markets. Their significance, which is now being
exploited in several countries, is that they are small
livestock in high demand and can thrive on low
inputs and local resources.
Livestock population and production
World's current population of cattle, buffaloes,
sheep and goats is around 1355.1, 174.0, 1081.1
and 807.6 million respectively. Asian region pos-
sesses about 33.61, 96.88, 42.29 and 64.33 %
and India 13.65, 56.31, 5.79 and 14.87 % of the
total world population of the four respective live-
stock species (FAO, 2005). Although the popula-
tion of all the four species has shown increasing
trend since 1951 the buffalo and goat population
has increased more rapidly than others and they are
considered the animals of the future for the country.
The contribution of agriculture and allied sectors to
the National Gross Domestic Product (GPD) has
declined from 55 % in early 1950s to 23.9 % in
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2001-02. But the share of livestock sector to ag-
ricultural GPD has increased from 18.1 % in 1980-
81 to 25.5 % in 2001-02 (Sharma, 2004). Live-
stock provides food security in the form of milk,
meat and eggs, employment, draught power, plant
nutrients through manure, fuel and biogas, weed
control, more equitable distribution besides source
of income. Livestock are even more significant for
people living in drought-prone, hilly, tribal and other
less favoured areas where crop production is most
uncertain.
About 23 % of the world population living in
developed countries consumes 3 to 4 times the meat
and fish and 5 to 6 times the milk per capita as
compared to those in developing countries (Delgado
et al., 1999). But massive increases in the aggre-
gate consumption of animal products are occurring
in developing countries including India. Dastagiri
(2003) has estimated the demand and supply of
different livestock products by 2020 in the country.
The projected consumption and production trends
of livestock food products indicate that major sur-
plus production is likely to emerge in milk, eggs,
beef, buffalo meat and fish of the order of 85 mil-
lion litres, 69 billion, 8 million, and 4.5 million tons,
respectively. These results indicate that by 2020,
India would not only be self-sufficient in these prod-
ucts, but would also have surplus production which
could be exported to earn foreign exchange. There
would, however, be shortage of 12 million tons of
mutton and chevon. The small ruminant sector has
tremendous potential to grow especially in the arid
and semi-arid zones where sheep and goat hus-
bandry plays a very vital role in livelihood security
and economic sustenance of the people. But the
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
productivity of the two species is low and there is
dire need to evolve sustainable goat and sheep
production systems to improve their productivity.
Goat and sheep population and production
The current world population of sheep is
1081.1 million and goats 807.6 million. Asian re-
gion possesses about 42.3% sheep and 64.3%
goats of the world population. India with 5.79%
sheep and 14.9% goats ranks sixth in sheep popu-
lation and second in goat population of the world.
China tops the world in goat population with around
195 million (FAO, 2005). The developed countries
of the world have about 45.0% of the world's sheep
and only 5.5% of the world's goats. The develop-
ing countries, on the other hand, have 55.0% of the
sheep and 94.50% of the total goat population.
Presently there are 8.1, 13.1 and 19.6 sheep and
5.4, 15.1 and 41.5 goats per 1000 hectares of land
area and 17.2, 10.9 and 5.7 sheep and 11.6, 12.7
and 12.2 goats per 1000 human heads in the World,
Asia and India respectively. India possessed a
population of 124.36 million goats and 61.47 mil-
lion sheep. Andhra Pradesh with 21.38 million sheep
ranks first. Rajasthan, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
respectively occupy II, III and IV position. The
goat population of 18.77 million is highest in West
Bengal followed by 16.81 million in Rajasthan. Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Bihar respectively oc-
cupy III, IV and V position in the country. In spite
of annual slaughter rate of nearly 30% in sheep and
40% in goats there has been a continuous increase
in their number. The overall annual population growth
rate during the period 1951-2003 has remained
about 1 % in sheep and around 3.5% in goats.
Sheep around the world contributed 8075.6
TMT of milk, 8025.0 TMT of meat, 2150.7 TMT
of greasy wool and 1638.6 TMT of fresh skins
annually. Sheep in India contributed only 2.92% of
the meat, 2.39% of the wool and 3.24% of the
skins produced world over. Goats, on the other
hand, provided 11987.2 TMT of milk, 4198.9 TMT
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of meat and 910.4 TMT of fresh skins world over
and in India contributed 21.77% of the milk, 10.41%
of the meat and 14.23% of the skins of the world
production. The number of animals available for
slaughter is comparatively higher in the country. But
the meat yield per animal is lower than the world
average. India with 11 % of the world livestock
contributes only 2.13 % of the total meat. The
demand for meat in our country is far more than the
production. The demand is further augmented by
the great scope for meat export and potential to
earn foreign exchange.
Importance of goat and sheep in Indian
economy
Goats and sheep are widely distributed through-
out the country. Their contribution to the economy
through production of meat, milk, fiber, skins,
manure etc. is substantial constituting about 5.40
% of GNP of Agriculture Sector. The annual
contribution was estimated to be Rs.10, 087.45
crores to the Indian economy (FAO, 2004). The
size and magnitude of the contributions, however,
have not been adequately assessed. A few reports
available do justify their claim to equality if not
superiority with other livestock. They are so vital
to a very large human population that their con-
tribution to national economy can not be over
looked. They relatively much lower investments
and facilities in terms of housing, feed, labour and
health care. There is quick pay off due to fast
multiplication and early maturity. The risk involved
in goat and sheep farming is much lower when
compared to other livestock and crop production.
Goats and sheep are reported to be more eco-
nomical than cattle and buffaloes under natural
grazing on arid zone range. The indigenous goats
were found 2.5 times more economical than
indigenous sheep when maintained on a free range
grazing on highly degraded land in semi arid
ecology of Rajasthan. Sharma (1987) recorded
significantly more meat and milk production per unit
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
live weight per year from goats than buffalo, camel
and sheep. The cost of production of goat milk
worked out to be less than half than for cow's
milk while milk from buffaloes was intermediate.
The results of a socio economic survey in Rajasthan
conducted by Ahuja and Rathore (1987) have
revealed that the number of goats increased 3 times
between 1951 to 1983 and goats accounted for
28.31% of the value of the livestock assets and
for 16.19% of the gross receipts from crops and
livestock. Studies have also revealed that the goats
contributed up to 50.55% to the total cash income
of a farm family in the hot arid region of the
country. It is therefore, important that development
programmes should focus on the efficient use of
these renewable resources as well as explore ways
and means of increasing their current level of
production.
Socio economic gains of goat and sheep
The socio economic importance of goats and
sheep in India is evident by the sharp increase in
their numbers and contributions during the last
about 30 years. Goats and sheep contribute milk,
meat, fibre, skins and manure to the subsistence
of small holders and landless rural poor. They play
an important role in income generation, capital
storage, employment generation and house hold
nutrition. Their importance lies in the fact that
human population is increasing very rapidly creating
increasing demands for animal protein foods on the
one hand and the feed resources for increasing
large ruminants are decreasing due to shrinkage of
grazing lands on the other. This demand can,
therefore, be met with by increasing population of
small ruminants. It is easier to increase their
population than cattle and buffaloes because the
capital investment is relatively low, land require-
ments per animal are small, reproductive rates are
higher both due to shorter breeding interval and
high prolificacy and they can be managed by spare
family labour and do not require any serious
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housing facilities and management skills. There is
much less risk in goat and sheep farming in drought
prone areas where large mortality occurs due to
frequent droughts. They act as an insurance against
disaster under pastoral and agriculture subsistence
system. Goats have religious and ritualistic impor-
tance in India. They are offered as sacrificial
animals both by Muslims on Id and by Hindus
especially the worshippers of Goddess Kali. They
are worshipped for their creative and generative
powers and sexual virility. There are no religious
taboos against consumption of goat and sheep
meat. Goat milk is easily digestible because of
small sized fat globules. It has much less allergic
problems than the milk of other livestock species.
It also has medicinal value and can ward off many
diseases as the goats browse on variety of plants
including medicinal ones. The sheep and goat skins
are highly valued and have large export potential
both in the processed form and as products. The
bones of slaughtered and dead animals are utilized
for bone meal manufacture. A goat or sheep
produces about 150 kg of dry manure per year
for use in crop production and gardening. Goat
and sheep browsing accelerates growth of trees,
shrubs and surface vegetation. They also act as
seeding machines. They have higher dry matter and
fibre digestibility and can subsist on poor woody
vegetation. Goats and sheep are able to obtain
more nutrients from the given environment in all
seasons than other livestock species and are often
the last species to leave the ecology during severe
and continuous drought conditions.
Production systems
Although a number of sheep and goat produc-
tion systems are in practice and vary from country
to country and region to region within a country, in
India these can essentially be included under three
systems viz. Extensive, Semi-intensive and Inten-
sive system. The emerging strategies for feeding small
ruminants for sustainable meat production under
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
different systems of feeding management are de-
scribed below-
Extensive system: Goat and sheep rearing plays
only a secondary role to crop as well as other
livestock production. It is primarily in the hands of
poor, landless or small and marginal farmers who
generally raise their animals on natural vegetation
and stubbles supplemented by tree lopping under
extensive system. It is the most common system
throughout the country because the small size of
sheep and goats has distinct economical, manage-
rial and biological advantages over other livestock
species. The sheep and goats usually owned by
small farmers and landless are grazed together and
tend to be herded over long distances in search of
feed and water. The flock sizes are larger and
animals belonging to several owners are run to-
gether. A low level of unpaid family labour repre-
sents the main input. The system is principally one
of low resource use and a low level of productivity
emerges from poor nutritional availability. While
the livestock population has increased, large areas
earlier available for grazing have been put under
crop cultivation. The density of livestock per unit
grazing area has greatly increased. Because of non-
availability of grazing in their home tract, sheep and
goat owners resort to migration within the State or
to neighboring States. The sheep and goat flocks
are grazed on uncultivated lands and community
grazing lands throughout the year and virtually no or
very little supplementary feeding is provided. Ex-
tensive studies on evaluation of community grazing
lands, developed pastures, semi-intensive and in-
tensive feeding systems vis-à-vis performance and
production levels in sheep and goats have been
conducted and the results have been reviewed by
Singh and Patnayak (1987), Patnayak et al., (1995),
Shinde and Bhatta (2002) and Singh et al., (2004).
Production levels on rangelands : The productiv-
ity of Indian sheep and goats is low, yet considering
the poor nutritional availability, their production
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cannot be considered as inefficient. Large areas
available for grazing have now been put under ce-
real production. The density of livestock per unit
grazing area has greatly increased due to an in-
crease in the number of livestock and shrinkage of
grazing lands. This has further resulted in reduction
of grazing potential by replacement of more nutri-
tious perennial grasses and legumes by low quality
seasonal and annual ones. The natural rangelands in
arid and semiarid regions are under very poor con-
dition. These have never been harrowed, protected,
fertilized, reseeded, irrigated or properly managed
and could hardly stock one sheep/goat per hectare.
The greatest limitation in our rangelands is on the
availability of adequate energy throughout the year
and adequate protein for more than half the year.
The yield of unprotected common grazing lands
varied from 0.6 to 6.4 quintals (Mann and Singh,
1982), 0.89 to 1.57q (Sankhyan et al. 1999) and
1.5 to 2.0q DM/ha. During different seasons of the
year. Simple protection from grazing by the live-
stock doubled the fodder yield to 12.2q in first
year and 17.97q DM/ha in the second year. Such
protected rangelands could conveniently carry two
sheep/ha. Although grazing on rangelands is consid-
ered cheapest method for sheep and goat produc-
tion, over grazing of the available lands is causing
serious problem of soil erosion and land degrada-
tion. The sheep and goat meat available in the
market was coming either from old and culled adults
or from male lambs and kids slaughtered any time
between 9 months to one year of age and its quan-
tity and quality was very poor due to poor market
weights (15-16 kg), lower dressing percentage (35-
40) and narrow bone: meat ratio (1:3.5-4.0). Rela-
tive productivity of sheep on free-range grazing
management on semi-arid land of Rajasthan was
studied at CSWRI. An annual lambing rate of 82.5
% and kidding rate of 91.9 % was observed. The
annual mortality was recorded to be 31.2 % in
ewes and 7.1 % in does. The mortality in lambs
was 16.4 % from 0 to 90 days and 56.6 % from
0 to 180 days age. It was 12.2 % from 0 to 90
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
days and 28.16 % from 0 to 180 days age in kids.
The birth, weaning and six monthly body weights
were 2.6, 8.6 and 12.5 kg in lambs and 2.9, 9.3
and 13.6 kg in goats respectively. The dressing
percentage on live weight basis was recorded to be
34.3 in lambs and 41.7 in kids. The Beetal goat
male kids reached a body weight of only 11.5 kg
at weaning and 14.1 kg at 6 months age when
maintained under free range grazing without any
supplementary feeding with over all survivability of
87.5% up to six months age (Mishra, 1981). In
another study annual lambing rate of 106.7 % and
kidding rate of 153.3 % was recorded. The num-
ber of lambs born per 100 ewes per year was 110
and that of kids per 100 does per year was 193.3.
The adult mortality rate was 16.6 % in cross bred
sheep followed by 10.0 % in native goats, 6.6 %
in crossbred goats and nil in native sheep. The
mortality in the young was found to be 14.3, 12.1,
3.4 and 2.8 from 0 to 3 months and 12.5, 3.5, 5.4
and 5.7 % from 3 months to 6 months of age in
crossbred sheep, native sheep, crossbred goats and
native goats, respectively. The birth, 3 months and
6 months body weights were 3.2, 10.2 and 15.5
kg in crossbred sheep, 2.7, 11.3 and 16.6 kg in
native sheep, 3.1, 11.1 and 17.0 kg in crossbred
goats and 2.8, 10.6 and 15.7 kg in native goats,
respectively. The relative productivity of sheep and
goats on free range grazing on natural rangeland of
arid region was also studied. Sheep showed de-
creasing trend in body weight from March to July
and goats from March to April and thereafter showed
increasing trend. Lambing rates varied from 95 to
100 % and kidding rates from 80 to 104%.
Sankhyan et al., (1996a) studied the production
performance of 50 native and 50 crossbred sheep
and their followers maintained on 35 hectare of
natural rangeland under farmers management. A
lambing rate of 92, 96, 84 and 92 % in Malpura,
Chokla, Avikalin and Avivastra sheep was recorded
on the basis of ewes available during first year and
144, 145, 109 and 120 % at the end of the second
year respectively. The adult mortality was 8, 4, 4
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
and 4 % during first year and 4, 3, 8 and 5%
during the second year in the four breeds, respec-
tively. The live weights of lambs harvested per ewe
per year were 20.0, 16.65, 11.6 and 13.2 kg and
per ewe per hectare were 2.28, 1.90, 1.33 and
1.50 kg in the four breeds, respectively.
Production levels on developed pastures : We
must get used to the idea that pasture is the valu-
able fodder for sheep simply because it is the cheap-
est way of supplying the protein, energy, minerals
and vitamins necessary for maintenance and pro-
duction. Cenchrus ciliaris and Cenchrus setigerus
in semi-arid and Lasiurus sindicus perennial grasses
in arid region were adopted for development of
large-scale reseeded pastures. Legumes like cow-
pea, guar and moth were successfully introduced as
nurse crops in the Cenchrus pastures during the
first year of establishment. Inter-cropping of cow-
pea in the Cenchrus pasture significantly increased
the dry fodder yield during the first year of estab-
lishment. Various perennial legumes like cowpea,
Dolichos lablab, Clitoria ternata and Stylosanthes
hemata were tried with Cenchrus ciliaris grass
for establishment of grass-legume pastures. The
Cenchrus- Dolichos mixed pasture gave highest
yield. The DM yield could be improved to 38.78q/
ha by reseeding the rangelands with Cenchrus grass
species (Mann and Singh, 1982). These reseeded
grass pastures carried 4 to 5 adult sheep/ha. While,
Cenchrus ciliaris pasture could provide sufficient
grazing for 5 sheep round the year under semi arid
conditions, the Lasiurus sindicus pasture could not
do so under arid conditions. The Cenchrus grass
pastures deteriorate in their nutrient content with
advancing seasonal maturity and sheep grazing on
these pastures fail to meet their nutrient require-
ments. It is therefore necessary to introduce legume
component in the reseeded pastures. Incorporation
of legume species viz. Clitoria ternata, Dolichos
lablab, Lablab purpurium, Atylosia scarbaeoides
and Stylosanthes hamata in Cenchrus pasture im-
proved the yield, palatability and quality of the
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
pasture. The yield of the grass-legume pasture im-
proved to 86, 37.5, 45.0 and 59 q/ha forage with
the introduction of the four respective legumes.
Cenchrus with moth (Phaseolus aconitifolins), guar
(Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) and cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata) yielded 13.0,14.9 and 19.2 q DM /
ha more fodder than Cenchrus alone providing ad-
ditional dry matter sufficient to carry two more sheep
per hectare.
The pasturelands reseeded with perennial
grasses and legumes turn dry and deteriorate in
quantity and quality of grazing material with ad-
vancing season and total dependence on them for
maintaining sheep and goats throughout the year
involves a great risk. During the period from De-
cember to June when the grazing material becomes
scarce and the nutritive value of that available goes
very down, the fodder trees serve as potential source
of feed. Introduction of Ailanthus excelsa, Prosopis
cineraria, Gymnosporia spinosa, Acacia nilotica,
Azardirachta indica, Albizia lebbek, Bauhinia
racemosa, Morus alba and Leucaena
leucocephala fodder trees and Zizyphus
nummularia and Dicrostachys nutans fodder
bushes in different grass pastures was therefore
studied in relation to improvement in quantity and
quality of the biomass. Plantation of 50 fodder trees
each of Prosopis cineraria and Ailanthus excelsa
per hectare did not have any adverse effect on the
growth of pasture grasses and legumes and pro-
vided an additional yield of 8-10 quintals dry mat-
ter when fully grown and lopped twice a year. A
three tier silvi-pasture having 100 Ailanthus excelsa
trees and Dichrostachys nutans bushes with ground
cover of Cenchrus ciliaris yielded 5.3q from tree
leaves, 2.3q from bush leaves and pods and 23.5
q from pasture grasses, totaling to 31.1 q DM/ha
(Sankhyan et al., 1996b).
The productive performance of sheep was
studied on a Cenchrus ciliaris pasture by main-
taining 20 ewes each of the two strains @ 5 ewes/
ha under rotational grazing system. A mortality rate
of 10 % in Avivastra and 5 % in Avikalin was
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
recorded in adult sheep. While no mortality was
observed in Avikalin lambs from 0 to 3 months age,
11.5 % of the Avivastra strain lambs died up to
weaning. The average weaning weight was 10.9
kg in Avivastra and 11.2 kg in Avikalin lambs.
Performance of Karakul and Marwari ewes on
Lasiurus sindicus pasture under arid conditions in-
dicated that Karakul ewes lost in body weight dur-
ing lean period while Marwari ewes maintained.
Weaner lambs grazed on Cenchrus grass or
Cenchrus + Dolichos grass- legume pasture gained
by 34 and 48 g/h/day respectively. Malpura, Chokla,
Avikalin and Avivastra lambs grazed on protected
rangeland respectively attained 21.8, 17.2, 19.3 and
18.3 kg body weight at 6 months of age. The ADG
was 94, 78, 88 and 88 g/d during 3-6 months of
age. Lambs in subsequent years hardly attained body
weight of 13.7, 12.5, 14.1 kg in Malpura, Chokla
and Avivastra breeds. Avivastra lambs attained body
weight of 18 kg at 3 months and 27 kg at 6 months
of age while grazing on Cenchrus pasture with
concentrate supplementation @ 1.5% of body
weight. Lambs raised on multi-tier silvi-pasture at a
stocking density of 12 animals/ha for a period of 3
months attained a body weight of 18.0 kg at 6
months. Male lambs grazing on a silvi-pasture for a
period of 4 months at a stocking density of 8 ani-
mals /ha attained 30 kg body weight at one year of
age. The weaner lambs weighing 11.0 kg could
attain only 16.0 kg body weight at one year of age
when maintained on a Cenchrus ciliaris pasture
alone, whereas lambs grazing on Cenchrus +
Dolichos pasture reached 20.5 kg. The 10 kg lambs
at weaning attained a live weight of 28 kg at the
age of 7 months and 15 days on Dolichos lablab
pasture. Singh et al. (2004) maintained a flock of
50 mutton synthetic ewes on a Cenchrus ciliaris
pasture at the stocking rate of 3 adults and their
followers per hectare for two years and recorded
a lambing rate of 92 % per year and adult mortality
rate of 3 % and lamb mortality rate of 20.5 % from
0 to 9 months of age. At birth, 3, 6 and 9 months,
body weights during the three lambing seasons
averaged 3.2, 13.9, 20.6 and 23.9 kg respectively.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
The dressing percentage at 9 months age was 54.3
on empty live weight basis. The total live weight
available for slaughter at 9 months was 1718.1 kg,
which worked out to 17.2 kg per ewe per year.
Annual wool yield was 2.21 kg in adults and 400
g in lambs in first shearing at 9 months of age (Singh
and Sankhyan, 2003). Male Avivastra lambs at a
stocking density of 8 animals /ha on a silvi-pasture
attained a body weight of 30 kg (Shinde et al.,
1994).
Shinde et al. (1996) maintained 32 Avivastra
sheep and 32 Marwari goats on a 16 ha Cenchrus
ciliaris pasture for a period of three years @ 2
sheep +2 goats and their followers/ha. The sheep
gained in their body weight by 6.2 kg and the goats
by 9.4 kg during the first year. The lambing/kidding
rate was 87.5 %. The sheep produced 2.4 kg annual
fleece and the goats produced 714 g milk/ day
during first 90 days of lactation. A pre-weaning ADG
of 163 g in lambs and 136 g in kids was recorded.
A total of 24.4 kg lamb weight/ewe and 37.5 kg
kid weight/doe was harvested. Lambs and kids
weaned at 3 months age and maintained @ of 12
animals/ha on a multi- tier silvi-pasture attained a
live weight of 20.3 and 21.5 kg at 6 months of age
(Sankhyan et al., 1996a). The Mutton synthetic ewes
stocked @ of 12 sheep/ha maintained their body
weights during pregnancy and produced higher birth
weights and milk on two- and three- tier silvi-pas-
tures as compared to those on natural rangeland
and single- tier Cenchrus pasture (Shinde et al.,
1996). Production performance of Kheri sheep and
Marwari goats maintained on Cenchrus ciliaris pas-
ture @ of two sheep and two goats/ha under dif-
ferent pasture utilization systems viz. continuous,
deferred rotational, rotational and grazing plus
supplementation was studied. Annual lambing and
kidding rates were 63 and 59%. The birth, 3 and
6 months body weights were 2.2, 10.4 and 12.9
kg in lambs and 2.5, 13.9 and 19.0 kg in kids,
respectively. Annual wool yield was 747g in all the
four grazing management systems (Sankhyan et al.,
2002). The influence of breeding season on lamb-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
ing rate and lamb growth and survival in mutton
synthetic sheep maintained on Cenchrus ciliaris
pasture was studied by Singh et al. (2004). Signifi-
cantly, higher number of lambing took place during
spring (76%) followed by rainy (62%) and winter
(46%) seasons. The birth weight of 3.48 kg in winter
born lambs was higher than that of 2.85 kg in spring
born lambs. The rainy season born lambs excelled
in weaning (16.67 kg) and six monthly body weights
(23.10 kg) over spring and winter born lambs. The
study suggested that sheep be bred during spring
and rainy season to obtain optimum production.
Kids raised on Cenchrus ciliaris pasture with con-
centrate supplement @ 1.5% of body weight at-
tained body weight of 15.4 kg at 3 months and
26.0 kg at 6 months of age. It is thus observed that
reasonably higher reproduction rates, growth rates,
survival rates, quantity and quality of wool and meat
can be obtained from sheep and goats by maintain-
ing them on perennial grass, grass- legume and silvi-
pastures.
Semi-intensive system: A kind of compromise
between extensive and intensive systems is referred
to as the semi-intensive system of sheep and goat
production and management. It is a combination of
free range grazing and stall-feeding. Integration of
sheep rearing with arable cropping is also included
where either the sheep or goats are tethered or cut
and carry system of available fodder is employed.
Animals belonging to several owners are combined
for grazing which is mostly done morning and
evening for 4 to 6 hours. The animals are supple-
mented with kitchen wastes, concentrate mixtures,
crop residues, green and dry fodders and tree leaves
etc. as per the availability. Thus, sheep and goats
utilize all available feed resources including natural
grasses, shrubs, bushes, tree leaves, crop residues,
stubbles, weeds, cultivated fodders and concen-
trates etc. under this system. The level of nutrition
was just optimum and surely better than that under
extensive system.
A series of experiments have been conducted
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
at CSWRI and CIRG to workout the supplemen-
tary feeding requirements for different categories of
sheep and goats. Supplementation of 400 g con-
centrate mixture in addition to grazing to Malpura
lambs increased the carcass yield by 30% whereas
supplementation of 550 g concentrate mixture re-
sulted in an increase of 55% in the dressed carcass
yield as compared to the lambs maintained on graz-
ing alone. A very little difference in body weight
gain and carcass yield with supplementation of 200
g concentrate mixture or 200 g cowpea hay to the
grazing lambs was observed. A weaning weight of
11 kg was achieved when the Malpura and Sonadi
male lambs were provided 150 g/head/day creep in
addition to suckling up to 90 days age (Singh and
Singh, 1981). While studying the performance of
native lambs on 70: 30 and 50: 50 concentrate:
roughage feedlot ration, grazing + 500 g concen-
trate supplementation and grazing alone recorded a
total gain of 11.0, 10.0, 11.0 and 7.0 kg under the
four feeding systems in 90 days after weaning and
the lambs reached a body weight of 22, 21, 22 and
18 kg respectively, at 6 months of age. Bhatia et
al. (1981) recorded a daily gain of 56.2 g on graz-
ing on Cenchrus pasture, 91.9 g when supplemented
with low energy-low protein and 112.3 g when
supplemented with high energy and high protein
ration fed at the rate of 300 g per day to Malpura
lambs. A growth rate of 140 to 165 g per day was
recorded when the mutton synthetic male lambs
maintained on ad lib cowpea hay meal were supple-
mented with 300 g maize or barley grain. The
control group lambs showed a daily gain of 94 g
only. The lambs required 14.6 kg cowpea hay meal
in control group as against 8 to 10 kg feed in the
grain supplemented groups for each kg of live weight
gain (Singh, 1985a). Krishna Mohan et al. (1984)
reported that the live weight gain of 28 g/head/day
in native lambs maintained on legume hay was im-
proved to 47.1, 80.5 and 83.2 g when they were
supplemented with 100, 200 and 300 g maize grain
per day. The dressing percentage was also im-
proved from 42.8 to 44.7, 47.4 and 48.7 respec-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
tively. The Avivastra lambs and Marwari kids graz-
ing on Cenchrus ciliaris pasture and supplemented
with concentrate mixture @ 1.5% of body weight
from 91 to 180 days of age attained 27.3 and 26.2
kg weight at six months of age. The dressing per-
centage on live weight basis was 44.5 in lambs and
48.9 in kids. The lambs yielded 1.30 kg wool in the
first 6-monthly clip (Shinde et al., 1995). The Nali
and Chokla synthetic lambs either only grazed for
8 hours or supplemented with ad lib. or 75%, 50%
and 25% of ad lib concentrate mixture and initially
weighing 11.2, 11.3, 11.4 and 11.2 kg at 75 days
age attained a live weight of 24.1, 35.1, 32.6, 31.5
and 28.0 kg and produced 616, 1249, 1218, 876
and 863 g greasy fleece at 9 months age, respec-
tively. The staple length also improved from 3.69 to
5.42, 5.41, 4.44 and 3.74 cm. The dressing per-
centage of 40.30 increased to 51.20, 48.90, 47.80
and 43.20 on live weight basis with increasing lev-
els of supplementation. The percentage of edible
offal and fat increased and the inedible offal, lean
and bone decreased with the increasing levels of
supplementation (Singh and Sankhyan, 2003, Singh
et al., 2003a).
Goat is primarily a browsing animal and
performs well when browsed on variety of shrubby
vegetation supplemented with concentrate mixture
in addition to browsing. Total confinement and stall
feeding is detrimental. Ad lib. supplementation of
concentrate, hay and green to kids between 91
to 180 days age, in addition to browsing resulted
in an increase of 44.8 % in pre-slaughter weight,
65.1 % in carcass weight and 14.3 % in dressing
over the browsing alone. The kids when fed the
above ration ad lib under stalls showed an increase
of only 21.4 % in pre-slaughter weight, 39.7 %
in carcass weight and 14.8 % in dressing over the
sole browsing group. Parthasarthy et al. (1983)
found a growth rate of 19.4, 41.7, 111.0 and
108.2 g a day in Beetal weaner kids from 91 to
180 days of age on ad lib browsing, browsing +
green, browsing + concentrate mixture and brows-
ing + concentrate mixture + green respectively.
The dressing percentage was 45.74, 44.52, 48.17
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
and 49.11 respectively. Parthasarthy et al. (1984)
in another experiment, obtained a daily gain of
37.4, 87.4 and 73.3 g from 3 to 6 months and
62.6, 139.2 and 120.0 g from 6 to 9 months of
age in the Sirohi x Beetal kids maintained on
browsing, browsing + 756g/h/d concentrate and
total stall feeding on feedlot ration (1038 g/h/d),
respectively. The dressing percentage was 43.05,
43.65 and 48.50 at 6 months and 47.35, 52.10
and 53.10, at 9 months of age on the 3 respective
feeding regimes. The kids thus showed an improve-
ment of about 44.5 and 34.0% between 3 to 6
months and about 66.1 and 52.2% between 6 to
9 months respectively on browsing + supplemen-
tation and feedlot system of feeding management
over the browsing alone. The Sirohi, Marwari and
Kutchi does produced 84.4, 89.1 and 94.3 kg milk
with no supplementation, 98.6, 96.1 and 93.2 kg
with 150 g concentrate, 100.9, 115.7 and 110.0
kg with 300 g concentrate and 109.0, 106.4 and
101.1 kg with 450 g concentrate supplementation
in addition to 8 hours grazing during 150 days
lactation (Singh, 1992). The Sirohi does grazing/
browsing for 8 hours and supplemented with 150,
300 and 450 g/h/d concentrate mixture during last
45 days of pregnancy and first 150 days of
lactation lost body weight when only grazed,
maintained with supplementation with 150 g con-
centrate and gained in their live weights when
supplemented with 300 and 450 g concentrate
during pregnancy. The same does lost when only
grazed or supplemented with 150 g concentrate
but gained in live weights when supplemented with
300 and 450 g concentrate during lactation. The
milk production was improved by 29.31 and 67.00
% and pre-weaning growth of the kids by 17.20
and 35.00 % with the three supplementary levels
(Singh, 1996). Based on the above findings,
suppl-ementary concentrate- feeding schedules for
different categories of sheep and goats maint-
ained for wool, meat and milk production under
different climatic zones of the country have been
developed.
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
Intensive system: The intensive system of sheep
and goat production includes grazing on highly de-
veloped pastures and/or complete stall-feeding on
cultivated fresh or conserved fodders, crop resi-
dues and concentrates. Although goats prefer to
browse as compared to grazing, they are quite
capable of making efficient use of cultivated pas-
tures for meat and milk production similar to sheep.
Stocking rates of 16 to 60 sheep or goats per
hectare are feasible depending on the type of grass,
level of fertilization and the presence and absence
of legumes and fodder trees. This system requires
high labour and capital investment and is suitable
for only intensive meat production. In addition to
providing better milk, wool, growth and carcass
quality it also removes pressure from the commu-
nity grazing lands. A growth rate of 92 and 100 g/
head/day in Malpura and Sonadi lambs maintained
on a feedlot from 91 to 180 days of age was ob-
served. Feedlot gains in Malpura, Sonadi and their
crosses with Dorset and Suffolk were studie.
Malpura, Sonadi, Dorset x Sonadi, Dorset x
Malpura, Suffolk x Sonadi and Suffolk x Malpura
lambs reached a body weight of 26.0, 25.4, 30.5,
31.3, 32.8 and 33.0 kg at 6 months of age under
feedlot from 91 to 180 days of age with FCE of
14.1, 14.5, 18.6, 18.2, 18.5 and 18.3 % and the
dressing % was recorded to be 50.9, 52.7, 51.7,
53.3, 50.0 and 50.3 respectively. A growth rate of
150 g/head/day in Avikalin lambs during 91 to 180
days of age on 50: 50 concentrates: roughage ra-
tion fed ad lib was reported (Singh 1980b). Prasad
et al. (1981) have reported a growth rate of about
150 g in Avivastra and Avikalin male weaner lambs
feed on 50: 50 concentrate: roughage ration with a
feed efficiency of about 18.5 %. Performance of
half bred lambs under individual feedlot up to 135
and 180 days of age or 22 and 30 kg body weight
after weaning at 90 days on 50: 50 concentrate:
roughage ration indicated that the feed efficiency at
22 kg finishing live weight was superior to that at
30 kg finishing live weight. Lambs on 70: 30 con-
centrates: roughage ration showed higher feedlot
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
gains and carcass weights than those on 50: 50
rations. Crossbreds were 26 and 21 per cent
superior to natives in feedlot gains and FCE. The
FCE in Malpura and Sonadi lambs was 14.8 and
13.2 respectively from 91 to 180 days age. Singh
(1982) observed a daily gain of 84 g during first 45
days and 175 g during the next 45 days after weaning
at 90 days when the Malpura x Dorset half breds
were maintained on 50: 50 concentrate: roughage
feedlot ration. Kishore et al. (1984) recorded 205
and 207 g ADG in Avikalin and Avikalin x Dorset
terminal cross males fed ad lib on 70: 30 concen-
trate: roughage from 91 to 180 days. The dressing
percentage was 51.9 and 51.6 in the two breed
crosses respectively. The total live weight gains in
Malpura, Sonadi, Dorset x Malpura, Dorset x
Sonadi, Nellore, Mandya, Dorset x Nellore and
Dorset x Mandya were 9.1, 8.6, 11.7, 12.0, 8.3,
8.2, 12.5 and 12.2 kg respectively in feedlot over
90 days from 91 to 190 days of age was observed.
The FCE was recorded to be 19.7, 27.6, 22.6 and
29.3 % superior in the crossbreds over contempo-
rary natives. The growth rate of only 50 g and 54
g a day was recorded in crossbred lambs on ad lib
cowpea and lucerne hay meal rations (Singh, 1985).
The mutton synthetic lambs maintained on creep up
to 67 days, on 70: 30 feedlot from 67 to 99th day
and on 50: 50 feedlot ration from 99 to 130th day
reached a body weight of 30 kg in a record time
of only 130 days exhibiting average daily gain of
about 200 g through out the period (Singh and
Singh, 1984). The 60 days Mutton Synthetic and
Malpura weaner lambs under intensive feeding had
160 and 151g ADG and 16 and 12 % FCE (Karim
and Arora, 1997). While the removal of the lambs
at 20 kg body weight was uneconomical, the lambs
weighing 25 kg provided desirable carcass charac-
teristics (Arora and Karim, 1995). Subsequent stud-
ies indicated that a finishing weight of 25 kg could
be achieved by weaning the lambs at 60 days and
intensively feeding for 73, 91 and 136 days with
160, 135 and 112g ADG and 18, 16 and 14 %
FCE in MS, M selected and M lambs respectively
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(Karim and Santra, 2000).
The kids of Sirohi breed showed a daily live
weight gain of 80 and consumed 7.7 kg feed for
every kg of live weight gain when maintained on a
complete feed based on 50 % cowpea hay meal in
the stalls from 91-180 days of age (Singh, 1980b).
The male kids weaned at 2 - 3 months age and fed
under feedlot achieved slaughter weights of 25 kg
at 5 to 6 months age with a dressing of 48 to 51%.
The kids maintained under semi-intensive system
reached the target live weight of 25 kg earlier than
those under intensive system. The kids under semi-
intensive required less feed for a kg of gain than
those under intensive feeding. The dressing % was
superior under intensive system. The bone and lean
percentage was higher under semi-intensive and fat
% under intensive system (Singh and Sahu, 1997).
Average daily gain was higher in lambs than kids
under intensive system whereas the daily gains were
similar under semi-intensive system. Dressing % in
lambs and kids was found higher under semi-inten-
sive (Shinde et al. 1995). The daily gains, milk
intake, meat quantity and quality and feed efficiency
were found superior in the Sirohi, Marwari and
Kutchi kids maintained under semi-intensive as
compared to those maintained under intensive or
extensive system. The milk yield during 150 days
of lactation was higher under intensive system than
that under semi-intensive and extensive systems and
in Sirohi does than that in Kutchi and Marwari does.
The overall production performance of Marwari
goats and kids was significantly better in semi inten-
sive system of grazing management than that under
intensive and extensive systems in respect of live
weight and milk production. The intensive system
however proved to be better than extensive system
in all respect (Singh, 2003).
Series of experiments have been conducted to
develop economic feed formulations of lambs to
attain 25 kg body weight at 130 days and 30 kg
body weight at 150 days of age under different
systems of feeding management. Several least cost
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

feed formulations involving leguminous fodders, tree Table 2. Performance of Indigenous and Crossbred sheep
and shrub leaves), cheaper energy supplements and under different Feeding Systems
low cost protein supplements were developed and Particulars Breed Rangeland Developed Developed Inten-
(Extensive) Pasture Pasture + sive
evaluated in the complete feeds to economize mut- (Semi- Concentrate
extensive) mixture
ton production. It was observed that the lambs main-
tained on complete feeds containing tree leaves as Lambing, % I 58.5 78.0 85.0 90.0
the roughage source performed better than those CB 55.0 65.0 75.0 80.0
Birth weight, kg I 2.5 2.8 2.9 3.0
receiving cultivated grass based rations. The feed
CB 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4
grade damaged wheat being cheaper was tried and 3 m BW, kg I 9.2 10.5 12.5 14.3
successfully incorporated in the complete feeds as CB 10.5 12.0 14.6 16.5
a replacement of conventional and costlier energy 6 m BW, kg I 13.5 18.3 22.5 28.8
sources like Maize, Barley and Jowar etc. with the CB 15.2 20.0 26.0 35.0
Dressing, % I 38.5 43.4 46.3 48.5
objective to economize meat production without CB 40.5 45.2 48.7 51.4
seriously sacrificing the live weight gains. Similarly, Fleece weight, g I 620.0 810.0 980.0 1150.0
comparatively cheaper Guar meal, Guar korma, CB 710.0 920.0 1150.0 1340.0
Mustard cake and Urea were used as protein re- Adult mortality, % I 10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5
CB 15.0 10.0 7.5 5.0
placements of costlier Groundnut and Cotton seed
Lamb mortality, % I 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0
cake in the feedlot rations with the same objective CB 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0
in view (Karim et al., 2004). Based on these
I- Indigenous CB- Crossbred
studies following two packages of practices for im-
proving meat, wool and milk production in sheep financial assistance from the financial Institutions and
and goats have been developed (Table 1 and 2). subsidies being provided by the Central and State
Table 1. Performance of Goats under different Feeding
Governments. The registered sheep and goat flocks
Systems may be allowed to graze on these pastures judi-
ciously for 6 to 8 hrs daily. In addition to grazing,
Particulars Rangeland
(Extensive)
Developed Developed Intensive
pastures pastures +Conc.
the pregnant ewes/ does during last 30 days of
(Semi- Supplementation pregnancy and the lactating ewes/does during first
extensive) (Semi-intensive)
60 days of lactation be supplemented with 300g/h/
Kidding rate, % 68.0 87.0 113.0 108.0
Birth weight, kg 2.7 2.9 3.4 3.2 d concentrate mixture containing 12%DCP and 65%
3 m BW, kg 9.0 11.0 16.0 14.2 TDN to ensure 2.5 to 3 kg birth weights and 14 to
6 m BW, kg 14.0 17.5 27.5 25.5 16kg weaning weights in male lambs and kids. To
9 m BW, kg 18.4 22.5 32.8 29.7 ensure a weaning weight of 14 to 16kg, these male
Dressing, % 40.5 44.3 50.5 52.0
150 day Milk yield, kg 65.0 86.0 110.0 94.0 lambs/kids should be provided ad lib suckling, creep
Adult mortality, % 10.0 7.5 2.5 5.0 ration and green/dry leguminous fodders during pre
Kid mortality, % 20.0 15.0 5.0 10.0 weaning period and completely weaned at 60 days
of age. These weaners may then be fed ad lib on
Package for progressive farmers complete feeds comprised of 50% concentrate and
Sheep and Goat Farmer Cooperative Societ- 50% roughage under stalls till they attain 25 to 30
ies may be formed in the sheep and goat rearing kg finishing weight at around 5 to 6 months of age.
areas. These Societies in association with the vil- Alternatively the lambs/kids be allowed to graze on
lage Panchyats should develop improved silvi-pas- available pastures and supplemented with concen-
tures on the available community grazing lands with trate mixture @ 2.0 to 2.5 % of the body weight
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
till they reach the desired finishing weights. These
finisher lambs /kids should then be sold by the farm-
ers or their Cooperative Societies for slaughter to
the consumers or the traders directly avoiding in-
volvement of middlemen.
Package for enterpreneurs
The sheep and goat meat available in the In-
dian markets comes from old and culled adults and
male lambs/kids slaughtered any time between 6
months to 1 year of age. The quantity and the quality
of this meat is very poor due to poor market
weights, lower dressing percentage and narrow bone:
meat ratio as these lambs/kids are maintained on
scrub vegetation like their dams and hence hardly
attain a body weight of 15-16 kg at the age of 8-
9 months when they are usually marketed. The
dressing percentage varies from 35 to 40 and bone:
meat ration from 1:3 to 1:4. The studies conducted
at CSWRI have revealed that a marked improve-
ment may be achieved in finishing weights and car-
cass yield and quality through intensive feeding of
the male lambs and kids. A package of practices to
be adopted by the entrepreneurs for intensive meat
production has been developed. The male lambs/
kids produced and reared by the farmers in general
and the progressive sheep/ goat breeders following
the recommended package of practices in particu-
lar be purchased by the entrepreneurs at around 60
days of age and transferred from the villages to the
Meat Production Complexes established near the
cities. This will help in reducing the grazing pressure
on shrinking pasturelands, lowering mortality and
morbidity in the pre-weaned lambs/kids, early
rebreeding and easy management of the flocks.
These Complexes may be equipped with a Feed
Compounding Plant capable of incorporating higher
proportion of cheaper low grade roughages and
agro- industrial by-products to manufacture eco-
nomic complete feeds, Feedlot Animal Houses for
intensive feeding of lambs/kids, Modern Slaughter
House, Meat Processing, Product Manufacturing
and By- Products Handling Machineries. The lambs/
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
kids procured from the villages after weaning at 60
days age may be intensively fed on complete 50:50
or 60:40 concentrate: roughage feeds under feedlot
up to 5 - 6 months of age when they attain finishing
weight of 25-30 kg. These intensively fed lambs
and kids be then sold as live animals in the National
or International markets or slaughtered for selling
fresh meat or their meat may be processed and
converted in to different meat products for export
purpose. Similarly, the slaughterhouse by- products
be converted in to value added commercial prod-
ucts for commercial sale.
Summary and recommendations
Goats and sheep are important livestock spe-
cies in India as they contribute greatly to the agrarian
economy in arid, semi-arid and mountainous regions
and play a very vital role in the sustenance and
livelihood security of a large population of small and
marginal farmers and landless rural poor. They are
not destroyers of vegetation more than the large
ruminants as blamed. They in fact act as regenera-
tors of vegetation through dispersal of seeds in their
droppings and vegetative propagation through brows-
ing. Biomass production of the community grazing
lands can be improved from 2.5 -3.5 to 25-30 q
DM/ha through silvi-pasture development. A marked
improvement in reproduction rates, milk yield, wool
yield, live weight gains and quantity and quality of
meat production can be achieved by grazing sheep
and goats on developed two and three tier pastures
and supplementing with concentrate mixtures and/or
cultivated leguminous fodders and tree leaves at
appropriate levels. It is possible to improve lamb
and kid finishing weights from 15-16 to 30-35 kg
and dressing yield from 35-40 to 45-50 % through
nutritional interventions. Similarly, the annual wool
yield may be enhanced from 900-950 to 1800-
1900 g per sheep and milk yield in goats may be
improved from 75-80 to 150-160 kg per lactation
through the suggested nutrition and feeding manage-
ment system. The areas in arid and semi-arid regions
that cannot support cattle and buffaloes should,
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
therefore, be identified, developed with low invest-
ment and utilized for small ruminant production.
Community grazing lands should be improved in to
two and three tier perennial pastures through re-
seeding with nutritious, perennial and high yielding
grasses and legumes. Large-scale fodder tree plan-
tations may be taken up on rangelands, wastelands,
riverbanks, roadsides and bunds of ponds, canals
and agricultural fields. The extensive system of sheep
and goat rearing should be replaced with semi-in-
tensive and intensive systems for commercial meat
production. Strategic energy, protein and mineral
supplements need to be provided to grazing animals
for enhancing meat, milk and wool production. The
locally available crop residues and agro-industrial
by-products may be enriched and utilized for com-
pounding cheaper complete feeds for different cat-
egories of sheep and goats as feed pallets and blocks.
The suggested Packages of Practices may be popu-
larized for adoption by the Progressive farmers and
the Entrepreneurs for commercial meat production.
Efforts should necessarily be made to provide re-
munerative price of the produce to increase the
returns to the farmers through improved post harvest
technology, value addition, marketing and exploita-
tion of export potential.
REFERENCES
Ahuja, K. and Rathore, M.S. (1987) Goat and
Goat Keepers. Institute of Development Stud-
ies, Printwell Publishers, Jaipur.
Arora, A.L. and Karim, S.A. (1995) Indian J.
Anim. Sci., 65: 1046-1048.
Bhatia, D. R., Mohan, M., Patnayak, B.C. and
Ram Ratan. (1981) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 51:
238-242.
Delgado, C.M., Rosegrant, M, Steinfeld, H.Ehui, S
and Courbois, C. (1999) Livestock to 2020:
The next food revolution, Food, Agriculture and
Environment Discussion Paper 28. IFPRI,
Washington, FAO Rome and ILRI, Nairobo,
Kenya.
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Dastagiri, M. B. (2003) Indian J. Agric. Econom-
ics., 58: 729-740.
F.A.O. (2004) Production Year Book. 58. Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Rome.
F.A.O. (2005) Production Year Book. 59. Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Rome.
Karim, S.A. and Arora, A.L. (1997) Indian J.
Anim. Sci., 6: 536-537.
Karim S. A. and Santra A. (2000) Small Rumi-
nant Res., 37: 287-291.
Karim S.A., Santra A. and Singh V.K. (2004) Fat
lamb Production. A Bulletin Published by
CSWRI Avikanagar.
Kishore, K., Rawat, P. S. and Basuthakur, A. K.
(1984) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 54: 507-511.
Krishana Mohan, D. V. G., Reddy, K. S., Naidu,
C. M., Munirathnam, D. and Reddy, K. K.
(1984) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 54: 1170-1172.
Mann, J.S. and Singh, N.P. (1982) Livestock Ad-
visor 7: 23-29.
Mishra, R. K. (1981) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 51:
885-887.
Parthasarthy, M., Singh, D. and Rawat, P.S. (1983)
Indian J. Anim. Sci., 53: 671-672.
Parthasarthy, M., Singh, D. and Rawat, P.S. (1984)
Indian J. Anim. Sci., 54: 130-131.
Patnayak, B.C., Singh N.P. and Karim S.A. (1995)
Transferable technologies for meat production
in sheep and goats. Proc. 3rd National Semi-
nar on sheep and Goat production and utiliza-
tion held at CSWRI, Avikanagar April 8-10.
Prasad, V.S.S., Bohra, S.D.J. and Kamal Kishore.
(1981) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 51: 118-120.
Sankhyan, S.K., Shinde, A. K., Karim, S. A. and
Patnayak, B.C. (1996a) World Rev. Anim.
Prod., 30: 27-35.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Sankhyan, S.K., Shinde, A.K., Karim, S.A., Mann,
J.S., Singh, N.P. and Patnayak, B.C. (1996b)
Indian J. Anim. Sci., 66: 1194-1197.
Sankhyan, S. K., Shinde, A. K. and Karim, S. A.
(1999) Indian J. Anim. Sci. 69: 617-620.
Sankhyan, S.K.; Shinde, A.K., Bhatta, R.; and
Karim, S.A. (2002) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 72:
101-103.
Sharma, K. (1987) Goat Rearing. A book pub-
lished by CIRG, Makhdoom, Mathura.
Sharma, V.P. (2004) Indian J. Agri. Econo., 59:
512-554.
Shinde, A.K., Patnayak, B.C., Karim, S.A. and
Mann, J.S. (1994) Indian J. Anim. Nutr., 11:
85-89.
Shinde, A. K.; Karim, S. A.; Singh, N. P.; and
Patnayak, B. C. (1995) Indian J. Anim. Sci.,
65: 830-833.
Shinde, A.K., Karim, S.A., Mann, J.S. and
Patnayak, B.C. (1996) Indian J. Anim. Prod.
Manag., 12: 30-33.
Shinde, A.K. and Bhatta, R. (2002) Nutrition of
Sheep and Goat on Pasture. A Technical Bul-
letin Published by CSWRI Avikanagar.
Singh, N. P. (1980b) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 50:
903-904.
Singh, N. P. (1980a) Indian J. Anim. Res., 14:
113-115.
Singh, N. P. and Singh, R.N. (1981) Livestock
Adviser 6: 7-10.
Singh, N. P. (1982) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 52:
96-98.
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Singh, N. P. and Singh, M. (1984) Feeding man-
agement of crossbred lambs for mutton pro-
duction. Proceedings of the National Seminar
of Animal Nutrition Society of India held on
October 29-30, 1984 at HAU, Hisar.
Singh, N.P. (1985a) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 54: 895-898.
Singh, N. P. (1985b) Indian J. Anim. Sci., 55: 715-716.
Singh, N. P. and Patnayak, B. C. (1987) feeding of
sheep and goats for meat production. Proceed-
ings of the National Seminar on Small Rumi-
nant Production held on January 5-7 at
CSWRI, Avikanagar.
Singh, N.P. (1992) Indian J. Anim. Prod. Man-
age., 8: 42-46.
Singh, N. P. (1996) Indian J. Small Ruminants,
2: 7-10.
Singh, N. P. and Sahu, B. B. (1997) Indian J.
Anim. Sci., 67: 87-89.
Singh, N.P. (2003) Indian J. Small Rum., 9:
96-99.
Singh, N. P. and Sankhyan, S. K. (2003) Animal
Nutr. Feed Technol., 3: 189-194.
Singh, N. P., Sankhyan, S. K. and Prasad, V. S. S.
(2003b) Asian Austr. J. Anim. Sci., 16: 655-
659.
Singh, N. P., Sankhyan, S. K. and Prasad, V. S. S.
(2003a) Indian J. Small Rum., 9: 13-15.
Singh, N.P., Sankhyan, S.K. and Shinde, A.K.
(2004). Animal Nutrition and Feed Resource
Development Research. A bulletin published
by CSWRI, Avikanagar.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Heat stress and dairy feeding program
Jason Park
Cargill Animal Nutrition, India
General considerations
Understanding heat stress and what to do to
alleviate its negative effects is the first step in
improving the situation for us and for our animals.
The most comfortable temperature range for
lactating cows is from 40 to 75o F (5 to 25o C) but
it varies with humidity. Heat stress problems start
when the temperature is greater than 75o F (25o C)
and humidity is greater than 80% (Figure 1).
Fig. 1 Impact of temperature and relative humidity
on THI and heat stress levels for pure
Holstein breed.
In general problems start when the Tempera-
ture-Humidity Index (THI) reaches 80o F (27o C).
Severe conditions of heat stress occur when the
THI increases above 90o F (32o C). The problem
is greater when the temperature remains high during
the night as well. Transition cows, first calf heifers
and high producing cows are affected the most. As
well, calving difficulties and birth of smaller and less
vital calves can occur along with a decrease of the
immune response.
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Heat stress can increase nutrient requirements
up to 20% and water requirements up to 30%.
However, while nutrient requirements increase, cows
eat less with a decrease of dry matter intake that
can reach 35% (Figure 2). Sweat increases the
secretion of potassium while, with increased urina-
tion, cows lose more sodium as sodium bicarbon-
ate in order to balance respiratory alkalosis. This
results in a compensatory metabolic acidosis.
Passage rate of ingesta and gut mobility de-
creases with a consequent decrease of intake. As
body temperature increases, skin blood flow in-
creases in an attempt to dissipate body heat. This
reduces blood flow to internal organs, decreasing
absorption and transport of nutrients and, as a re-
sult, milk production.
Adapted from: Managing and Feeding Dairy Cows in
Hot Weather, Dr. Joe West, University of Georgia.
Fig. 2 Impact of temperature on DMI, water consump-
tion and milk yield.
A long period of heat stress causes a decrease
of visible heat and irregular estrus intervals. As a
consequence we should expect lower fertility de-
rived from a decreased conception rate and em-
bryonic mortality. An increase of uterus tempera-
ture of 1oF (0.5oC) may lower conception rate by
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

13%. During pregnancy heat stress may cause a

decrease of placenta growth.

Modifications of housing facilities

Mechanical interventions to modify housing en-
vironmental conditions yield the best results in a short
time and with a favourable cost/benefit balance.

General interventions: The first step is to

take full advantage of natural ventilation. Facilities
should have limited temperature differences from
inside to outside. A light wind of 1.5 to 2 feet/
second (0.5 to 0.7 meters/second) can be sufficient
to exchange the air in the interior of the facility
provided it is correctly oriented and located away
from other buildings and obstructions. Facilities
should also provide adequate shade to limit exposure
to direct sunlight.
Specific interventions: The problem of heat
stress is acutely felt in locations with an environment
characterized by high summer temperatures coupled
with high humidity levels. The problem will become
more acute as production levels continue to rise
due to genetic improvements and developments in
the techniques of rearing and feeding cattle.
Therefore, we are faced with the dramatic necessity
of finding effective methods to manage heat stress;
to better the well being of the cattle, and to increase
production and quality of milk (Figure 3).
Water evaporation, an endothermic process,
is among the most effective techniques for cooling
the environment by lowering body temperature.
In this case ventilation generates an exchange
of air in the housing facilities but most importantly,
generating air flow close to the animals helps them
to disperse body heat. This technique can be ap-
plied with success in all types of housing. Even a
modest airflow of 1-1.5 feet/sec. (0.3-0.5 meters/
sec.) can help reducing heat stress.
However, when air temperatures are higher than
85 F (> 30o C) with high producing cows, air
o closed cowshed, if adequately insulated, and if it is
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Fig. 3 Changes in milk yield and maintenance
requirements as temperature changes.
speed close to the animals should not be less than
2.75 feet/sec. (0.9 meters/sec.). This can be ob-
tained with large fans that are able to move large
volumes of air. Fans should be positioned 10 feet
(3 meters) apart for every 1 foot (0.3 meters) of
fan diameter. They should be angled downward at
an angle of 15 to 30o so each fan is blowing at the
floor directly below the next fan.
Often the installation of these fans is done only
in the feeding area to encourage cows to spend
more time there and therefore creating more favor-
able conditions for greater intakes. This solution
often results in a greater number of animals standing
in this part of the barn with less time spent in the
rest area. This can result in greater stress for the
cows. Therefore, it is typically necessary to venti-
late the resting area as well.
Evaporative cooling: One technique is to use
an evaporative cooling system based on the use of
large coolers fitted with water soaked pads through
which ventilation air passes. The air, cooled and
high in humidity, is released into the barn to give the
animals relief. This system gives good results in a
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
possible to use a system of forced and controlled
ventilation. This system does not perform well in
high humidity locations.
A second technique is the combination of fans
and misters. A series of high-pressure misters
distribute water in fine droplets, part of which
evaporates into the atmosphere, lowering the
temperature, and part of which wet the animals.
Fans operate at the same time as the misters and
enhance evaporation off the animals’ skin. Cows
can lose considerable quantities of heat, enough to
keep body temperature constant without production
losses, if evaporation is sufficient. This system will
not work as well in high humidity areas.
Feeding
Feeding management: During periods of heat
stress it is important to maintain a continuous supply
of fresh diet and it should be provided in the coolest
part of the feeding area. A continuous water supply
must be available of linear water space per cow or
one water hole for every 10 cows.
Water requirements increase during heat stress
conditions because water loss is the main means for
body heat loss and thermoregulation. Water
requirements also increase as a consequence of
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
decreased protein utilization and an increase in
urinary catabolism.
Diet formulation: Diet reformulation may alleviate
some milk losses during periods of heat stress. Start
with high quality forages that contain a higher con-
centration of digestible NDF. This will allow a
decrease of the heat of combustion of the diet while
maintaining adequate ruminal fermentation.
Fat can be added to increase the energy density
of the diet. Sources may include oilseeds, vegetable
oil, tallow, and rumen inert fats. Care should be
taken to ensure unsaturated fat levels remain low
enough to prevent a decrease in fiber digestibility
and total fat levels should not exceed 6-7% fat on
a DM basis. Because fatty acids reduce absorption
of Ca and Mg in the intestine, requirements of these
minerals increase. In these cases diets should contain
at least 0.9% Ca and 0.35% Mg.
During periods of heat stress protein excesses
aggravate the situation because nitrogen excretion
requires energy. Balance diets for amino acids to
prevent the feeding of excess crude protein.
Potassium, sodium and magnesium should be 1.5,
0.45 and 0.35% of the DM, respectively. Use of
salts and buffers (sodium bicarbonate) has little effect
in preventing heat stress but are useful in supporting
a cow’s homeostasis.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Code of practice on good animal feeding in relation

to food safety
M. R. Garg and B. M. Bhanderi
Productivity Systems Group
National Dairy Development Board, Anand 388 001, India

Food safety has become today a clear expec-
tation from the consumer, world over. Healthy and
safe animal products with minimum environmental
pollution are some of the new requirements the
animal feed industry is facing. As such guidelines
are necessary to lay down the approach to provide
general recommendation for safe feed to safe food.
Undoubtedly, India has enormous potential to
strengthen economy through expansion of domestic
market and promotion of the export of processed
value added livestock products. In addition to eco-
nomic aspect, consumer’s health assumes paramount
importance vis-à-vis food safety (Gilbert, 2005).
One of the most important issues in the livestock
sector is good animal feeding, as it has a major
impact on the product, which ensues the Codex
Code of Practice on Good Animal Feeding, offi-
cially adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commis-
sion in 2004 the Task Force’s document, Code of
Practice on Good Animal Feeding, is comprehen-
sive and addresses all avenues of feed production.
The goal of the code is to establish a feed safety
system for food-producing animals which covers
the whole food chain, taking into account relevant
aspects of animal health and the environment. In
order to minimize risks to the health of consumers,
it focuses specifically on feed manufacturing and
on-farm feeding practices.
This Code is to establish a feed safety system
for food producing animals which covers the whole
food chain, taking into account relevant aspects of
animal health and the environment in order to mini-
mize risks to consumers’ health. In addition, the
Code applies principles of food hygiene, already
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108
established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission
(CAC), taking into account the special aspects of
animal feeding. The views expressed in the article
by the authors are based on the literature available,
not necessarily reflect the views of the organization
to which they belong.
Purpose and scope
The main objective of this Code is to help
ensure the safety of food for human consumption
through adherence to good animal feeding practice
at the farm level and good manufacturing practices
(GMPs) during the procurement, handling, storage,
processing and distribution of animal feed and feed
ingredients for food producing animals. This Code
of Practice applies to the production and use of all
materials destined for animal feed and feed ingredi-
ents at all levels whether produced industrially or
on farm. Environmental contaminants should be
considered where the level of such substances in
the feed and feed ingredients could present a risk
to consumers’ health from the consumption of foods
of animal origin.
General principles and requirements
Feed and feed ingredients should be obtained
and maintained in a stable condition, so as to protect
feed and feed ingredients from contamination by
pests, or by chemical, physical or microbiological
contaminants or other objectionable substances
during production, handling, storage and transport.
Feed should be in good condition and meet generally
accepted quality standards. Where appropriate, good
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
agricultural practices, good manufacturing practices
(GMPs) and, where applicable, Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Principles
should be followed to control hazards that may occur
in food. Potential sources of contamination from the
environment should be considered.
Feed ingredients
Feed ingredients should be obtained from safe
sources and be subjected to a risk analysis where
the ingredients are derived from processes or tech-
nologies not hitherto evaluated from a food safety
point of view. The procedure used should be con-
sistent with the working principles for risk analysis
for application, in the framework of the Codex
Alimentarius manufacturers of feed additives, in
particular should provide clear information to the
user to permit correct and safe use. Monitoring of
feed ingredients should include inspection and sam-
pling and analysis for undesirable substances using
risk-based protocols. Feed ingredients should meet
acceptable and, if applicable, statutory standards
for levels of pathogens, mycotoxins, pesticides and
undesirable substances that may give rise to con-
sumers’ health hazards.
Labeling
Labeling should be clear and informative as to
how the user should handle, store and use feed and
feed ingredients. Labeling should be consistent with
statutory requirements and should describe the feed
and provide instructions for use. Labeling or the ac-
companying documents should contain, where ap-
propriate:
Information about the species or category of
animals for which the feed is intended;
l The purpose for which the feed is intended;
l A list of feed ingredients, including appropriate
reference to additives, in descending order of
proportion;
l Contact information of manufacturer or regis-
trant;
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
l registration number if available;
l Directions and precautions for use;
l Lot identification;
l Manufacturing date; and
l Use before or expiry date.
Traceability/product tracing and record keep-
ing of feed and feed ingredients
Traceability/product tracing of feed and feed
ingredients, including additives, should be enabled
by proper record keeping for timely and effective
withdrawal or recall of products if known or prob-
able adverse effects on consumers’ health are iden-
tified. Records should be maintained and readily
available regarding the production, distribution and
use of feed and feed ingredients to facilitate the
prompt trace-back of feed and feed ingredients to
the immediate previous source and trace-forward to
the next subsequent recipients if known or probable
adverse effects on consumers’ health are identified.
Feed and feed ingredients manufacturers and
other relevant parts of industry should practice self-
regulation/auto-control to secure compliance with
required standards for production, storage and trans-
port (Mcllmoyle, 2002). It will also be necessary
for risk-based official regulatory programmes to be
established to check that feed and feed ingredients
are produced, distributed and used in such a way
that foods of animal origin for human consumption
are both safe and suitable. Inspection and control
procedures should be used to verify that feed and
feed ingredients meet requirements in order to pro-
tect consumers against food-borne hazards. Inspec-
tion systems should be designed and operated on
the basis of objective risk assessment appropriate
to the circumstances.
Health hazards associated with animal feed
All feed and feed ingredients should meet mini-
mum safety standards. It is essential that levels of
undesirable substances are sufficiently low in feed
and feed ingredients that their concentration in food
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
for human consumption is consistently below the
level of concern. Codex Maximum Residue Limits
and Extraneous Maximum Residue Levels set for
feed should be applied. Maximum residue limits set
for food, such as those established by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission, may be useful in deter-
mining minimum safety standards for feed.
Feed additives and veterinary drugs used in
medicated feed should be assessed for safety and
used under stated conditions of use as pre-approved
by the competent authorities. Veterinary drugs used
in medicated feed should comply with the provi-
sions of the Codex Recommended International
Code of Practice for the Control of the Use of
Veterinary Drugs. Borderlines between feed addi-
tives and veterinary drugs used in medicated feed
may be set to avoid misuse. Feed additives should
be received, handled and stored to maintain their
integrity and to minimize misuse or unsafe contami-
nation. Feed containing them should be used in strict
accordance with clearly defined instructions for use.
Antibiotics should not be used in feed for growth
promoting purposes in the absence of a public health
safety assessment.
Feed and feed ingredients should only be pro-
duced, marketed, stored and used if they are safe
and suitable, and, when used as intended, should
not represent in any way an unacceptable risk to
consumers’ health. In particular, feed and feed in-
gredients contaminated with unacceptable levels of
undesirable substances should be clearly identified
as unsuitable for animal feed and not be marketed
or used. Feed and feed ingredients should not be
presented or marketed in a manner liable to mis-
lead the user. The presence in feed and feed ingre-
dients of undesirable substances such as industrial
and environmental contaminants, pesticides, radio-
nuclides, persistent organic pollutants, pathogenic
agents and toxins such as mycotoxins should be
identified, controlled and minimized. Animal prod-
ucts that could be a source of the Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy (BSE) agent should not be used
for feeding directly to, or for feed manufacturing
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for, ruminants. Control measures applied to reduce
unacceptable level of undesirable substances should
be assessed in terms of their impact on food safety.
The risks of each undesirable substance to con-
sumers’ health should be assessed and such assess-
ment may lead to the setting of maximum limits for
feed and feed ingredients or the prohibition of cer-
tain materials from animal feeding.
Production, processing, storage, transport and
distribution of feed and feed ingredients
The production, processing, storage, transport
and distribution of safe and suitable feed and feed
ingredients is the responsibility of all participants in
the feed chain, including farmers, feed ingredient
manufacturers, feed compounders, truckers, etc.
Each participant in the feed chain is responsible for
all activities that are under their direct control, in-
cluding compliance with any applicable statutory re-
quirements. Feed and feed ingredients should not
be produced, processed, stored, transported or
distributed in facilities or using equipment where
incompatible operations may affect their safety and
lead to adverse effects on consumers’ health. Due
to the unique characteristics of aquaculture, the
application of these general principles must con-
sider the differences between aquaculture and ter-
restrial-based production. Where appropriate, op-
erators should follow GMPs and, where applicable,
HACCP principles to control hazards that may af-
fect food safety. The aim is to ensure feed safety
and in particular to prevent contamination of animal
feed and food of animal origin as far as this is
reasonably achievable, recognizing that total elimi-
nation of hazards is often not possible. The effec-
tive implementation of GMPs and, where applicable,
HACCP-based approaches should ensure, in par-
ticular, that the following areas are addressed.
Buildings and equipment used to process feed
and feed ingredients should be constructed in a
manner that permits ease of operation, maintenance
and cleaning and minimizes feed contamination.
Process flow within the manufacturing facility should
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
also be designed to minimize feed contamination.
Water used in feed manufacture should meet hy-
gienic standards and be of suitable quality for ani-
mals. Chemical fertilizers, pesticides and other
materials not intended for use in feed and feed in-
gredients should be stored separately from feed and
feed ingredients to avoid the potential for manufac-
turing errors and contamination of feed and feed
ingredients. Processed feed and feed ingredients
should be stored separately from unprocessed feed
ingredients and appropriate packaging materials
should be used. Feed and feed ingredients should
be received, stored and transported in such a way
so as to minimize the potential for any cross-con-
tamination to occur at a level likely to have a nega-
tive impact on food safety. The presence of unde-
sirable substances in feed and feed ingredients should
be monitored and controlled. Feed and feed ingre-
dients should be delivered and used as soon as
possible. All feed and feed ingredients should be
stored and transported in a manner which mini-
mizes deterioration and contamination and enables
the correct feed to be sent to the right animal group.
Transportation, of both raw materials and fin-
ished feed products, can introduce hazards that may
compromise feed safety. Good, well managed stores
for raw materials will not prevent the introduction of
hazards if vehicles used for their transportation are
not clean or have previously been used to transport
hazardous materials that may contaminate the load.
All personnel involved in the manufacture, stor-
age and handling of feed and feed ingredients should
be adequately trained and aware of their role and
responsibility in protecting food safety. Feed and
feed ingredients, processing plants, storage facilities
and their immediate surroundings should be kept
clean and effective pest control programmes should
be implemented. Containers and equipment used
for manufacturing, processing, transport, storage,
conveying, handling and weighing should be kept
clean. Cleaning programmes should be effective and
minimize residues of detergents and disinfectants.
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Machinery coming into contact with dry feed or
feed ingredients should be dried following any wet
cleaning process. Special precautions should be
taken when cleaning machinery used for moist and
semi-moist feed and feed ingredients to avoid fun-
gal and bacterial growth.
All scales and metering devices used in the
manufacture of feed and feed ingredients should be
appropriate for the range of weights and volumes to
be measured, and be tested regularly for accuracy.
All mixers used in the manufacture of feed and feed
ingredients should be appropriate for the range of
weights or volumes being mixed and be capable of
manufacturing suitable homogeneous mixtures and
homogeneous dilutions, and be tested regularly to
verify their performance. All other equipment used
in the manufacture of feed and feed ingredients should
be appropriate for the range of weights or volumes
being processed, and be monitored regularly.
Manufacturing procedures should be used to
avoid cross-contamination (for example flushing, se-
quencing and physical clean-out) between batches
of feed and feed ingredients containing restricted or
otherwise potentially harmful materials (such as
certain animal by-product meals, veterinary drugs).
These procedures should also be used to minimize
cross-contamination between medicated and non-
medicated feed and other incompatible feed. In cases
where the food safety risk associated with cross-
contamination is high and the use of proper flushing
and cleaning methods is deemed insufficient, con-
sideration should be given to the use of completely
separate production lines, transfer, storage and
delivery equipment. Pathogen control procedures,
such as heat treatment or the addition of authorized
chemicals, should be used where appropriate, and
monitored at the applicable steps in the manufac-
turing process.
Records and other information should be main-
tained to include the identity and distribution of feed
and feed ingredients so that any feed or feed ingre-
dient considered to pose a threat to consumers’
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
health can be rapidly removed from the market and
that animals exposed to the relevant feed can be
identified.
On farm production and use of feed and feed
ingredients
To help ensure the safety of food used for
human consumption, good agricultural practices
should be applied during all stages of on-farm pro-
duction of pastures, cereal grain and forage crops
used as feed or feed ingredients for food producing
animals. Three types of contamination represent haz-
ards at most stages of on-farm production of feed
and feed ingredients, namely:
l Biological, such as bacteria, fungi and other
microbial pathogens;
l Chemical, such as residues of medication,
pesticides, fertilizer or other agricultural sub-
stances; and
l Physical, such as broken needles, machinery
and other foreign material.
Agricultural production of feed
Adherence to good agricultural practices is en-
couraged in the production of natural, improved
and cultivated pastures and in the production of
forage and cereal grain crops used as feed or feed
ingredients for food producing animals. Following
good agricultural practice, standards will minimize
the risk of biological, chemical and physical con-
taminants entering the food chain. If crop residuals
and stubbles are grazed after harvest, or otherwise
enter the food chain, they should also be consid-
ered as livestock feed. Most livestock will consume
a portion of their bedding. Crops that produce bed-
ding material or bedding materials such as straw or
wood shavings should also be managed in the same
manner as animal feed ingredients. Good pasture
management practices, such as rotational grazing
and dispersion of manure droppings, should be used
to reduce cross-contamination between groups of
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animals.
Land used for production of animal feed and
feed ingredients should not be located in close prox-
imity to industrial operations where industrial pollut-
ants from air, ground water or runoff from adjacent
land would be expected to result in the production
of foods of animal origin that may present a food
safety risk. Contaminants present in runoff from
adjacent land and irrigation water should be below
levels that present a food safety risk. Pesticides and
other agricultural chemicals should be obtained from
safe sources. Where a regulatory system is in place,
any chemical used must comply with the require-
ments of that system. Pesticides should be stored
according to the manufacturer’s instructions and used
in accordance with Good Agricultural Practice in
the Use of Pesticides (GAP). It is important that
farmers carefully follow the manufacturer’s instruc-
tions for use for all agricultural chemicals. Pesti-
cides and other agricultural chemicals should be
disposed of responsibly in a manner that will not
lead to contamination of any body of water, soil
and feed or feed ingredients that may lead to the
contamination of foods of animal origin which could
adversely affect food safety.
On-farm feed manufacturing
Feed ingredients produced on the farm should
meet the requirements established for feed ingredi-
ents sourced off the farm. For example, seed treated
for planting should not be fed. It must be recog-
nized that a wide range of raw materials are utilized
by modern feed mills in the manufacture of animal
feed. While cereals and oil seed products make up
a large proportion of these raw materials, a wide
range of by-products from the human food industry
are utilized as raw materials in the feed industry.
Storage times and conditions can influence quality
parameters of raw materials, which, in turn, can
affect feed safety.
It is important, therefore, if feed quality and
safety is to be assured, that only high quality raw
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
materials must be sourced. Raw material quality
must feature high on any HACCP plan implemented
by a feed mill. Sourcing raw materials exclusively
from stores that have implemented a HACCP plan
and have been externally audited and approved, is
a useful starting point, if raw material problems that
can impact on feed safety are to be avoided. Equally,
constant monitoring and evaluation of all raw mate-
rials must be carried out to ensure that documented
standards are maintained.
In particular, feed should be mixed in a man-
ner that will minimize the potential for cross-con-
tamination between feed or feed ingredients that
may have an effect on the safety or withholding
period for the feed or feed ingredients. Appropriate
records of feed manufacturing procedures followed
by on-farm feed manufacturers should be maintained
to assist in the investigations of possible feed-re-
lated contamination or disease events. Records
should be kept of incoming feed ingredients, date
of receipt and batches of feed produced in addition
to other applicable records.
Good feeding practices
Good animal feeding practices include those
practices that help to ensure the proper use of feed
and feed ingredients on-farm while minimizing bio-
logical, chemical and physical risks to consumers of
foods of animal origin. Water for drinking or for
aquaculture should be of appropriate quality for the
animals being produced. Where there is reason to
be concerned about contamination of animals from
the water, measures should be taken to evaluate
and minimize the hazards.
It is important that the correct feed is fed to
the right animal group and that the directions for
use are followed. Contamination should be mini-
mized during feeding. Information should be avail-
able of what is fed to animals and when, to ensure
that food safety risks are managed. Animals receiv-
ing medicated feed should be identified and man-
aged appropriately until the correct withholding
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period (if any) has been reached and records of
these procedures must be maintained. Procedures
to ensure that medicated feed are transported to
the correct location and are fed to animals that
require the medication should be followed. Feed
transport vehicles and feeding equipment used to
deliver and distribute medicated feed should be
cleaned after use, if a different medicated feed or
non-medicated feed or feed ingredient is to be trans-
ported next.
Stable feeding and lot/intensive feeding units
The animal production unit should be located
in an area that does not result in the production of
food of animal origin that poses a risk to food safety.
Care should be taken to avoid animal access to
contaminated land, and to facilities with potential
sources of toxicity.
The animal production unit should be designed
so that it can be adequately cleaned. The animal
production unit and feeding equipment should be
thoroughly cleaned regularly to prevent potential haz-
ards to food safety. Chemicals used should be ap-
propriate for cleaning and sanitizing feed manufac-
turing equipment and should be used according to
instructions. These products should be properly
labeled and stored away from feed manufacturing,
feed storage and feeding areas. A pest control sys-
tem should be put in place to control the access of
pests to the animal production unit to minimize
potential hazards to food safety. Operators and
employees working in the animal production unit
should observe appropriate hygiene requirements
to minimize potential hazards to food safety from
feed.
Methods of sampling and analysis
Sampling protocols should meet scientifically
recognized principles and procedures. Laboratory
methods developed and validated using scientifi-
cally recognized principles and procedures should
be used. When selecting methods, consideration
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
should also be given to practicability, with prefer-
ence given to those methods which are reliable and
applicable for routine use. Laboratories conducting
routine analyses of feed and feed ingredients should
ensure their analytical competency with each method
used and maintain appropriate documentation.
Indian scenario to produce safe feed for safe
food
Food safety is defined as the fundamental un-
derstanding and control of hazards associated with
the production, processing, preparation and con-
sumption of foods. Feed and food safety have been
very much in public focus in recent times and this has
led to some dramatic changes in the practice of feed
manufacturing and livestock production. It is essen-
tial that feed production and manufacturer be con-
sidered as an integral part of the food production
chain, as there is direct link between feed and the
safety of foods of animal origin. Feed production must
therefore be subjected to, in the same way as food
production, quality assurance including food safety
systems based on the principles of Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Ap-
plying HACCP-principles ensures that all potential
safety hazards are thoroughly analyzed, assessed and
effective systems for monitoring the critical control
points are placed in order for adhering to the strin-
gent parameters (Speedy, 2001). Some of the mea-
sures that have been recently initiated on these as-
pects in India, are given below:
Quality and safety of finished products: In
India, attempts are being made in the organized
sector that the finished products are manufactured,
using internationally recognized systems of quality
assurance.
Hygienic practices of feed production: Feed
should be produced using quality raw materials and
Good Hygienic Practices (GHP). In India,
programmes need to be implemented in organized
sector, ensuring improvement in the quality of fin-
ished products for animal feeding.
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Maximum levels of contaminants: The maxi-
mum levels of aflatoxins, heavy metals, veterinary
drugs (antibiotics residues) and pesticide residues
are increasingly becoming areas of major food safety
concern. SPS measures permit members to adopt,
if considered necessary, a higher level of protection
based on risk assessment. Some members, like the
European Union, have already enacted a new regu-
lation prescribing very stringent levels of aflatoxins
in milk and feeds. In India, various institutions are
attempting to generate base line information on these
contaminants, in feed and milk. Maximum residual
limits (MRLs) of pesticides, heavy metals and other
undesirable substances in cattle feeds that are pro-
posed to Government of India (GOI) are g-BHC:
20 ppb, DDT: 5 ppb, Endosulfan: 10 ppb, Aldrin:
1 ppb, Arsenic: 2 ppm, Lead: 5 ppm, Fluorine: 20
ppm and free gossypol: 2000 ppm.
Measures taken in India to control MRLs in
finished products
Limit for aflatoxin B1: Aflatoxin B1 is ex-
creted in milk as M1 to the extent of 1 to 3 per
cent. Codex limit for aflatoxin M1 in milk is 0.5
ppb. To ensure that this level is achieved in Indian
milk, a maximum limit of 50 ppb has been pro-
posed in compounded cattle feed under Bureau of
Indian Standards specifications, based on the analy-
sis of large number of compounded cattle feed raw
materials, which is now under finalization. Besides,
use of toxin binders is being propagated in cattle
feed, to minimize level of M1 in milk.
Restriction on heavy metals in mineral
supplements: Many a times, dairy animals ingest
sizable quantity of lead and arsenic through poor
quality mineral supplements. A maximum limit of 20
ppm in mineral mixture has been kept for lead (Pb)
and 7 ppm for arsenic (As). The maximum limits
kept for Pb and As in dicalcium phosphate are 30
and 10 ppm, respectively. All samples of mineral
mixtures and DCP are tested for these parameters
in different laboratories in India (Garg and Bhanderi,
2006).
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Ban on the use of animal origin feed ingre-
dients for ruminants: As per the GOI’s directive,
cattle feed manufacturers in India shall not use any
of the animal origin ingredients in compound feed
and mineral supplements. Ingredients, which are pro-
hibited for use in cattle feed and mineral mixture,
are blood meal, meat meal, meat and bone meal,
fish meal, silk work pupae meal, poultry byproducts,
dicalcium phosphate of bone origin and blood meal.
REFERENCES
Garg, M.R. and Bhanderi, B.M. (2006) Feed quality
assurance: nutritional implications and regula-
tory aspects. In Proceedings of XII Animal
Nutrition Conference on Technological Inter-
ventions in Animal Nutrition for Rural Prosper-
ity held at Anand Agricultural University, Anand,
January 7-9, 2006, pp. 119-123.
Gilbert, R. (2005) Global Feed Safety Codex and
the Code. Proceedings of 47th National Sym-
posium on Safety First: Farm to Fork orga-
nized by CLFMA of India, at Goa between
16th & 17th September, 2005. pp. 52-60.
Mcllmoyle, W.A. (2002) Codes of good manage-
ment practices (GMP) for the animal feed in-
dustry, with special reference to proteins and
protein byproducts. In: Proceedings of Protein
Sources for the Animal Feed Industry, Expert
Consultation and Workshop held at Bangkok,
29th April-3rd May, 2002.
Speedy, A.W. (2001) The Global Livestock Revo-
lution: Opportunities and Constraints for the
Feed and Livestock Industries, in Proceedings
of the 43rd National Symposium on Growth
Prospects under Globalized Scenario vis-à-vis
Livestock Production and Trade, Goa.

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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Metrological aspects and strategies to reduce uncertainties in
greenhouse gas emissions from livestock
Prabhat K. Gupta and Arvind K. Jha
Analytical Chemistry Section, National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi-110012, India
Methane produced as part of the normal
digestive processes of animals result in emissions
that account for a significant portion of the global
methane budget, about 65-100 million metric tons
annually. Livestock is one of the most important
key-source categories and contributes about 61%
of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from Indian
Agriculture sector, which accounts for 78% CH4
and 84% N2O emissions among all anthropogenic
source sectors. Most of the methane production
from livestock is from enteric fermentation (around
90%). Ruminants (cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat)
play a major role and their contribution is very high
(98%). Among these cattle and buffalo alone
contribute to 92% of methane production from
enteric fermentation and is considered as key
source category. Methane emission estimates from
the ruminant animals or livestock have an element
of uncertainty in some form or the other in the
activity data and emission coefficients. In order to
reduce uncertainties and refine the inventories by
adopting appropriate activity data and emission
coefficients, which reflect the country specific
conditions (Indian) institutions comprising NPL
New Delhi, NDRI Karnal, and CLRI Chennai with
NPL as nodal has worked together. This paper
touches GHG emission issues encountered during
years 2002-04 National Communication phase-I
(NATCOM-I) GHG measurements & inventory
compilation exercise for base year 1994 and intend
to dwell upon future efforts required to fill gap
areas and further reduce uncertainties in a well
coordinated, metrological standardized and net-
work mode.
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Processes governing methane emission from
enteric fermentation
Methane emission is characteristics of anaero-
bic fermentation in fore-stomach of ruminants. Ru-
minants have an expanded alimentary tract preced-
ing gastric digestion in the abomasum. In the adult
ruminant, the expanded gut (reticulo-rumen, gener-
ally termed rumen) represents about 85% of the
total stomach capacity and contains digesta equal
to the 10-20% of the animal's weight (Moss, 1994).
Here large amount of coarse feedstuffs can be re-
tained for a considerable period of time for exten-
sive fermentation of materials (Moss, 1994). There
are several species and strains of bacteria and pro-
tozoa survive in the rumen of animals constituting
more than 200 species and strains of microorgan-
isms, however only a small portion, about 10 to 20
species, are believed to play an important role in
ruminant digestion (Baldwin et al., 1983). The main
function of this group is to degrade plant polymers,
which cannot be digested by the host enzymes. Thus
these organisms help in degradation of cellulosic
materials of feed intake for the digestion. The ma-
terial is fermented in to volatile fatty acids, CO2 and
CH4. These gases produced are waste products of
fermentation as well as nutritional loss, which are
mainly removed from rumen by eructation. In In-
dian condition this loss may be about 8-28 g CH4/
kg dry matter intake depending on species, pro-
duction level, physiological state, and types of feed
taken by animal (Singhal, et al., 2005). Hindgut
fermentation is another important place of methane
production in ruminants as well as monogastric
animals. In sheep, hindgut fermentation may be-
come important with diets of low digestibility. It has
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
been estimated that 10-30% of digestive organic
matter is digested in hindgut (Moss, et al., 2000).
However most of the methane produced in hindgut
is absorbed and excreted by the way of lungs and
a very little amount is reported to pass as flatus. It
is estimated that almost 2- 15% of the gross energy
in the feed is lost as methane depending on level of
feeding, composition of diet and digestibility (Holter
and Young, 1992,).
Rumen methanogenic archaebacteria utilize hy-
drogen and carbon dioxide or formate, acetate, me-
thylamine and methanol for production of methane.
The involvement of these bacteria in interspecies
(collaboration between methanogens and ferment-
ing species) hydrogen transfer alters the fermenta-
tion balance and results in shifts of overall fermen-
tation from less reduced to more reduced end prod-
ucts. The major substrate for methane production
in rumen is hydrogen and carbon dioxide or for-
mate and minor substrate is acetate. The major
factors affecting rumen fermentation are rumen pH,
the turnover rate and both of these are affected by
diet and other nutritionally related characteristics such
as level of intake, feeding strategy, forage/ feed
roughage length and quality. Both ruminant animals
(cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat) and some non-rumi-
nant animals (pigs, horses, mules, assess) produce
methane. Cattle & buffaloes are the most impor-
tant source of methane from enteric fermentation in
India because of large population, large size and
ruminant digestive system. Pseudo-ruminant animals
(horses, mules, asses) and mono-gastric animals
(swine) have relatively lower methane emissions
because low methane-producing fermentation takes
place in their digestive systems.
Methane and nitrous oxide emission from
manure management
Methane is produced from the decomposition
of manure under anaerobic conditions, especially
when animals are managed in a confined area (dairy
farms and beef feedlots), where manure is typically
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stored in large piles or disposed of in lagoons/ liq-
uid systems. Methane emissions from manure man-
agement are usually smaller than enteric fermenta-
tion emissions, and are associated with confined
animal management facilities where manure is
handled in a manner resulting in establishment of
anaerobic condition. Livestock manure is mainly
composed of organic material and water. When this
organic material decomposes in an anaerobic envi-
ronment, methanogenic bacteria, as part of an in-
terrelated population of microorganisms, produce
volatile solids and methane. The principal factors
affecting methane emission from animal manure are
the amount of manure produced and the portion of
the manure that decomposes anaerobically and the
climate of location. The end products of anaerobic
decomposition are CH4, CO2, and stabilized or-
ganic material (SOM). Anaerobic decomposition
process involves hydrolytic, acid forming, and
methanogenic stages. Production of N2O during the
storage and treatment of animal waste occurs by
both nitrification & de-nitrification of nitrogen con-
tained in wastes. The quantity of nitrous oxide pro-
duced depends on the manure nitrogen, the type of
bacteria involved in the decomposition process and
amount of oxygen and liquid present in manure
management system.
Enteric fermentation
Emission factor for individual animal depends
on bodyweight of animals, type of feed taken by
animal, amount of feed intake, methane conversion
factor, and performance of animal (Crutzen et al.,
1986). Indian livestock mainly survive on roughage
(crop residue) based diet. The important param-
eters in determination of emission factors are meth-
ane conversion rate (MCR) of different feed. Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has
given default MCR, which are compared with the
Indian value, based on study in India (Table 1) and
found to be significantly lower percentage of con-
version of feed.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Emission factors developed in India for inven- be the most appropriate for the livestock of each
torying GHG emission by different groups in due country. Further various workers tried to compute
course of time based on the available data source the emission factors based on available resource.
at that time are compared with IPCC default values Emission factors developed by NATCOM-I groups
in following Table 2. It may be said that IPCC in India for dairy cattle are compared with available
default values are relatively higher. The reasons are data for some of the Asian country and regional
discussed elsewhere (Gupta et al., 2003). data of world are compared (Table 3) along with
Table 1. Comparison of methane conversion rates (% of milk production data.
gross energy) for India (Swamy et al., 2004). Most of the buffalo population is confined in
Category IPCC ALGAS NATCOM-1 Asian countries. Table 4 gives comparative emis-
India sion factors for buffalo.
Cattle Dairy 6 0.5 7.0 4.8-6.0
Non-dairy (young) 6 0.5 7.0 4.8-5.0
Manure management
Non-dairy (adult) 7 0.5 7.5 4.8-6.0
Dairy 6 0.5 7.0 5.5 Country-specific emission factors for manure
Buffalo Non dairy (young) 6 0.5 7.0 3-4 management largely depend on the distribution of
Non dairy (adult) 7 0.5 7.5 5.5 animal population in different climatic zone (Gupta
et al., 2007). IPCC summarized three climatic zone
The IPCC (IPCC revised guidelines, 1996) based on temperature profile: cool (temp<15oC),
summarized the emission factors that are thought to temperate (temp. 15-25oC) and warm (temp >
Table 2. Comparison of methane emission factors (Kg CH4/animal/year) developed by various workers in India in
recent times for enteric fermentation
Category IPCC Singhal et al., NATCOM- Singh and ALGAS,
default 2005* 2004 Mohini, 1998
EF±SD 1996#
Dairy cattle Indigenous 46 33 28 ± 5 25.8 23
Crossbred 46 39 43 ± 5 37.8 32
Non dairy cattle 0-1 year 17 8 9±3 31.1 4
(indigenous) 1-3 year 25 16 23 ± 8 31.1 16
Adult 25 31 32 ± 6 31.1 20
Non-dairy cattle 0-1 year 17 10 11 ± 3 36 5
(Cross Bred) 1-2 ½ year 25 21 26 ± 5 36 10
Adult 25 33 33 ± 4 36 29
Dairy buffalo 55 69 50 ± 17 37.2 32
Non dairy Buffalo 0-1 year 23 6 8±3 29.8 7
1-3 year 55 17 22 ± 6 29.8 22
Adult 55 52 44 ± 11 29.8 27
Sheep 5 4 4±1 4.7 5
Goat 5 3 4±1 3.9 5
Horses & Ponies 18 IPCC IPCC
Donkeys 10
Camels 46
Pigs 1
*EF were consolidated based on weighted average; # They have derived EF on the basis of male and female
population. For sake of comparison we took female means mature female and male for all non-dairy.

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Table 3. Comparison of methane emission factors for Table 5. Emission factors (kg/h/y) for manure manage-
dairy cattle (Asian countries**, India* and world ment in ruminants (data source IPCC EF data-
on regional# # basis) base otherwise specified)
Country Milk production Emission factor Region Climate Dairy Non-dairy Buffalo
(kg/h/y) (kg/h/y) cattle cattle
China 70.4 Western Europe C 14 6 3
Combodia 170 33 T 44 20 8
India* Indigenous ~620.5 28 Eastern Europe C 6 4 17
T 19 13 3
crossbred ~2091.5 43 North America C 36 1 9
Indonesia 1435 60 T 54 2 16
Japan Lactating 116.4 W 76 3 -
Dry 66.6 Western Europe C 14 6 -
Laos 200 34 T 44 20 -
Malaysia 477 40 W 81 38 -
Myanmar 392 38 Eastern Europe C 6 4 -
Philippines 2618 80 T 19 13 -
W 33 23 -
Vietnam 802 47 Oceania C 31 5 -
North Korea 2308 75 T 32 6 -
Mongolia 312 37 W 33 7 -
South Korea 8833 118 Latin America C 0 1 1
Taiwan 5414 111 T 1 1 1
Thailand 79 W 2 1 2
Regional data Africa C 1 0 -
North America 6700 118 T 1 1 -
W 1 1 -
Western Europe 4200 100 Middle East C 1 1 4
Eastern Europe 2550 80 T 2 1 5
Oceania 1700 68 W 2 1 5
Asia 1650 56 Asia C 7 1 1
Latin America 800 57 T 16 1 2
Africa & middle east 475 36 W 27 2 3
India 900 46 Indian Subcontinent C 5 2 4
India 460 29.5 T 5 2 5
W 6 2 5
India (ind.)* 329# 28 India* Indigenous 3.5±0.2 0-1Yr 1.2 DB 4.4+0.6
India (CB)* 1642# 43 (wt. avg. for 1-3Yr 2.8
* India's Initial National communication (NATCOM) whole country) Adult 2.9±1.4 NDB
**Kazuyo Yamaji et al.,2003 Crossbred 3.8±0.8 0-1Yr 1.1 0-1Yr. 1.8
# FAO statistics (web site) 1-2½Yr 2.3 1-3Yr. 3.4
Adult 2.5+0.9 4.0
# # Milk production data from FAO statistics and EF
data from IPCC, guidelines,1996 table 4.4, page 4.11 (*India's NATCOM, 2004); C-Cool, T-Temperate, W-Warm
DB-Dairy Buffalo, NDB-Non Dairy Buffalo)

Table 4. Comparison of methane emission factor (kg/h/y) for enteric fermentation for buffalo in Asian countries
India #China # #Thailand Other
Countries
Category IPCC IPCC*** NATCOM
Default**
Dairy buffalo 55 57-80# 50 + 17 67.5 51.6 45-67#
Non dairy 0-1 year 23 23-50 8+3 23-50
Buffalo 1-3 year 55 23-50 22 + 6 38.4 23-50
Adult 55 55-77 44 + 11 56.5* 54.9 55-77
*value is for others excluding breedable
** IPCC default for developing countries
*** IPCC data for Indian sub-continent (EF Data Base of IPCC)
# data for adult female in IPCC EF data base
## Kazuyo Yamaji, 2003
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Livestock population of India

Sheep & goat

Cattle Buffalo Other livestock

Methane Emission from rumen

Higher emission Larger uncertainties

Emission mitigation options Measurement of emission and emission factor (EF)

Precise EF and emission estimate Reduction in uncertainties

Energy for different Feed availability and Energy density of feed Gaseous emission
physiological purposes nutrient standards and other supplements measurements

NEm, NE a, NE l, NE Indian feed Calorimetry,

w, NEp, NE g, NE
standards and Facemask and Hood,
wool, DE, etc.
supply to SF6 tracer technique, IVDMD
livestock and Other methods
Measurement Measurement by Bomb
Calorimeter, etc.
GE/Feed intake
MCR

Methane emission factor

Methane emission mitigation
Options:
1. Increasing feed efficiency
2. Modification of rumen Reduced uncertainties and precise emission estimate
3. Increasing productivity, etc.

Reduced uncertainties and reduced methane emission

Abbreviations: MCR= methane conversion rate, EF= emission factor, NEm= Net energy for maintenance, NEa
MCR= methane conversion
=Net energy rate,
for activity, NEl=EF= emission
Net energy for factor, NE
lactation, NE = Net energy for maintenance, NEa =Net
m w= Net energy for work, NEp= Net energy for energy for activity,
NEl= Net energy for lactation, NE
pregnancy, NEg= Net energy for = Net energy for work,
w growth, NEw= Net energy for
NE = Net energy for pregnancy, NE = Net
p wool production (sheep), DE= digestible
g
energy for growth,
energy,
NEw= NetGE=energy for wool
Gross energy, production
IVDMD=In (sheep),
vitro DE=
dry matter digestible energy, GE= Gross energy, IVDMD=In vitro dry matter
digestibility
digestibility

Fig. 1 Targeted livestock areas and expected outputs of overall work elements
for future studies
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
25oC). India is a vast and diverse country. The
emission factors for manure management is devel-
oped by NATCOM-I group based on weighted
average of the distribution of animals in different
climatic zone. IPCC has summarized emission fac-
tors for different regions of the world including In-
dian sub-continent. These data were compared with
the emission factor developed by NATCOM group
of India in Table 5.
Quantification of uncertainty reduced due to
adoption of indigenous emission factors
Total methane emission during 1994 from en-
teric fermentation & manure management is around
10.1 Tg (range 9 to 11 Tg). The livestock methane
emission estimates from NATCOM are more (by
23%) as compared to ALGAS (1998) and are less
(by 30%) when compared to estimates arrived by
using IPCC default emission factors. Conceptual
flow diagram (Fig.-1) depicts the targeted livestock
areas and expected result of overall work elements
for future studies.
In NATCOM-1 efforts, three different ap-
proaches were adopted and the results were finally
averaged to give national emission factor. These ap-
proaches were dry matter intake method (Singhal, et
al., 2005), consideration of available nutrient in dif-
ferent Indian feeds (Feeding standard based) and the
third based on IPCC good practice guidance equa-
tions on energy balance. In the IPCC guide lines 1996
document, data of body weights, milk production and
gross energy intake etc. were mainly considered
based on western countries practices including higher
values for different animal performance data. The
emission factors developed during NATCOM-1 were
based on existing Indian specific data source of live-
stock information that were believed to represent the
realistic condition in the country and are summarized
elsewhere (Gupta et al., 2003).
Data gaps
Several data gap and discrepancies were
identified/ encountered during NATCOM-1, which
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remain unresolved due to several reasons. These
gap areas may be summarized as follow;
Data inadequacy in methane conversion
factor: Study related to methane conversion of
gross energy/ dry matter intake (% energy con-
verted to methane) of animals is confined to higher
bred (in terms of milk production) and must be
done extensively for indigenous bred also which
represents most (~80%) livestock population hav-
ing wide variations in their performance character-
istics in different agro-climatic regions. There is no
institution in India which has all the in-vivo methane
measurement techniques viz. calorimeter, tracer,
hood and mask techniques etc. to generate transfer
functions. Also no such data is available in an ac-
curate and standardized way, which can have inter-
national traceability for GHG measurements.
Higher value of coefficients used in the
calculation: Coefficients used in the calculation of
gross energy for animals are based on western
equations in IPCC guidelines, hence may not be
appropriate for India. Calculated gross energy is
converted to dry matter intake using energy density
of feed. Some of the reports from country reveal
that IPCC good practice recommended energy
density value (18.45 MJ/kg dry matter) is higher.
Other coefficients used in calculating GE intake of
animals are based on survey conducted in western
countries (viz. coefficients for pregnancy for single/
double birth, for calculating net energy for mainte-
nance, and activity corresponding to animal feeding
situation, etc.). The energy density of feed has to
be generated for country specific feed given to the
animal. It is important to determine the quality of
feed in terms of nutrient and energy. Several meth-
odologies at various institutions are available for
chemical characterization and energy evaluation of
animal feed. However these methodologies may be
compared and tested for their data quality, preci-
sion and accuracy. Further this data has to be com-
parable and traceable to national and international
level to ensure quality of measurements.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Body weight of non-descript bred is not
available: Most of the cattle researches in terms
of energy intake and GHG emissions are devoted
for crossbred cattle in India. Some of the indig-
enous breeds (more productive in terms of milk)
are also studied, and majority of such cattle (even
species is not known for some of the cattle, but
kept by farmers) constitutes more than 80% in India
(however this percentage is decreasing gradually).
Their body weight, feeding habits, milk productiv-
ity, etc. are either not well surveyed or even not
described in majority of Indian states. This has lead
to assumptions, uncertainty and bias in feed intake
estimation as well as GHG emission estimates.
Proper survey may be undertaken by the network
institutions to generate this data.
Data gap/ mismatch for the estimation of
feed availability and feed required by animals:
There are various reports available for the feed
availability and ration given to livestock in various
states as well as national level. However there ex-
ists wide dissimilarity in terms of reporting format
as well as quantity. Some of the reports describe
availability/ deficiency in terms of crude protein (CP),
Organic matter (OM), Acid detergent fibre (ADF),
etc. However some other reports describe green
fodder, straw, hay, concentrate, etc. and some other
in format of dry matter, forest produce, etc & there
too reporting value mismatch. Proper survey and
normalized reporting of feed data, which should have
high quality (chemical characterization) is essential.
Utilization pattern of dung / manure man-
agement system: No reliable data are available
on different manure management system adopted in
country and that too based on temperature profile
(regional). Further there is variation among the feed-
ing rations given to the animals, which reflect in the
dung characteristics. There is a need for proper
survey of manure management systems and related
field methane & nitrous oxide measurement studies.
Since India is a big country and there exist
wide regional variation in livestock breed, compo-
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sition of different types of livestock, livestock feed
and climatic condition. The above data gap may be
overcome in future by planned and coordinated
study. It is, therefore, important to undertake a
holistic study of methane and nitrous oxide emission
from livestock of agriculture sector so that uncer-
tainties stated above will be reduced in future GHG
budget for NATCOM-II from India. Such studies
will generate capacity and will provide opportuni-
ties to accomplish research needs of above gap
areas in the livestock area of agriculture sector.
GHG measurement methodology and metro-
logical aspects
Several techniques are used for CH4 measure-
ment from enteric fermentation of ruminants. These
techniques may include short-term in-vitro rumen
liquor incubation to in-vivo respiration calorimeter
(IAEA, 1992). The main techniques are enclosure
technique, tracer technique and indirect methods.
Enclosure technique comprises either total enclo-
sure of animals or enclosure of their head area (head
box, ventilated hood or face mask). Open circuit
calorimetry is one of the important enclosure tech-
niques, which was previously used for studying heat
production (Cammell et al., 1980) in animal. This
technique may be precisely applicable for methane
measurement from ruminants in which whole animal
can be kept in metabolic cage and emissions can
be measured from rumen fermentation. In India,
IVRI has an established calorimetry technique where
experiments were conducted in the past
(Chandramoni et al., 1998; Chandramoni et al.,
2000). Another important technique for measuring
methane from enteric fermentation is SF6 tracer
technique (Johnson et al., 1994). This technique
was used at NDRI Karnal for methane emission
study from livestock (Berman et al., 2001; Mohini
and Singh, 2001). Before use of SF6 tracer tech-
nique in India, workers tried to estimate methane
emission by in-vitro technique. Earlier facemask
technique was applied to study methane emission
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
from enteric fermentation in India (Krishna, et al.,
1978).
In would be appropriate to establish all facili-
ties (SF6, Calorimeter, Hood/ Face mask, Indirect
technique) at one or two prime institutions in India.
This will enable to generate transfer functions among
these techniques. Further simpler technique like
Hood/ Face mask may be applied in the field con-
dition to get desired database for the country re-
garding in-vivo methane conversion of different
feeds. Metrological aspects may be taken care for
these techniques, which may be used, to generate
data through a calibrated/ standardized practice in
a coordinated manner and QA/QC may be main-
tained by using reference gas standards having na-
tional and international traceability in measurements.
Animal feeds may be characterized by several sim-
pler chemical/ instrumental approaches already in
practice by various institutions. These methods, which
analyze organic carbon, nitrogen, carbohydrate, etc.,
can be standardized also. A multi-institutional In-
dian network is necessary to carryout various tasks
and responsibilities in different parts of the country
and ensuring the quality of measurements through
inter-comparisons, proficiency testing of the partici-
pating institutions, standardization of equipments cali-
bration and measurements so that to have data
traceable to international standards or top metro-
logical quality.
Besides these aspects related to quantification
of uncertainty and improving accuracy in nation in-
ventory estimate of methane, efforts should also be
made for the in-vivo reduction of methane genera-
tion. There are several methods including supple-
mentation of extra chemicals, lipids, plants extracts,
etc. emphasizing rumen process manipulation. How-
ever care should be taken in using chemicals so that
there should not be any adverse impact on animals
or their production potential. Moreover there should
not be traces of undesired chemicals in animal prod-
ucts before commercializing these methods for re-
duction of GHG emissions.
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Conclusion
Good practice guidance should be followed for
the targeted groups of livestock, for the methane emis-
sion measurement using various techniques, which are
of major source category like cattle and buffaloes
with others viz. sheep & goat if possible. Earlier stud-
ies were mainly confined to crossbred and higher bred
varieties, and majorities of the Indian livestock are
nondescript. There may be large variation in meth-
ane emission within and between different agro-cli-
matic regions of the country as well as animal cat-
egory based on their feeding regime and other char-
acteristics. The future network, which may represent
most part of major livestock population and climatic
regions, should be capable to generate data regard-
ing feeding pattern, digestibility of different feed ra-
tion and bodyweight by quality survey and standard-
ized traceable measurements for methane and nitrous
oxide. Such metrological approach will reduce un-
certainties in GHG estimation from Indian livestock.
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Environmental pollution and animal productivity
D. Swarup
Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243122, India
“In the future, the problem of declining living
standards in poor countries is likely to be worsened
by environmental degradation. Today, environmen-
tal problems already affect the health and liveli-
hoods of hundreds of millions. If drastic steps are
not taken, the coming century will see billions of
people suffer the consequences of pollution and
scarcity of natural resources, especially, agricultural
land and water” ( Frans Doorman, 2003)
Pollution can be defined as the human alter-
ation of chemical or physical characteristics of the
environment to a degree that is harmful to living
organisms. Some forms of pollution exert a de-
structive influence on human, animals and wildlife
by killing or impairing the health of individuals.
Synthetic chemicals, oil, toxic metals, and acid rain
are included in this category of toxic pollutants.
Autopsy lesions of ‘black lung disease’, similar to
that observed in the coal miners, in the
archeologically discovered body of an Eskimo
woman who apparently had died about 1600 years
ago in a landslide in the Bering sea region suggest
that the anthropogenic pollution of the environment
dates back to antiquity (Bell et al., 1990). How-
ever the magnitude of pollution has increased many
folds during 20th century with rapid industrialization
and expansion of mechanical transport and agro-
industrial sectors. In recent times, humans release
thousands of synthetic chemicals into the environ-
ment that has altered the distribution of many natu-
rally occurring substances, thereby creating condi-
tions that human, animal and wildlife species had
never experienced before. On the basis of Millen-
nium Ecosystem Assessment conducted between
2001 and 2005, United Nations reported that an-
thropogenic changes in ecosystem have been more
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rapid and extensive over the past 5 decades than
ever before, largely to meet rapidly growing de-
mand for foods. At one time environment referred
to only public health and sanitation, and pollution
was defined in relation to human health hazard. But
today, the environment and pollution has assumed
vast connotation with ever widening frontiers in-
volving several disciplines. As such, the effects of
pollution are considered far extensive affecting vari-
ous units of the biosphere. The major emphasis is
now placed on multidisciplinary problem-solving
approaches, and the animal scientists can contrib-
ute greatly to issues related to animal production,
quality of the produce and the environment (Pow-
ers, 2003).
Sensitivity to pollutants
Different species vary in their sensitivity to toxic
pollutants. Many domestic and wild animals have
natural instinct and behavior to protect themselves
against untoward environmental hazards. For ex-
ample, grazing ruminants generally reject certain
harmful plants; horses excrete in certain areas, which
they avoid for grazing, and dogs instinctively take
emetics to protect themselves. Birds are unusually
sensitive to odorless coal gas and other air pollut-
ants in coalmines (Schawbe, 1984). Behavior pat-
tern of fish to avoid contaminated water and nesting
behavior of birds on water bodies are used as in-
dicators of water pollution and population trend of
birds in a habitat provides indication to the quality
of ecosystem. Pheasants are important indicator
species and their presence or absence in an area is
a good indicator of the health of ecosystem (Anon.
2004). In general, impact of the environmental
pollution on animals can be categorized as:
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
l Pollutant burden without adverse effects, and
minor adaptive physiological or behavioral
changes
l Sub-clinical/sub-lethal effects characterized by
minor pathological or behavioral changes- in-
cluding decreased predator avoidance capac-
ity resulting in increased susceptibility to preda-
tors, diminished foraging efficiency or success
in prey capture, decreased fecundity, and im-
paired nest- building, courtship and prenatal
behavior
l Lethal toxicity characterized by high morbid-
ity and mortality
l Population and community effects character-
ized by change in population structure and func-
tion i.e. change in age structure or sex ratio, and
density, abundance, or bio-mass of indigenous
organisms.
Impact of pollution
The impacts of pollution on animals are asso-
ciated with serious economic losses arising due to
adverse effects on health and production. Residues
of pollutants have been detected in food products
originating from healthy animals harbouring pollut-
ant burden and living in the industrial vicinity. This
may adversely affect quality of milk, meat or eggs
and many a times rendering these products unfit for
human consumption.
Adverse impact of pollutants on health and
economy of livestock are reported globally. Fre-
quent epizootics of lead toxicosis in lead smelting
areas in US caused heavy economic losses to equine
husbandry (Schwabe, 1984). The impact of fluoride
pollution on Cornwall Island cattle Industry was so
immense that the majority of farmers switched from
dairy to beef cattle, and 63 of the 82 dairy cattle
on a farm near aluminum smelter were slaughtered
in one year (Krook and Maylin, 1979). One of the
major hindrances to broiler industry is the adverse
effects of ammonia produced within the house due
to microbial degradation of litter. It is manifested in
chronic respiratory diseases and, consequently, death
leading to huge economic loss. In India, heavy mor-
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tality in cattle and buffaloes due industrial lead tox-
icity was responsible for significant financial losses
to farmers (Swarup and Dwivedi, 2002).
Health impacts and production loss
The severity of health impact of pollution
depends on kind of pollution and pollutants, pres-
ence of interacting chemicals, extent and route of
exposure, and species, age, physiology and nutri-
tion of the exposed population. Undernourished,
young, old, physiologically stressed and debilitated
animals are more susceptible to pollution effects.
Various industrial, transport and other polluting
sources release host of specific and common pol-
lutants such as oxides of sulfur, nitrogen and car-
bon, halogen gases, toxic heavy metals, volatile
hydrocarbons, oxidants and ozone, to name a few.
Many of these pollutants persist in the environment
and can build up to high levels, even if released in
small quantities. Many others undergo transforma-
tion and are converted into more dangerous forms
than parent compounds. For example, inorganic
mercury is converted into more toxic methyl mer-
cury by certain bacteria in aquatic sediment. In
‘Minamata disaster’, the microorganisms converted
inorganic mercury that was present in the effluent of
a plastic manufacturing factory into methyl mercury.
It was taken up by plankton algae and concen-
trated in fish and subsequently caused illness in cats
and fishermen (Klaassen, 1996). Exposure to higher
concentration of toxic chemicals induces specific
acute toxicities, where as long term low level expo-
sure causes chronic toxicity.
Pesticide pollution: Chemical pesticides were
introduced as an important tool for pest control and
have been used extensively in human health opera-
tions and agricultural applications since late 1940s.
The wide spread use, solubility in lipids, environ-
mental persistence and bio-magnification potential
of pesticides soon precipitated health hazards in
animals. It has been noted that among all farm
chemicals, pesticides owing to their toxic potential,
pose the greatest hazard and are incriminated as
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
the most common cause of poisoning in animals.
Pesticides accounted for 85 (17.65%) of the 487
reported cases of poisoning in animals globally during
1986 to 1996 (Swarup, 2002).
Principal portal of pesticides’ entry to livestock
is their extensive and indiscriminate use in agricul-
ture and veterinary practices. Animals may become
contaminated with pesticides when treated with these
compounds or via exposure to contaminated water,
feed, buildings or pastures. Insecticides and fungi-
cides are common pesticides contaminating animals.
Once in the livestock system number of pesticides
such as DDT, heptachlor, linden, etc persist and
bioaccumulate in the biological system owing to their
lipid soluble nature. Residues of these compounds
in milk are of special concern because milk is con-
sumed in large quantity by vulnerable population
and they tend to concentrate in milk fat. It was
estimated that 40% of the pesticides in human diet
are found in meat, milk and egg and this exposure,
except for occasional out-breaks has decreased in
the past few years. In India, number of studies
have revealed residues of DDT and BHC above
MRL in most samples of the milk and milk prod-
ucts (Meral and Boghra, 2004). It has been ob-
served that with imposition on use of these pesti-
cides, their residue levels in milk have decreased
considerably of late (Unnikrishanan et al., 2005).
However, milk samples collected from areas where
DDT had reportedly been used to kill mosquitoes
revealed high levels of DDT and 25% samples had
residue levels above MRL (Surendra Nath et al.,
2002). The noticeable levels of DDT and HCH
residues have also been reported in tissue samples
such as adipose tissues, liver and kidney of cattle,
sheep and goats in India (Surendra Nath et al.,
1998).
Exposure to pesticides via contamination of
livestock system may not always occur at a level
sufficient to cause acute effects and it is more likely
to precipitate chronic, sub clinical and subtle ef-
fects. At low level of exposure, effects are diverse
and can involve many systems including nervous,
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immune and endocrine systems. Pesticides are also
classified as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC)
and their effects on endocrine system may be re-
sponsible for reproductive, immunotoxic, develop-
mental and carcinogenic effects. Many pesticides
mimic or interact with estrogen hormone and this
ability has been linked to breast cancer in women.
Increase in occurrence of breast cancer was asso-
ciated with increased use of pesticides in US.
The pesticide residues in milk may be much haz-
ardous to vulnerable populations, especially chil-
dren, who not only consume more milk, but are
also more sensitive to toxic substances due to their
higher metabolic rate and larger brain size in pro-
portion to body size than adults. Further, children
have variable ability to activate, detoxify and elimi-
nate toxic compounds from the body. However,
despite findings pointing to presence of pesticide
above permissible limits in considerably high pro-
portion of milk samples in India, little information
are available on chronic effects of pesticides on
animal health and production.
Heavy metal pollutants: Metals have been
used by mankind for diverse purposes and their use
for range of industrial activities in the modern pe-
riod has been responsible for their ubiquitous pres-
ence in the environment as chemical contaminants.
Various anthropogenic activities such as burning of
fossil fuel, mining and metallurgy, industries and trans-
port sectors redistribute toxic heavy metals into the
environment, which persist for a considerably longer
period and are translocated to different compo-
nents of environment including biotic segment. Bio-
logically, heavy metals play both beneficial and
detrimental role. Metals such as copper, zinc, iron
selenium, magnesium and manganese are essential
components of several enzyme systems involved in
variety of physiological activities. Some other heavy
metals such as cadmium, lead, arsenic and mercury
have little or no known beneficial biological activity
and are generally regarded as toxic heavy metals.
Irrespective of their role heavy metals tend to
accumulate in the body because of their persisting
nature and they generally combine with one or more
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
bio-active ligands viz –OH, -COO-,- OPO3 H-,
>C=O, -SH, -S-S, NH2 and >NH that are essen-
tial for normal physiological function and activate
several enzyme system.
Because of their universal presence in the en-
vironment, toxic heavy metals are translocated into
livestock system via various sources such as con-
taminated feed and fodder, water and soil. More
often than not, contamination occurs due to indus-
trial pollution. But some times, natural sources may
contribute to higher levels of toxic metals in envi-
ronment. To cite an example, arsenic contamination
of ground water is an important cause of poisoning
in many countries including India, and most cases
of arsenic exposure are associated with intake of
contaminated water (Jin et al., 2004). An estimated
6 million people in WB, India are presently drinking
water contaminated with arsenic >50 µg/L in an
area of 38, 865 km2 (Chowdhury et al., 2001)
which is well above the recommended permissible
limit (WHO 1993). Ground water contamination
with arsenic is also reported from Vietnam, Cam-
bodia, Bangladesh, Taiwan, Argentina, Japan, Thai-
land, Chile, Mongolia, Finland, Hungary and the
likes. Once in the animal system, the heavy metals
can contaminate food chain and pose public con-
cerns. Milk and milk products could be contami-
nated when milch animals consume water, feed
and fodder grown in polluted environment (Swarup
and Dwivedi, 2002)
Various surveys conducted by us revealed
higher levels of heavy metals in milk, eggs and other
tissues of animals from industrial vicinity. Higher lead
burden in blood and milk from animals reared in
urban localities and around polluting industrial units
have been documented from various parts of the
India and elsewhere in the world (Baars et al.,
1990). Milk lead concentration is exponentially re-
lated to blood lead (Swarup et al., 2005). It is
expected that animals exposed to industrial lead
will excrete higher lead in milk. In a study, buffaloes
that had suffered from acute industrial plumbism
were found to excrete high level of lead (1.13 ±
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
0.38 ppm) in milk after 6 weeks of discontinuation
of exposure (Dey et al., 1996). Other than lead,
higher levels of cadmium and mercury have been
reported in livestock in some pockets of the coun-
try.
Of all the toxic metals, lead has posed much
serious problem to animal health and production in
India and abroad. It is one of the commonest causes
of poisoning in farm animals, particularly cattle and
young animals are more susceptible. Sheep, goat
and horses are also affected, but pigs are rarely
exposed. The major sources of lead that can cause
accidental lead poisoning in animals include paints
which contain lead oxide (red lead), triplumbic
tetraoxide, lead carbonate (white lead), lead sul-
phate or lead chromate. The chief sources of lead
poisoning in cattle and other animals also include
discarded waste materials including batteries, dump
oil, oil paint container and bone-fire ash. Use of
lead containing grease, motor vehicle lubricating oil
also leads to accidental lead poisoning. Indiscrimi-
nate eating habits and pica in cattle, possibly due to
phosphorous deficiency resulting in eating of hard
object with impunity, enhances the chance of eating
lead containing substances resulting in lead poison-
ing in ruminants. Contamination of forage and wa-
terways close to shooting activities enhances the
lead content of the soil. However, maximum re-
ports of chronic lead poisoning in cattle were due
to environmental pollution from lead, iron and steel
industries, zinc smelter plant and from automobile
exhaust. Animals reared around the industrial area
and highways have higher blood lead level over and
above the minimum toxic level (0.25ppm) that is
attributed to emission from industries and motor-
ized vehicles. Emission into air leads to fall out of
lead on to the soil and fodder for animal use.
Continual ingestion of such contaminated fodder
results in chronic lead poisoning in animals. The
poisoning is also emerging as a serious concern
with the growing industrialization in India and sev-
eral reports documenting lead poisoning in livestock
in various parts of the country are now on record
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
as compared to very few before 1980 (Dey et al.
1996, Dogra et al.,1996, Swarup et al., 2005). It
could be due to expansion of lead-based industrial
operation and cumulative toxic potential of lead.
Toxic effects of lead range from peracute,
acute, subacute to subtle depending upon the physi-
cal and chemical nature of the lead compounds, its
composition, particle size etc. In acute poisoning,
case fatality may be as high as 100%. In cattle,
there is sudden onset of signs and the animal at
pasture may succumb within 24 hours. Staggering,
muscle tremor particularly of head and neck with
champing of jaws and frothing from mouth are mainly
encountered in acute toxicity. Nystagmus and snap-
ping of eye lids are not uncommon. Blindness, cer-
vical, facial and auricular twitching is consistent in
acute lead poisoning in animals. Animals eventually
fall with tono-clonic convulsions, pupillary dilata-
tion, opisthotonus and muscle tremor. Animal be-
comes hyperesthetic to touch and sound with in-
creased heart and respiration rate. An adult animal
exhibits a characteristic frenzy maniacal blind look
and use to charge fences and walls and attempts to
climb or jump over objects. Head pressing is a
characteristic sign in acute lead toxicity. Gastrointes-
tinal involvement is manifested in diarrhea, cramp-
ing, abdominal distension and pain. Central nervous
system involvement is seen up to 90% of lead
poisoned cases, where as 60% cases show gas-
trointestinal problems. Death usually supervenes
during the period of convulsions, mostly due to
respiratory failure.
In subacute lead toxicity in cattle, animal re-
mains alive for three to four days and shows the
clinical signs of dullness, anorexia, depression, loss
of weight and eye sight, incoordination, staggering
and sometimes, circling. The circling is not consis-
tent and animal changes the direction of circling
when it is confined within a stall or box. Muscle
tremor, hyperesthesia and grinding of teeth are
common along with mild abdominal pain, salivation,
lachrymation and alimentary tract dysfunction. Ru-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
minal atony is accompanied by constipation in early
stage followed by foetid diarrhea. Animals remain
unwilling to eat and drink and stand still, reluctant
to walk, dull and depressed and sometimes, while
walking reveals drunken gait. In some other cir-
cumstances, animals remain recumbent and die
quietly. Major differentiating observations of
polioencephalomacia from lead poisoning is that in
the former eye preservation reflex is normal while in
the latter it is absent or markedly diminished. Lead
is also classified as a potential EDC, and may be
responsible for reproductive and other hormonal
problems in animals.
Fluorosis: Small amounts of fluorine were con-
sidered essential for prevention of dental caries and
osteoporosis in human. However, continuous inges-
tion of excess fluoride results in chronic fluoride tox-
icity commonly referred as fluorosis. In animals, the
condition is manifested by bony exostosis, lameness,
poor weight bearing, loss in performance and pro-
duction, inability to masticate food materials, reduced
feed conversion efficiency, poor digestibility and death
(Swarup et al., 2001). Skeletal fluorosis is charac-
terized by hyperosteosis, osteopetrosis and os-
teoporosis. Lameness is the first signs noticed in af-
fected animals and animal often crawl on knee pos-
ture due fracture of phalanx.
Long-term exposure to sub-toxic doses of fluo-
ride can induce changes in cellular metabolism and
macro- and micro-nutrient imbalances. Fluoride
exposure also impairs reproductive functions and
induces teratogenicity. High prevalence of sterility,
repeat estrous cycle, stillbirth and birth to weak
calves are often associated with chronic fluorosis.
Intake of comparatively low dietary fluoride (8-12
mg/kg) for a year was responsible for significant
increase in post-calving anoestrus and decline in
fertility in cows (Van Rensburg and de-Vos 1966).
Gaseous and other air pollutants: The air,
which animals breathe, is frequently contaminated
with air-borne pollutants such gases, particulates
and bioaerosal and endotoxins. Some of these pol-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
lutants may have industrial origin, but more often,
these arise from the animals facilities themselves.
Gases like ammonia, hydrogen sulfide , methane,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen dioxide mainly origi-
nate from decomposition of organic matters and
respiratory excretions. They are collected in animal
houses, particularly under poor ventilation and over-
crowding conditions and affect the health, growth
and production of animals. Excess ammonia in pigs
has been associated with decreased growth, low-
ered average number of pigs weaned and porcine
stress syndrome. Ammonia is considered as the most
significant air pollutant in cattle barns and a concen-
tration of 100ppm in poorly ventilated house can
adversely affect pulmonary function in cattle. Hy-
drogen sulfide, an irritating gas, produces local in-
flammation of moist membranes of eyes and respi-
ratory system.
A host of particulates, consisting mainly dust
and microorganisms are dispersed in air of animal
houses from feed litter, manure and animal them-
selves. They can induce mechanical, chemical, in-
fectious, immunosuppressive and toxic effects in
animals. High dust levels in animal houses can be
associated with mechanical irritation, overloading of
lung clearance, lesions of mucus membrane and
reduced resistance to infection. The high concen-
tration of dust appears to cause reduced perfor-
mance, and clinically recognizable diseases such as
atrophic rhinitis in pigs. Microorganisms and dust
together may induce allergic and hypersensitivity
reactions, and intoxication by bacterial and fungal
toxins. Airborne endotoxins have been implicated in
the pathogenesis of hypersensitivity pneumonia. In
cattle and horse, asthma, allergic rhinitis and alveolitis
are primarily associated with dust and toxins origi-
nating form mould feed, hay and straw. All these
conditions are often associated with poor produc-
tivity in animals.
Conclusion
The quality of life on Earth is linked inextri-
cably to the overall quality of the environment.
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Growing pressures on air, water, and land resources
and increasing incidence of animal and human health
problems due to industrial pollution has focused
global attention in recent years on finding novel ways
to sustain and manage the environment. Specific
toxicity , such as plumbism and fluorosis that posed
serious health problems in animals in the developed
countries some years back, have shown their emer-
gence in India in the recent past. Although, there
has been growing interest amongst researchers in
clinico-epidemiological and management studies
pertaining to pollution related animal diseases, still
several gaps exist in the knowledge in this direction,
which need attention of veterinary researchers and
field veterinarians. Further, chemical pollutants may
pose a major concern to food quality. Increase use
of chemicals in veterinary practice as drugs, pesti-
cides and feed additives, expanding industrial sec-
tor and food processing methods and environmen-
tal contamination are the principal portal of entry of
chemical pollutants into livestock system and food
products of animal origin. The presence of many of
these chemicals, even in the residual form may be
detrimental to public health. These pollutants, which
can find their way in animal products as environ-
mental contaminants can be reduced through
judicious use and by improving management condi-
tions at farms, periodic monitoring of residues level,
establishment of regional laboratory with quality
assurance facilities, strict implementation of SPS
measures, extension of Hazard Analysis and Criti-
cal Control Point (HACCP) from farm to consum-
ers stage.
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Safety and wholesomeness of genetically modified crops for

livestock, poultry and aquaculture: focus on insect-
protected crops in India
G. F. Hartnell and B. G. Hammond
Monsanto Company, St. Louis, MO (USA)

Safety and wholesomeness is the top priority For the first time, India grew more Bt cotton
in developing new crops through biotechnology. (3.8 million hectares) than China (3.5 million hect-
Each genetically modified (GM) crop has under- ares) and moved up the world ranking by two places
gone rigorous testing and assessment based on the to number 5 in the world, overtaking both China
latest guidance from regulatory agencies and na- and Paraguay (James, 2006).
tional and international scientific organizations. As
a result, commercialized GM crops (herbicide tol- Insect-protection traits
erance and insect protection traits) have seen an
Insect-protected plants commercialized to date
unprecedented adoption by farmers globally over
are generally enhanced to produce insect control
the past decade. In 2006, the global area of biotech
proteins in planta like those made from Bacillus
crops has grown to 102 million hectares (252 mil-
thuringiensis (Bt) (Fischhoff et al., 1987; Perlak,
lion acres) of which 68%, 19%, and 13% were
1990). Bt is ubiquitous gram-positive soil bacte-
planted with herbicide tolerant, insect protected, or
rium that forms crystalline protein inclusions during
combination of these traits, respectively (James,
sporulation (Höfte and Whiteley, 1989). The inclu-
2006). From 1996-2006, this crop technology saw
sion bodies consist of Cry proteins (Cry is an ac-
an unprecedented 60 fold increase, the fastest adop-
ronym for crystal) which are selectively active against
tion of any crop technology in recent history (James,
certain lepidopteran, dipteran or coleopteran pests.
2006). According to James (2006), 10.3 million
Microbial Bt products containing Cry proteins were
farmers from 22 countries planted biotech crops in
first commercialized in 1961 for use in agriculture
2006. Of the 10.3 million, 90% or 9.3 million
and have been used for over 40 years (Baum et
were small, resource-poor farmers from developing
al., 1999) with an exemplary safety record (Betz et
countries whose increased income from biotech
al., 2000). The first Bt microbial formulations were
crops contributed to their poverty alleviation. Of
based on Bt kurstaki strain HD 1 which produces
the 9.3 million small farmers, most of whom were
four Cry proteins (Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac and
Bt cotton farmers; 6.8 million were in China, 2.3
Cry2Aa) active against lepidopteran pests
million in India, 100,000 in the Philippines, several
(Hammond et al., 2002). The cry1Ab and cry1Ac
thousand in South Africa, with the balance in the
genes in the Bt HD1 strain are the prototypes for
other seven developing countries which grew biotech
the genes currently expressed in maize and cotton.
crops in 2006. This initial modest contribution of
In planta production of these Cry proteins confers
biotech crops to the Millennium Development Goal
plant protection throughout the growing season.
of reducing poverty by 50% by 2015 is an impor-
tant development, which has enormous potential in Bt cotton, which confers resistance to impor-
the second decade of commercialization from 2006 tant insect pests of cotton, was first adopted in
to 2015 (James, 2006). India as hybrids in 2002. India grew approximately
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
50,000 hectares of officially approved Bt cotton
hybrids for the first time in 2002, and doubled its
Bt cotton area to approximately 100,000 hectares
in 2003. The Bt cotton area increased again four-
fold in 2004 to reach over half a million hectares.
In 2005, the area planted to Bt cotton in India
continued to climb reaching 1.3 million hectares, an
increase of 160% over 2004. In 2006, the record
increases in adoption in India continued with almost
a tripling of area of Bt cotton from 1.3 million hect-
ares to 3.8 million hectares. In 2006, this tripling
in area was the highest year-on-year growth for
any country in the world. Of the 6.3 million hect-
ares of hybrid cotton in India in 2006, which rep-
resents 70% of all the cotton area in India, 60% or
3.8 million hectares was Bt cotton - a remarkably
high proportion in a fairly short period of five years
(James, 2006).
Benefit of insect-protected traits
Farmers sustain billions of dollars in crop loss
or reduced yield due to pests that have the poten-
tial to be controlled by Cry proteins (Gianessi and
Carpenter, 1999). Insect damage can predispose
plants to fungal growth and mycotoxin contamina-
tion. Therefore protection of plants against pest
damage from pests can reduce fungal and myc-
otoxin contamination. Munkvold et al. (1999) were
the first to show that Fusarium ear rot and fumonisin
contamination were dramatically reduced in an in-
sect-protected Bt maize compared with non-Bt
maize over several years of field trials. This has
been substantiated by Dowd (2000) in the US and
by Pietra and Piva (2000) and (Bakan et al., 2002)
in the EU.
In planta protection against insect pests can
reduce the use of insecticides on the plant. Cotton
plants are normally heavily sprayed with insecti-
cides posing risks to the environment as well as to
humans especially in developing countries. Follow-
ing the commercial introduction of insect-protected
Bt cotton, there has been a significant reduction in
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
the use of insecticides (Gianessi and Carpenter,
1999). The accumulative reduction in pesticides
for the decade 1996 to 2005 was estimated at
224,300 MT of active ingredient, which is equiva-
lent to a 15% reduction in the associated environ-
mental impact of pesticide use on these crops, as
measured by the Environmental Impact Quotient
(EIQ) - a composite measure based on the various
factors contributing to the net environmental impact
of an individual active ingredient (James, 2006).
The work of Bennett et al. (2004) confirmed
that the principal gain from Bt cotton in India is the
significant yield gains estimated at 45% in 2002,
and 63% in 2001, for an average of 54% over the
two years. Taking into account the decrease in ap-
plication of insecticides for bollworm control,
which translates into a saving, on average of 2.5
sprays, and the higher cost of Bt cotton seed,
Brookes and Barfoot (2006) estimate that the net
economic benefits for Bt cotton farmers in India
were $139 per hectare in 2002, $324 per hectare
in 2003, $171 per hectare in 2004, and $260 per
hectare in 2005, for a four year average of ap-
proximately $225 per hectare. The benefits at the
farmer level translated to a national gain of $339
million in 2005 and accumulatively $463 million for
the period 2002 to 2005. Other studies report
results in the same range, acknowledging that ben-
efits will vary from year to year due to varying
levels of bollworm infestations. The most recent
study by Gandhi and Namboodiri (2006) reported
a yield gain of 31%, a significant reduction in the
number of pesticide sprays by 39%, and an 88%
increase in profit or an increase of $250 per hect-
are for the 2004 cotton growing season.
Safety assessment of cry insect-control pro-
teins
The safety assessment of insect-protected
cotton (Hamilton et al., 2002) and maize (Sanders
et al., 1998) have been published. The introduced
protein is extensively characterized to understand
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
how it functions and how similar it is to proteins
already present in foods. Bt proteins have been in
use for over 45 years with their mode of action well
understood. The amino acid sequence of the intro-
duced protein(s) has been compared to known
toxins and allergens to assure the protein in neither
a mammalian toxin nor an allergen or closely re-
lated to either. Proteins are a key component of
food and feed and therefore digestibility is an im-
portant aspect of the safety evaluation. To confirm
the safety of the protein, it is tested for toxicity by
testing in animals at high levels (thousands to hun-
dred of thousands times greater than the highest
predicted consumption) to assure no adverse ef-
fects. As expected, given the nature and digestibil-
ity of proteins, no toxicities have been observed in
these tests.
The likelihood of the protein being an estab-
lished allergen or becoming an allergen is also as-
sessed in detail according to international standards.
Once the safety of the protein as been as-
sessed it is important to assess the agronomic and
morphological or phenotypic parameters and com-
pare them to those of the conventional counterpart
to assure there are no relevant unintended effects
caused by the transformation process or the intro-
duced genes/trait. Very stringent criteria must be
met for plants developed through biotechnology.
Cockburn (2002) provides an example of the pa-
rameters needed when comparing maize. Next a
comprehensive comparison of the composition (key
nutrients, anti-nutrients, toxins, and other compounds
naturally found in the plant) of the plant and grain.
The GM plants, their near isogenic control and as
well as commercial varieties are grown under a
number of different environments and field condi-
tions. Typically, 60-90 different compositional
analytes are compared to determine if the GM crop
values fall within the range of values obtained from
the non-GM conventional varieties and published
values for that crop (Hammond et al., 2002). In
assessing the nutritional and compositional equiva-
lence of Bollgard cotton to conventional cotton
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varieties, over 2500 separate analyses were per-
formed on 67 components of the cottonseed and
oil including nutrients such as protein, fat, moisture,
calories, minerals, amino acids, and antinutrients such
as cyclopropenoid fatty acid, and gossypol
(Hamilton et al., 2002).
To confirm that new GM foods and feeds are
safe as their conventional counterparts, subchronic
(26- or 90-day) comparative toxicity studies are
performed with the grain from the GM, near isogenic
control and conventional varieties. A robust and
internationally recognized testing approach is uti-
lized. In addition, Monsanto conducts livestock,
poultry and/or aquaculture wholesomeness studies
with the GM crop or products derived from that
crop. Nutritional/compositional equivalence is dem-
onstrated when compared to the results obtained
from the feeding of the near isogenic control and
conventional non-GM varieties. These studies are
used to detect any biologically significant unexpected
effects relative to the conventional non-GM plant
varieties.
Mode of action
Cry proteins are produced as protoxins that
are proteolytically activated upon ingestion (Höfte
and Whiteley, 1989). Cry proteins bind to specific
receptors on the surface of midgut cells of suscep-
tible insects and form ion-selective channels in the
cell membrane (English and Slatin, 1992). The cells
swell due to an influx of water which leads to cell
lysis, the insect stops eating and dies (Knowles and
Ellar, 1987).
If receptor binding does not occur, the Cry
protein will have no effect on that organism. Re-
sults of several studies have failed to find Cry-pro-
tein-specific receptors on gut cell membranes of
various non-target mammalian species such as mice,
rats, monkeys, and humans (Hofmann et al., 1988;
Noteborn et al., 1993). This explains why the Cry
insect-control proteins are acutely toxic to target
insects at mg/kg body weight doses, but are non-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
toxic to mammals dosed acutely with greater than
1 x 106 mg/kg Cry proteins (McClintock et al.,
1995; Sjoblad et al., 1992).
As a condition of registration of insect pro-
tected crops in the US, the US EPA requires Cry
insect-control proteins that will be introduced into
the plants be administered acutely at very high
dosages (generally in the thousands of mg/kg range)
to laboratory rodents as part of an overall safety
assessment. To date no biologically relevant ad-
verse effects have been observed in rodents dosed
with Cry proteins that have been bioengineered into
plants that are commercialized. Based on the ab-
sence of mammalian toxicity for the Cry proteins
tested to date, it is concluded that those Cry pro-
teins pose not meaningful risk to human or animal
health.
The class of Cry1, Cry2 and Cry3 proteins
are readily digested in vitro using simulated mam-
malian gastric fluids (EPA, 1995; Noteborn and
Kuiper, 1994). All commercialized Bt products
(Cry1Ac, Cry1Ab, Cry1F, Cry3A, Cry1Ab2,
Cry3Bb1, Cry34Ab1, and Cry35Ab1) except for
Cry 9C have been quickly inactivated in the digest-
ibility studies. These proteins are typically 60-130
kDa in size and are degraded in simulated digestion
models to polypeptides of less than 2 kDa
(Hammond et al., 2002). Bioinformatic analyses
are used to verify the absence of structural similar-
ity of Cry proteins or their degradation products to
known allergens, toxins or pharmacologically active
proteins.
Human and animal digestive systems are de-
signed to effectively degrade dietary proteins to
peptides and amino acids which are absorbed and
used to synthesize new proteins to support growth,
maintenance, reproduction and milk or egg produc-
tion. (CAST, 2006). Thus, Cry proteins would not
be expected to be absorbed intact from the gut.
Also, based on the simulated mammalian gastric
digestion assay, one would expect the Cry proteins
to be rapidly digested. The results of studies with
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
lactating dairy cattle, growing cattle, broiler chick-
ens and swine have not detected the presence of
transgenic protein in products and tissues from farm
animals fed currently available biotechnology-de-
a
rived (CAST, 2006; Flachowsky et al., 2005 ). In
addition, no unexpected adverse effects were re-
ported in multigenerational studies comparing diets
with non-GM and insect-protected (Bt) maize with
quail and laying hens for 10 and 4 generations,
b
respectively,(Flachowsky et al., 2005 ; Halle et al.,
2006).
Compositional analysis
Assessment of compositional analysis is done
to determine if biologically meaningful differences
occur between GM and non-GM crops (CAST,
2006). Analyses provide information on things such
as antinutrient factors, macronutrients, micronutri-
ents, naturally occurring toxins. The specific nutri-
ents for each crop to consider have been identified
by OECD (CAST, 2006).
Insect-protected Bt corn and cotton crops have
been shown to be comparable in composition to
their non-Bt counterparts. No biologically mean-
ingful differences in the composition of nutrients/
antinutrients in grain, seed, oil, silage or other crop
byproducts have been observed between Bt-ex-
pressing crops and their non-Bt counterparts
(Berberich et al., 1996; Sanders et al., 1998). Bt
crops are therefore agronomically and phenotypi-
cally equivalent to their non-transgenic counterparts.
Livestock, poultry and aquaculture studies
Trait providers such as Monsanto are commit-
ted to sponsoring studies to affirm that palatability
is unchanged and there are no relevant differences
in performance, meat, milk or egg quality and com-
position. In addition, the fate of the transgenic DNA
and protein were also investigated. Based on the
fact the GM crops were previously deemed to be
safe and compositionally equivalent to their non-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
GM counterpart, it was not unexpected for all of
the animal feeding studies to confirm this by report-
ing no meaningful differences in animal performance
or meat, milk or eggs products and no transgenic
DNA or protein were detected in milk, meat or
eggs. (Aumaitre et al., 2002; CAST, 2006; Clark
a
and Ipharraguerre, 2001; Flachowsky et al., 2005 ;
Hartnell et al., 2001). To date, there have been
over 100 feeding studies conducted with herbicide-
tolerant and insect-protected traits either singly or
more that one trait stacked together. Studies in-
volved, broiler chickens, laying hens, quail, lactating
dairy cattle, lactating water buffalo, growing swine,
growing cattle, beef cows, sheep, growing rabbits,
goats, and fish This paper will focus on the studies
conducted with Bt traits in cotton and maize, high-
lighting those studies conducted in India.
Cottonseed
The Cry proteins expressed in the commer-
cialized Bt-cotton developed by Monsanto include
Cry1Ac in Bollgard® and Cry1Ac plus Cry2Ab2
(both stacked) in Bollgard® II. The Cry 1 class of
proteins has selective toxicity to certain category of
insects, in this case bollworms, and requires certain
specific conditions for their effective action. The
protein has to be ingested by the target insects which
happens when the caterpillars feed on the transgenic
plant tissues. It requires an alkaline pH of 9.5 or
above for effective processing and also specific
receptors (on the brush-border membrane of mid-
gut epithelium cells of target insect) for binding before
it can kill the target insect. All these conditions are
available in bollworms and therefore the caterpillars
succumb when they feed on Bt-cotton plant. The
protein cannot act in the human or animal intestine
because their intestine is acidic, pH is about 1.5
and there are no receptors. Hence, Bt protein is
safe to such non-target organisms.
Ruminants: Singhal et al. (2006a) fed 2 kg
of nonGM cottonseed or 2 kg of Bollgard cotton-
seed expressing the Cry1Ac protein to each of 10
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136
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
lactating crossbred (Karan Swiss x Karan Fries)
cows per day for four weeks. No differences in
body weight (BW), average milk yield, milk com-
position (i.e., fat, protein, lactose, SCC, fatty acid
composition), dry matter intake per 100 kg BW,
and nutrient digestibility. No Bt protein was de-
tected in milk or blood. Singh et al. (2002) fed
nonGM cottonseed and Bollgard cottonseed to each
of 10 lactating Murrah buffaloes for 35 days. No
significant differences were reported in dry matter
intake, body weight gain, total erythrocyte count,
hemoglobin, packed cell volume, plasma glucose,
serum total proteins, albumin, globulin, triglycerides
and high density lipoprotein. Researchers concluded
that Bollgard cottonseed was nutritionally similar to
the nonGM cottonseed with no adverse effects on
the health status when fed to buffaloes. Singhal et
al. (2006b) fed two groups of 10 lactating cross-
bred cows either a concentrate containing 40% of
a crushed nonGM cottonseed or Bollgard II cot-
tonseed for four weeks. Bollgard II cotton ex-
presses Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab2 proteins. No dif-
ferences were reported in body weight, milk yield,
dry matter intake, or milk composition. The 4%fat-
corrected milk was higher for the Bt group but was
attributed to chance occurrence. No Cry1Ac or
Cry2Ab2 proteins were detected in the milk and
plasma. Authors concluded that Bollgard II cot-
tonseed was nutritionally equivalent to nonGM cot-
tonseed when fed to lactating dairy cows. Castillo
et al. (2004) fed 2.5 kg of cottonseed that were
either nonGM or Bollgard or Bollgard II to lactat-
ing Argentinean Holstein cows per day for four
weeks. Dry matter intake, milk yield, milk compo-
sition, body weight and body condition score did
not differ among treatments. NonGM, Bollgard
and Bollgard II cottonseed were fed to goats in
India for 90 days (Monsanto unpublished data).
Body weight, feed intake, blood chemistry, hema-
tology, organ weights, and pathology and histopa-
thology of organs were not different among treat-
ment groups (http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/
SC0605/S00039.htm; Accessed 18JUN2007).
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Poultry: Elangovan et al. (2003) fed cotton- that the animal’s tissues and organs are never exposed
seed meal from Bt (Cry1Ac protein) and nonBt cot- to the protein. Numerous other possibilities such as
ton to broilers for 6 weeks. Cottonseed was incor- high pesticide residues http://stinet.dtic.mil/oai/
porated into the diet at 10% of the diet. Rapidly oai?&verb=getRecord&metadata Prefix=html
growing chicks would be sensitive to any toxic ef- &identifier=AD0840311; accessed June 25,2007),
fect. No differences in feed intake, body weight gain, high levels of nitrates (Bourke and Carrigan, 1992),
feed conversion or carcass characteristics were ob- high levels of gossypol (Morgan et al., 1988; Randel
served between the Bt and nonBt groups. In a sec- et al., 1992) or other toxicants in the cotton leaves
ond study, Mandal et al. (2004) fed cottonseed meal needs to be investigated. These compounds are
derived from nonBt and Bollgard II (Cry1Ac and found in or on cotton residues independent of the
Cry2Ab proteins) cotton for six weeks. Body weight cotton being nonGM or Bollgard.
gain, feed intake, feed conversion, nutrient utilization, Table 1. Livestock, poultry and aquaculture studies feed-
blood constituents and carcass traits were not sig- ing Cry proteins expressed in maize.
nificantly different. Hamilton et al. (2004) reported Species Bt Protein Reference
no differences in body weight gain, feed intake or
Lactating Cry1Ab (Barrière et al., 2001; Donkin et
health in quail fed Bollgard II (10% of the diet as raw dairy cows al., 2003)
cottonseed meal) for 5 days followed by 3 days on Cry3Bb1 (Grant et al., 2003)
the basal diet.. Cry1F (Faust et al., 2003)
Fish: Hamilton et al. (2004) reported the re- Beef Cattle Cry1Ab (Böhme et al., 2001; Folmer et
al., 2002)
sults of a study where catfish were fed a diet con-
Cry3Bb1 (Vander Pol et al., 2005)
taining 20% processed cottonseed meal from either
Sheep Cry1Ab (Barrière et al., 2001)
nonBt or Bollgard II cotton for 8 weeks. There
Poultry Cry1Ab (Aeschbacher et al., 2005;
were no significant differences in survival, weight Rossi et al., 2005; Taylor et al.,
gain, feed conversion, or fillet composition between 2003a)
the treatment groups. Similar results were found in Cry3Bb1 (Taylor et al., 2003b)
studies with fish fed Bollgard or Bollgard II cotton- Cry1F
seed meal at the Central Institute of Fisheries Edu- Cry1A.105,
Cry2AB2 (Taylor et al. in press)
cation, Mumbai, India (Monsanto unpublished).
Swine Cry1Ab (Piva et al., 2001; Reuter and
Allegations: Anti-biotechnology groups have Aulrich, 2003; Weber and
alleged that Bt cotton is unsafe based on reports of Richert, 2001)
sheep dying when grazing Bt cotton residues in In- Cry3Bb1 (Hyun et al., 2005)
dia. This is in spite of the fact that there has not been Cry1F (Stein et al., 2004)
one animal feeding study to date where genetically Marine Fish Cry1Ab (Sanden et al., 2005)
modified cotton was fed that has shown an unex-
pected adverse effect on the health of the animal (:// Maize
www.gene.ch/genet/2006/Jun/msg00007.html; Ac- Numerous studies have been conducted with
cessed 18JUN2007)). Therefore, based on the sci- insect-protected maize with all concluding that the
entific studies conducted with the Bt proteins, there insect-protected maize is as nutritious and whole-
is no basis for the consumption of Bt proteins to be some as its nonGM counterpart (Aumaitre et al.,
the causative agent in this allegation. Cry1Ac pro- 2002; Clark and Ipharraguerre, 2001; Flachowsky
a
tein is rapidly digested to amino acids and thus no et al., 2005 ). As pointed out earlier, in some
intact protein is absorbed into the bloodstream so cases Bt maize is safer than nonGM due to the
137
137
137
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
lower fumonisin content (Dowd, 2000; Munkvold
et al., 1999; Pietra and Piva, 2000). Table 1 pro-
vides a listing of the species and Cry protein(s) fed.
Measurements included feed intake, body weight,
milk yield, milk composition, feed efficiency
(Gain:Feed), carcass characteristics, and meat qual-
ity and composition. No unexpected adverse ef-
fects were observed in any of the species fed the
Cry proteins confirming the safety of the Cry pro-
teins that have been commercialized.
Kan and Hartnell (2004) reported no differ-
ences in broiler performance when fed dehulled
soybean meal that expressed the Cry1Ac protein.
Conclusion
Historically, Bt proteins have been demon-
strated to be safe since the early 1960’s. Geneti-
cally modifying crops to express Bt proteins has
provided protection against a certain class of in-
sects resulting in a reduction in the application of
chemical pesticides benefiting the environment as
well as the farmer. Bt crops or their byproducts
have been evaluated in feeding studies with lactat-
ing dairy cattle, lactating water buffalo, beef cattle,
poultry, swine, sheep, and fish. All studies have
concluded that Bt crops are as safe, nutritious, and
wholesome as their nonBt counterparts.
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Potential of GM plants, current status, feeding to
animals and open questions
Gerhard Flachowsky
Institute of Animal Nutrition, Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL)
Bundesallee 50, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany
According to the FAO statistics human popu-
lation will increase from current about 6.5 to 9 billion
people (about 40 % more) on the earth in 2050
(Steinfeld et al., 2006), but the estimated need for
meat (from 229 to 465) and milk (from 580 to
1043 mio t per year) will nearly double in this time.
The reason for such a development is a higher
demand of food of animal origin with increased
income in many countries (Keyzer et al., 2005).
The consumption of meat, fish, milk and eggs con-
tributes to meet the human requirements in amino
acids and many trace nutrients. Furthermore, foods
of animal origin have a considerable enjoyment value
and are considered as a parameter of living stan-
dard.
The production of food of animal origin is con-
suming high amounts of resources and need much
land for feed production. In addition to the tradi-
tional competition of land use between production
of vegetarian food for human consumption and feed
production for animal production, land area is in-
creasingly being used for bio-energy/fuel produc-
tion in response to the challenge of global warming,
as areas for settlements and as natural protected
areas. Possible strategies to overcome this situation
include:
- Continued investments to increase plant yield
and animal performances with traditional and
innovative biotechnology.
- Improved efficiency of utilizing resources (land,
water, fertilizer, fuel etc.).
- Lower consumption of animal protein by
people with current over consumption
141
141
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
Plant breeding and cultivation are the starting
points for feed and food security during the next
years. The perspectives mentioned above are real
challenges for plant breeders all over the world.
The most important objectives for plant breeders
can be summarized as followed
- High yields with low external inputs (low input
varieties) such as water, phosphorus, fuel, plant
protection substances etc.
- Lower concentrations of toxic substances such
as secondary substances, mycotoxins from
toxin-developing fungi, toxins from anthropo-
genic activities or geogenic givens
- Lower concentrations of substances that influ-
ence the use or bioavailability of nutrient such
as lignin, phytate, enzyme inhibitors, tannin etc.
- Higher concentrations of the feed value deter-
mining components such as nutrient precur-
sors, nutrients, enzymes, prebiotics, essential
oils etc.
From the global view of feed and food secu-
rity low input varieties have the highest priority.
Undesirable substances cannot be removed from
feedstuffs, or can only be removed with great effort
(Flachowsky, 2006). From the perspective of ani-
mal nutritions, this goal is of major significance for
the improvement of the percentage of value-deter-
mining components of feedstuffs under European
conditions, because of the availability of various feed
additives on the market. An increase of essential
nutrients (e.g. amino acids, vitamins, trace elements
etc.) could be very favourable in some other re-
gions of the world.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

It is possible to fulfil the objectives mentioned
above by conventional plant breeding. But in the
future methods of biotechnology may be more flex-
ible, more potent and faster. Presently we are in the
starting phase of this technology. Therefore geneti-
cal engineering of plants seems to be a technology
with a high potential to contribute to the solution of
global problems. Of course the technique needs
further improvements and more public acceptance
as presently. The current stage of nutritional assess-
ment of feeds from GMP and future challenges will
be analysed in the paper.
Current status
The cultivation of GMP increased worldwide from
1.7 (1996) to 102 million ha. Currently, soybeans
(60), corn (24), cotton (11) and canola (5 % of
global GM area) are the most important GM-crops.
They are modified mainly for agronomic traits. Such
plants are characterized by so-called input traits
(GMP of the first generation) without substantial
changes in composition or nutritive value.
GMP of the second generation (with output
traits) should contain more special nutrients (e.g.
amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, enzymes etc.) or
less antinutritive substances (e.g. mycotoxins, in-
Most of the area under GMP is cultivated with
plants of the first generation. Numerous scientific
associations and expert panels proposed guidelines
for the nutritional and safety assessment of feeds
from first generation (EFSA 2004; ILSI 2003).
Based on the recommendations, nutritional studies
with first generation GMP feeds have been under-
taken worldwide.
Since 1997, 16 studies were performed at the
Institute of Animal Nutrition of the German Federal
Agricultural Research Centre (FAL) in Braunschweig
to determine the effect of first generation GMP feeds
on the nutrition of dairy cows, growing bulls, grow-
ing and finishing pigs, laying hens, chickens for fin-
ishing, as well as with growing and laying charac-
teristics of quails. This research was recently sum-
marized by Flachowsky et al. (2007). The majority
of feeds tested in the studies (e.g., Bt-maize, Pat-
maize, Pat sugar beet) were grown under similar
conditions to their isogenic counterparts in the ex-
perimental fields at FAL. The composition of feeds
was analysed, and animal studies were used to
assess nutritional qualities, including parameters such
as digestibility, feed intake, health and performance
of target animal species, and effects on food quality
200
180
Body weight (g per animal)

hibitors, allergens etc.). 160

140
Overall means
(Range of generations)
120
A
GMP can be used in a wide variety to feed
100
80
Isogenic Transgenic
60

animals such as: 40

20
0
180.1
(172.0 – 190.1)
176.9
(171.9 – 181.7)

- Vegetative and generative plants or parts of 100

90
80

plants (e.g. green forage, seeds, roots, tubers

Laying intensity (%)

70
60

etc.)
50
B 40
Isogenic Transgenic
30
20 81.3 81.4
- Conserved products from GMP (e.g. silage, hay) 10
0
(75.9 – 87.8) (77.1 – 88.4)

100

- By-products of agriculture and food produc-

Hatchability (% of inc. eggs)

90
80
70

tion, obtained from the processing of GMP C

60
50
40
Isogenic Transgenic

(e.g. straw, by products of milling, of the starch, 30

20
10
77.4
(66.8 – 90.5)
76.7
(67.0 – 83.2)
0

oil, sugar and brewing industries). 1 2 3 4 5 6

Generations
7 8 9 10

Many studies were published for nutritional and Fig. 1 A) Body weight of female quails (age: 6 weeks),
safety assessment of feeds from GMP. Feeds from (B) laying intensity and (C) hatchability of quails fed
GMP with input traits (1st generation) with isogenic (¦) and transgenic (Bt, ?) corn in a 10
generations experiment (Flachowsky et al., 2005b)

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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

derived from the animals. Reproduction was also 120

isogenic
considered in generation studies with quails (Fig. 1) 100 Bt-corn

Mycotoxins in %
and laying hens (4 generations). 80

Both chemical analyses and the animal studies 60

reveal no significant differences between GMP feeds 40

and their isogenic counterparts (Table 1) and hence 20

strongly support their substantial equivalence. Our 0

Deoxynivalenol Zearalenone Total Fumonisines
results agree with more than 100 studies published
Fig. 2 Mycotoxins in isogenic (100 %) and Bt-corn (%
in the literature and reviewed recently (Fachowsky of isogenic corn; data from some references,
et al., 2007). Flachowsky et al., 2005a)
Mycotoxin contamination of some GMcrops
is lower than non-GM which may be one exception Feeds from GMP with output traits (second
to their substantial equivalence. For example, Bt generation)
maize is less severely attacked and weakened by Second generation GMP are characterized by ei-
the corn borer and might have a greater resistance ther: an increased content of desirable traits, such
to field infections, particularly Fusarium fungi, which as
produce mycotoxins. Evidence of reduced myc- l Nutrient precursors (e.g., â-carotene)
otoxin contaminated in GMcrops has been demon-
strated in some but not all cases, as summarized by l Nutrients (amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins,
Fachowsky et al., (2005a). In long-term studies, minerals etc.)
numerous researchers, investigated the influence of l Substances which may improve nutrient digest-
levels of corn borer infestation of isogenic and Bt ibility (e.g., enzymes)
hybrids on mycotoxin contaminated. Most research- l Substances with surplus effects (e.g., prebiotics)
ers concluded that a lower level of mycotoxin con- l Improvement of sensoric properties/palatabil-
tamination was observed in the transgenic hybrids, ity (e.g., essential oils, aromas) or a decreased
despite the considerable geographical and temporal content of undesirable substances such as:
variation observed (Figure 2).
l Inhibiting substances (e.g., lignin, phytate)
Table 1. Experiments comparing first generation GE feeds l Toxic substances (e.g., alkaloids, glucosinolates,
with isogenic counterparts (Flachowsky et al., mycotoxins).
2005a) At present, detailed standardized test proce-
dures are not available to analyze feeds from sec-
Animal Number of Nutritional assessment
ond generation GMP. Possible approaches for test-
experiments
Ruminants No unintended effects in ing those feeds were recently reviewed by
- Dairy cows 23 composition (except Flachowsky and Böhme (2005). Recommendations
- Beef cattle 14 lower mucotoxins for nutritional and safety assessment of feeds from
- Others 10 concentration in Bt plants) second generation GMP are being developed by
Pigs 21 No significant differences
EFSA (2007) and ILSI (2007).
Poultary digestibility and animal
- Laying hens 3 health as well as no The following points should be considered when
- Broilers 28 unintended effects on making a nutritional assessment of second genera-
performances of animals tion GMP feeds. Feeds with intended beneficial
Others and composition of food
(Fish, rabbits etc.) 8 of animal origin physiological properties relating to amino acids, fatty
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
acids, minerals, vitamins and other substances may
contribute to higher feed intake of animals and/or
improved conversion of feed/nutrients into food of
animal origin. Furthermore, the excretion of nitro-
gen, phosphorus and other nutrients may be re-
duced. Consequently, depending on the claimed
difference due of the genetic modification, the ex-
perimental must be designed to demonstrate these
effects. Specific, targeted experimental designs are
necessary to show the efficiency of the altered
nutrient constituents.
Genetic modifications may be associated with
side effects (Cellini et al., 2004; Böhme et al.,
2007) and the larger the modification, the greater
the changes. As the basis for comparative ap-
proaches, special animal studies seem to be neces-
sary to examine these questions. Therefore the
nutritional and safety assessment of feeds from GMP
of the second generation GMP is a significant chal-
lenge for animal nutritionists. Commercial isogenic
counterparts (at least 3) should act as control to
show, what in normal is animal studies (Mc Naughton
et al., 2007).
The fate of transgenic DNA and transgenic
proteins
The consumption of feeds from GMP resulted
in the intake of transgenic DNA and proteins; there-
fore, studies were conducted on their fate during
processing, within the gastrointestinal tract of ani-
mals, and the potential to which extent transgenes
or their products may be incorporated into animal
tissues (Flachowsky et al., 2005a). Studies in this
field were excellently reviewed by Alexander et al.
(2007) recently.
Results on the fate of DNA can be summa-
rized as followed:
- DNA is a permanent part of food/feed (daily
intake: human: 0.1 – 1 g; pig: 0.5-4 g ; cow:
40-60 g).
- DNA is mostly degraded during conservation
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
(silage making) and industrial processing as well
as in the digestive tract (pH, enzymes).
- Small fragments of DNA may pass through the
mucosa and may be detected in some body
tissues (especially leucocytes, liver, and spleen).
- Fragments of high-copy number genes from
plants have been detected in animal tissues to
a higher extent than from low-copy numbers.
- No data exists showing that tDNA is charac-
terized by unique behaviour compared to na-
tive plant-DNA during feed treatment and in
the animals.
The fate of novel proteins in feed from GMP
consumed by animals has also generated interest
arising from consumers questions. Results from the
studies can be summarized as follows (Alexander
et al., 2007):
- In ruminant feed, proteins are mostly degraded
in the rumen, and microbial protein and by-
pass proteins are degraded by enzymes in the
smaller intestine, similar to non-ruminants.
- The chemical and physiological properties (in-
cluding microbial and enzymatic degradation)
of novel proteins have been intensively tested.
- Intact novel proteins have not been detected
outside of the digestive tract in target animals
(also not in animal tissues and products).
- There is no evidence that novel proteins are
characterized by unusual chemical/physical
properties distinct from native protein.
Further research need
There exist some open question despite of the
high number of results showing a substantial and
physiological equivalence of feeds from GMP of
the first generation (Flachowsky et al., 2005a &
2007).
Such questions deal with
- Unintended effects by phenotype selection or
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

investigation of defined constituents (Cellini et - Consequences of experimental designs to in-

al., 2004). In own studies (Böhme et al., clude more commercial controls in order to
2007, Table 2) we observed side effects in assess the biological range in animal studies
GM-rapeseed (higher content of glucosinolates (Mc Naughton et al., 2007; ILSI 2007).
20.4 vs 13.2 µmol/g) and GM-potatoes (more
904 vs 728 mg/kg DM alkaloids). Conclusions
- Interpretation of feeding studies with certain From the data presented above, the following
unintended effects or disturbances in feeding conclusions can be drawn:
studies (Table 3). - Presently, over 500 mio. hectares of GMP have
- Interpretation of results of feeding studies with been cultivated worldwide.
statistical significance, but not biological rel- - Most animal studies have been done using first
evance (Mc Naughton et al., 2007; Seralini et generation GMP.
al., 2007). - No unintended effects in composition (except
lower mycotoxins) or nutritional assessment of
Table 2. Side effects in GM-rapeseed (rich in middle
chained fatty acids) and inulin synthesizing
feeds from first generation GMP were regis-
potatoes (Böhme et al., 2007) tered in any of the more than 100 studies with
food producing animals.
Rapeseed Total- Alkenyl- Indolyl- - Novel experimental designs are necessary for
glucosinolates GSL GSL
the nutritional and safety assessment of feeds
(µmol/g) (µmol/g) (µmol/g)
from second generation GMP.
Isogenic 13.2 20.4 9.6 - Transgenic DNA and novel protein do not
GM-rapeseed 16.3 3.6 4.1
demonstrate unique properties during feed
Potatoes Total a-Chaconine a-Solanine
alkaloids (mg/kg DM) (mg/kg DM) treatment or in animals.
(mg/kg DM) - Feeds from GMP of the first generation, pres-
Isogenic 728 524 204 ently on the market, are much more investi-
GM-potatoes 904 652 252 gated than traditional feeds.
Table 3. Comments to some animal studies which certain disturbances after feeding of GMP

Authors Study Result Comments

Ewen and Pusztai Lectin-potatoes to rats
(1999)
Malatesta et al. RR soybean to mice:
(2002a,b) comkparison with wild variety
Scholtz et al. Feeding of 50% Bt-corn in
(2006) longterm study in qualils
Mc Naughton et al. Maize event
(2007) DAS-59122-7 in broilers
Seralini et al. (2007) New analysis of the rat
feeding study by the notifier
(Monsanto) with MON 863
Influence of intestinal-trat,
disturbance of reproduction
Increased cell nucleus in liver and
pancreas
Differences in some enzymatic
activities between both groups
No differences, but liver of female
rats was 3 g/kg bw. heavier
(p<0.05)
Some differences in liver and kidney
parameters
145
145
145
Scientific study, no practical
relevance
Methodical weaknesses,
comparison with wild variety,
What is normal? Relevance of
results?
Physiological relevance,
what is normal? Other
results after repetition of study
Values in physiological range;
overestimation of data; what is
normal? Statistical significance
but biological not relevant.
Critical analysis of the 90 days
rat study, differences not directed,
statistical significant, but
biological not relevant
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
- Case by case studies are necessary to answer
open questions and to find out clarifications
for unintended effects.
In summary plant biotechnology may contrib-
ute in the solution of future problems of mankind.
Nutritional and safety assessment of feeds from
GMP of the second generation is a real challenge
for animal nutritionists.
REFERENCES
Alexander, T.W. et al. (2007) Anim.Feed Sci.
Technol., 133: 31-62
Böhme, H., Rudloff, E., Schöne, F., Schumann,
W., Hüther, L., Flachowsky, G. (2007). Arch.
Anim. Nutr., 61: 1-9
Cellini, F., Chesson, A., Coquhonn, I., Constable,
A., Davies H.V., Engel, K.-H., Gatehouse,
A.M.R., Kärenlampi, S., Kok, E.J., Legnay,
J.J., Lehesranta S., Noteborn, H.P.J.M.,
Pedersen, J., Smith, M. (2004). Food Chem.
Toxicol., 42: 1089-1123
EFSA (European Food Safety Autority) (2004)
EFSA J., 99: 1-93
EFSA (2007) Safety and nutritional assessment of
GM plant derived Foods/Feed. The role of
animal feeding trials. Draft (in preparation)
Flachowsky, G., and Böhme, H. (2005) J. Anim.
Feed Sci., 14: Suppl. 1, 49-70
Flachowsky, G., Chesson, A., Aulrich, K. (2005a).
Arch. Anim. Nutr., 59: 1-40
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
Flachowsky, G. (2006) Landbauforschung
Völkenrode – FAL Agricultural Research,
Special Issue, 294: 290 p.
Flachowsky, G., Aulrich, K., Böhme, H., Halle, I.
(2007). Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 133: 2-30
ILSI (2003) Best practices for the conduct of ani-
mal studies to evaluate crops genetically modi-
fied for input traits. International Life Sciences
Institute, Washington, D.C. 62 p. http//
www.ilsi.org/file/bestpracticescas.pdf.
ILSI (2007) Best practices for the conduct of ani-
mal studies to evaluate crops genetically modi-
fied for output traits. Int. Life Sci. Inst., Wash-
ington D.C. (in press)
Keyzer, M.A., Merbis, M.D. Pavel, L.F.P.W., and
Van Wesenbeck, C.F.A. (2005) Ecological
Economics 55: 187-202.
Mc Naughton, I.L., Roberts, M., Rice, D., Smith,
B., Hinds, M., Schmidt, J., Locke, M., Bryant,
A., Rood, T., Layton, R., Lamb, I., Pelaney,
B. (2007) Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 132:
227-239
Seralini, G.-E., Cellier, D., de Vendomris, J.S. (2007)
Arch Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 1-7
Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V.,
Rosales, M., de Haan, C. (2006) Livestock’s
long shadow: Environmental issues and op-
tions. Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO), Rom.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Efficacy of herbal feed additive for livestock
M. J. Saxena, K. Ravikant and Anup Kalra
Ayurevet Ltd, New Delhi, India
We all know that customer is king! The de-
mand of customer for good quality food with lim-
ited or no use of antibiotic, growth hormones &
synthetic performance enhancers is a challenge to
animal scientist & nutritionist in particular. For any
healthy produce, the health of the animal is of prime
importance.
Feed being an important component of live-
stock profitability has also received due importance
in recent years. Many years of research have helped
to elucidate the basic principles of metabolism and
nutrition. This has resulted in an extensive body of
information relating to the nutritional requirement of
Livestock. Major impediments of meeting these
requirements at minimum cost relate to the inability
of the animal to access all the potential nutrients in
the diet and to absorb an ideal balance of nutrients
from the digestive tract. Also, increasing cost of
feed has led to the acceptance of even the sub-
standard feed. In turn, infections of feed origin,
diminished reproductive efficiency & compromised
immune status have become quite common. In the
present scenario, considering the high feed cost and
low availability of high quality feed ingredients
coupled with inevitable environmental changes (in-
fectious and non-infectious), the only way left is to
improve the health & immune status of livestock so
as to help them adapt with changing conditions.
It is here the concept of Greek physician
Hippocrates, “Let thy food be thy medicine” has
started gaining acceptability resulting in usage of
herbals/Ayurveda formulations for improving farm
profits. But, the key question is, people need
to understand its scientific relevance & clini-
cal effectiveness.
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What is Ayurveda?
Ayurveda Ayur-Life, Veda-Knowledge, in San-
skrit), the science of life is the oldest medical dis-
cipline. It is a holistic approach to remedies of mala-
dies affecting humans and animals. Herbals are in-
tegral part of most of the medical therapies men-
tioned in Ayurveda. Natural substances of plant
origin have been used and are being used through-
out the world for human and animal health care. In
many parts of the world herbalism serves the health
care needs and forms a part of primary health care
system. It is estimated that 80% of the world popu-
lation living in developing countries still relies on
plants for health. Ayurveda not only takes care of
treatment of human & animals but also places great
emphasis on prevention of illnesses and maintenance
of health.
Basic principles of Ayurveda
Holistic approach: “To Restore Health by Har-
mony between Various Body Systems & the Envi-
ronment.”
Pro-host approach: To Strengthen the Body De-
fense System & Fight Infection.The sages of
Ayurveda emphasized on the importance of health
& preventing the disease. This was achieved by
developing or strengthening the immune system to
fight all possible infections for treatment of diseases.
Historical milestones
Ten thousand years ago, since the beginning of do-
mestication of animals, stock raisers and handlers
have cared for the health of their livestock. Prob-
ably, from the same time they have been experienc-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
ing with their own veterinary theories and techniques.
The oldest known veterinary texts originated from
India, Egypt and China. Studies of Ancient Egyp-
tian veterinary knowledge and skills show the pres-
ence of basic surgery and herbal veterinary medi-
cines at that time. History of herbal veterinary
medicine dates back to the era of Mahabharata
(5000 B.C.), the record of which is available in the
form of a treatise and manuscripts on ancient vet-
erinary medicines. (Nakul Samhita, Asvaayurveda,
Sarsangraha).
Health and health index
“Health” has been a major concern at all time
for individual, family, community, society and one
of the key service area for Government(s) every-
where in the world. Health – the word itself in
all its expression and meaning is widely perceived
as something beneficial or good (Healthier orga-
nization, Healthy appetite, healthy profits) but
in medical context implies “absence of disease”.
However in true sense and in relation to life is the
perfect state of co-ordination & balance of living
being (be it human or Animal) with environment,
diet and self. Degree of this coordination deter-
mines the Health Index. The two extremes of this
health index are perfect co-ordination (optimum
health) and unbalanced mis-coordination (health
disorders & diseases). Health and productivity in
animals is directly related and usage of herbal for
better health & productivity to achieve maximum
economic gain is widely practiced in many part of
the world.
International scenario of Ayurveda
People all over the world, since centuries, have
utilized, locally available herb. Most of such indig-
enous knowledge has been handed over down
through the ages by oral tradition & later through
the recorder manuscript & treatise.
The global herbal market is about US $62
billion which is growing around 10-15% annually as
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against a growth rate of 3% for allopathic pharma-
ceuticals and is expected to reach US $5 trillion by
the year 2050. Indian share of the world trade of
herbal products is negligible (around Rs.450crore)
as of now. China’s exports of traditional Chinese
medicines/ herbs are to the tune of US $5 billion.
The number of people using herbal products rose
by 50% last year in the USA. In Japan, 147 herbal
medicines are eligible by national health insurance
scheme. Germany gives equal importance for
phytopharmaceuticals having excellent quality stan-
dards. In Australia, annual expenditure on alternate
medicine is around US $621 million. According to
estimates the sale of Allium sativum (garlic) contain-
ing products in USA is to the tune of US $50million
per year.
Advancement and interest in Ayurveda
The scientific & technological advancement in
the field of diagnostics, material analysis, instrumen-
tation & introduction of the latest biological screen-
ing models in the last four decades has revived the
interest of modern scientist & health care practitio-
ners in herbals. Additionally, the development of the
resistance of pathogens & parasites against the
deadly chemicals developed in last few decades
coupled with ever growing concern of toxicity &
damage to the environment has also helped in cre-
ating renewed interest in the science of herbals or
Ayurveda.
The herbs mentioned in the Ayurveda have been
critically evaluated, their genus & species & active
parts have been identified, and their chemical investi-
gation for identification of active principles, confir-
mation of biological activities & safety data have been
scientifically studied & established. Ayurvedic prac-
titioners have been innovative and dynamic and the
process of discovery of newer remedies is still on.
The information on several herbs which have
withstood the scientific evaluations in latest screen-
ing models testify the wisdom of our ancestors for
having identified such plants from nature & collec-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
tive wisdom fro the traditional usage is continuing
till date.
Ayurveda in animal health care
Since our ancient times, the science of Ayurveda
had lot of relevance in animals too. This can be
traced back to the times of Mahabharata. Nakul,
the youngest of the Pandvas was known to be a
qualified vet & was an expert in treating elephants,
horses & other animals. Our ancient old text books
or granths viz AshvaAyurveda, GarudPuran are
testimony that Ayurveda has been documented &
practiced on animals as for not only treating them
but also to improve their productivity.
In Animal Husbandry, the requirements for rem-
edies have been constantly changing with changes
in the methods of rearing animals to such an extent
that the requirements of present day farm animal
remedies are entirely different from those prevalent
a couple of decades ago. Major developments in
the field of animal breeding have led to the adop-
tion of highly specialized breeds of animals that excel
in different traits for which they have been hand-
picked. For example cross bred cow now pro-
duces more milk. The layer bird produces more
than 300 eggs in a year. Pigs grow much faster &
produce lean meat.
Use on Ayurveda in livestock: Indian scenario
Over these years use of Herbal specialties has
helped the farmer in improving health & productiv-
ity of his livestock. The most important thing in
Ayurveda is Garbage In, Garbage Out (GIGO) This
means if you use the right raw material you will get
the positive response. Of course, appropriate pro-
cessing is equally important. Let us take look at
some of the important areas which may be of con-
cern to the vet & the animal owner.
Stress in livestock
Scientific studies validated by numerous clinical
trials have shown that one of the major causes of all
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ailments faced by farm animals today is stress caused
by the intensive breeding and management practices
is faced by nearly each and every animal being reared
for commercial and recreational purposes. Fast and
efficient production of high quality farm produce from
low quality inputs is in itself a stressful proposition.
Such stress is almost always accompanied with im-
munosuppression, and this predisposes these animals
to other ailments infectious or otherwise which are
detrimental to farm profits and sometimes even fatal.
The production loss because of various stresses in
animals may be estimated to the tune of around Rs.
2.0 crores approx.
Adoption of Ayurvedic remedies for countering
the causes and the effects of stress is therefore a prom-
ising application afforded by this ancient school of
healing in the field of animal production. Some com-
monly available and extensively used herbs can be
taken up here to highlight the research efforts put in
by the scientific community and clinical benefits per-
ceived in target animals.
Mangifera indica (Amra ghansatva) has po-
tent anti-oxidant and immunostimulatory activity. The
alcoholic extracts of stem and bark of Mangifera in-
dica Linn produced increase in humoral antibody
(HA) titre. Aqueous extract provided significant and
better protection against induced oxidative damage
compared to other antioxidants like vitamin C and
Vitamin E.
Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) is one of
the most highly esteemed plants in Ayurveda be-
longing to the class of plants called as “rasayana”
or “rejuvenative”. It has potent Antistress,
Immunomodulator and antioxidant activities.
Pharmacological studies and biological evalua-
tions of Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) leaves extracts
(aqueous and ethanol) have shown adaptogenic prop-
erties, which improve endurance and resistance when
tested against a battery of stress-induced conditions
indicating non-specific mode of actions. Further, Tulsi
possesses potent immunostimulatory properties.
The antistress and performance enhancement
effect was reflected in a study conducted on broiler
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
breeders. The herbs were found to improve hatch-
ability, Reduce egg rejection and better vaccination
response in parent flock even after stoppage of
their supplementation. The positive effect was trans-
ferred to the progeny in the form of high maternal
antibody titre, more day old chick wt. and less
early chick mortality
Reproductive efficiency
Another major area which affects the farm
profits is reproductive efficiency. It is a commonly
observed complaint under field conditions that ani-
mal has retained placenta after parturition. In ad-
vent of above, the animal does not come in eostrus.
Even if the animal comes in heat, it does not con-
ceive. The estimated losses in India because of the
improper reproductive efficiency may be to the tune
of R.10 cr +/annum. In such cases, the most effec-
tive step advised is cleansing of uterus immediately
after parturition. This followed by timely induction
of heat & conception for next calving. In such cases
herbs along with trace minerals have been found to
play a significant role. The same has been docu-
mented scientifically & is an established fact now.
Important Herbs for improving reproductive
efficiency are roots and leaves of Plumbago
zeylanica (Chitraka) are known to posses ecbolic,
anti-inflammatory and anti oxidant actions. Aleo
barbedensis (Kumari) possesses anti-inflammatory
and antibacterial property. Aristolochia indica
(Sunanda) possesses stimulant, abortificient & anti-
inflammatory properties. Gloriosa superba
(Agnishikha) possesses stimulant, abortificient ac-
tions. Peganum harmala (Harmal) possesses an-
algesic, antimicrobial & stimulant action. These herbs
when put together have in general found to be very
useful in helping the animal for timely expulsion of
the placenta. These herbs have been validated sci-
entifically for their actions.
Mastitis in animals
Mastitis is one of the most important produc-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
tion diseases causing deterioration in milk quality &
quantity. The annual losses due to mastitis in India
are to tune of 1000 cr Mastitic milk is unfit for
human consumption & may pose severe health haz-
ards. Owing to multiple etiologies & its association
with udder Immunity it is difficult to eradicate mas-
titis. Therefore control of mastitis in milch animals is
the first & foremost step for “Clean & quality milk
production.”
The key to control of Mastitis is to educate
the farmer on various aspects of hygiene, udder
health, nutrition & timely detection of mastitis with
special focus on improving udder defense mecha-
nism. Ayurvet though it’s Mastitis Management Cell
(MMC) has been undertaking lot of education &
extension work in the farmers interest. The recent
Technical Symposium on dairy, “Mastitis & milk
quality “was one step towards Mastitis control.
Some important herbs which are known to
have positive impact on udder Immunity & bringing
the animal back into production are as under:
Roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra (Yashti madhu)
are useful in inflammatory affections & also have a
good antioxidant action. Roots of stems Cedrus
deodara (Devadaru) have potent antibacterial, an-
tifungal, would healing properties. The major action
of Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) include Immuno-modu-
lator, Antistress & adaptogenic amd that of Cur-
cuma longa (Haldi or Haridra) are anti-inflamma-
tory, Antifungal, Antibacterial & Antioxidant. For-
mulation containing above herbs have been scien-
tifically validated for its benefit in terms Controlling
mastitis & improvement in milk Quality & quantity
Mycotoxins
Like stress, in modern livestock operations,
Mycotoxins has become a menace especially for
the poultry industry despite all measures taken dur-
ing harvesting, storage and processing of food grains.
The problem of mycotoxicosis is grave in tropical
countries including India due to conducive climate
for growth.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
The menace of mycotoxins is worldwide which
retard the carbohydrate, protein, lipid and vitamin
metabolism along with reduced nucleic acid synthe-
sis and mitochondrial respiration. The feeding of
contaminated feed stuffs result in anorexia, growth
depression, enteritis, salivation, nephritis, osteoar-
thritis, jaundice, damage of liver and reduction in
milk production. Apart from this the breeding effi-
ciency of the animal gets hampered affecting the
farm profits
Although traditional remedies and plant mate-
rials are in use for the hundreds of years to control
the fungal infection in human and animal including
contamination of feed stuff, the recent advances in
the research has validated their usefulness in vari-
ous stages of Mycotoxins control viz., fungal growth,
toxin production, neutralization & detoxification in
the body.
Allium sativum, Solanum nigrum and
Azadir-achta indica are few examples of such
plants now have been validated for their anti My-
cotoxins property. Allium sativum extract exhibited
100% inhibitory action on growth of the fungus and
aflatoxin AFB1 production with the spores of As-
pergillus parasiticus in rice culture and incubated at
30oc for 5 days. Azadirachta indica leaf extracts
added to fungal growth media at 1,5,10,20 and
50%v/v concentration prior to inoculation essen-
tially blocked (98%) aflatoxin biosynthesis at con-
centrations greater than 10%v/v. In another trial,
the addition of Solanum nigrum to diets of Wistar
Albino female rats which received daily
intraperiotoneal injection of Aflatoxin B1 improved
the quantity of some nutrients having a direct influ-
ence on drug-metabolizing enzyme and in turn the
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
activity of liver drug metabolizing enzymes which
help in detoxification of aflatoxin B1. These above
mentioned herbs have also shown the clinical ben-
efits when used along with the feed contaminated
with commonly found mycotoxins Aflatoxin B1 and
Ochratoxin on day old broiler birds reared for 42
days. The ameliorative effects of these herbs along
with commonly used mycotoxin binder HSCAS was
evident by 10-15% higher body wt., better FCR
reflecting efficient feed conversion along with higher
humoral and cellular immune response in treated
groups vis a vis contamination group.
The above instances are but glimpses from the
vast and virgin world of Ayurveda through the clear
eye of modern science. Despite a plethora of infor-
mation having been already garnered over a period
of time, Ayurveda is still shrouded under the green
blankets of the forests and the thick beard of the
seers. For Ayurvedic remedies to be accepted in
mainstream medicine and for the masses to refrain
from indiscriminate use of contemporary system of
therapy, this precious gift from Mother Nature must
be given its due place among contemporary sys-
tems of therapy. The statement assumes a greater
significance in light of the immense contribution made
by allopathic medicine. Allopathic medicine can not
be replaced by not only Ayurveda but any system
of medicine. The need is therefore to chalk out a
comprehensive, objective driven and well-monitored
plan to explore further the intricacies of Ayurveda
with the help of modern scientific tools to identify
potential areas of efficient application. This infor-
mation thus generated should be disseminated; their
adoption encouraged facilitating a harmonious inte-
gration with conventional therapy.

Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Implications for minerals deficiency in ruminants and
methods for its amelioration
C. S. Prasad, N. K. S. Gowda, D. T. Pal
Animal Science Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi -110 011, India
2,3 National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore-560 030, India
The proper balance of protein, energy, vitamins,
and minerals is needed to make a successful nutrition
program. Cattle cannot perform to their genetic po-
tential if their mineral needs are not met, even if they
receive 100% of their protein and energy needs.
Minerals are an integral part of the total nutrient man-
agement system as they are essential for growth and
reproduction and are involved in a large number of
digestive, physiological and biosynthetic processes
within the body. The most obvious function is as com-
ponents of body organs and tissues and to provide
structural support. In addition they act as electro-
lytes, as constituents of body fluids and as catalysts
in both enzyme and hormone systems. Therefore, they
fulfill several important functions for the maintenance
of animal, growth and reproduction as well as health
status. The mineral elements that are of particular im-
portance are categorized into major (calcium, phos-
phorous, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur and
magnesium) and trace elements (iron, iodine, cop-
per, zinc, manganese, cobalt, selenium, fluoride and
molybdenum).
Based on identification of one or more meta-
bolic function, at least 15 minerals are regarded as
essential. They are required in small quantities as
compared to other major nutrients like protein and
energy and generally are considered to have less
immediate impact on overall performance and eco-
nomic efficiency but should never be overlooked as
their deficiency can have a marked effect on pro-
ductivity, particularly reproduction and health.
There is an apparent increase in mineral defi-
ciencies in tropical countries, and the reasons in-
clude 1. improved genetic selection of livestock for
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
Year
better growth rates and higher production, 2.
changes in traditional cropping practices with poor
soil management, improved fertilization methods or
improved plant breeding, 3. modification of tradi-
tional feeding programs to improve production and
use of feed additives. In recent years number of
mineral disorders in livestock which may be char-
acterized as chronic or marginal have been reported.
In tropical countries animals are mostly fed on crop
residues, natural grasses, tree leaves and shrubs.
In such diets the mineral content is generally low
and their availability to the host is not known.
Intensive cultivation of pastures, changes in agricul-
tural practices and differences in agro-climatic con-
ditions and infusion of superior germplasm for up-
grading the production trait of cattle and the changes
in techniques used for feed processing and manu-
facturing have greatly altered the mineral need of
animals and the ways they have to be met. The
plants derive the minerals from soil, and the animals
from the plants / feed they consume and there is a
direct interrelationship between soil, plant and ani-
mals, which may not be linear always. Several fac-
tors regulate the transfer of minerals from soils to
plants and from plants to animals. Soil character-
istics (pH, moisture), the type of plant (green fod-
der vs mature straws etc.), the physiological status
of the animal (lactating, growing) and the accompa-
nying feed, all of these collectively or individually
contribute on the mineral uptake and utilization.
Soil and its effect on mineral deficiency in
animals
The mineral content of soils depend not only on
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
the parent material but on a complex of pedogenic
factors like laterization, calcification and salinization.
Translocation further occurs by processes of surface
erosion, leaching, evaporation and redeposition of
minerals on the surface. Of the total mineral con-
centration in soils, only a fraction is taken up by the
plants. The "availability" of minerals in soils depends
upon their effective concentration in soil solution.
Several factors influence the uptake of minerals by
crops and pastures from the soil. These include 1)
soil acidity 2) soil moisture 3) soil temperature 4)
plant variety 5) fertilization 6) organic matter and
microbial activity of soil. For trace mineral absorp-
tion the pH has the most marked effect on the
availability. Alkaline soils lead to an increased bio-
logical availability of some trace elements such as Se
and Mo. With decreasing soil pH, Se is less avail-
able, but the uptake of some cationic metals like Cu
is increased. Soil leaching, erosion and long term
cropping lead to a depletion of trace minerals. Crop
management and climatic conditions also influence
the eventual trace mineral level in feeds. Fertilization
and / or heavy rainfall can result in lush pasture
growth and the dilution of some trace minerals.
With increased soil pH, there was drastic
decrease in Manganese (Mn) content. Water log-
ging of a soil results in conversion of an aerobic
to an anaerobic environment in the root zone area.
The concentration of N in the plant tends to
decrease and that of P increases with increasing
moisture level, but no definite trends are seen for
other minerals. The soil temperature and season
can influence the uptake of minerals with respect
to the growth of the pastures. At low tempera-
tures, the mineral uptake is slower possibly be-
cause of depressed root extension and membrane
permeability.
With the advent of Green Revolution, deficien-
cies of micronutrients were observed widely in sev-
eral Indian soils and crops. Zn deficiency was widely
observed in rice, wheat, maize, groundnut, cotton
and their residues in the intensively cultivated irri-
gated areas. Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
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Madhya Pradesh and Haryana as well as all Indo-
Gangetic Alluvial plains showed extensive deficiency
of Zn in soil. Though much less extensive, the de-
ficiencies of Mn, Cu and Fe were also found in the
soil of different agro-climatic zones of the country.
Plant and its effect on mineral deficiency in
animals
Feeds / fodders are the main source of miner-
als for livestock. Grazing animals receive certain
level of minerals from water and soil ingestion. Of
the minerals present in soil only a fraction is taken
up by plants depending on geophysical / chemical
conditions as explained above. Plant mineral con-
tent is dependent on other factors like type of soil,
plant species, stage of maturity, pasture manage-
ment and agro-climatic conditions.
Mineral concentrations and availability are
mainly affected by four interdependent factors:
l the genus, species, or variety of crop
l type and mineral concentration of soil
l climatic or seasonal conditions
l stage of plant maturity
Genus, species, or varietal effects: Plant vari-
eties growing on the same soil under the same en-
vironmental conditions show marked differences in
mineral uptake. Legumes are superior in mineral
efficiency to the grasses particularly in terms of Ca
and Mg uptake. In general, legumes are higher in
calcium, copper, zinc, iron, and cobalt than grasses.
In contrast, grasses tend to be higher in manganese
and molybdenum than legumes when grown on the
same soil. Most of the trace mineral concentration
was higher in pasture legume species than other
grasses. Research has shown that even variety within
a species affects mineral composition. Straws and
stovers are deficient in most of the minerals. They
contain excess of silica, oxalate and tannins which
may interfere in the utilization of other minerals /
nutrients. Plant requirement of certain minerals (Mn,
Zn, K) may exceed animal requirements and cer-
tain minerals may be required at higher levels in
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

animals (Na, Cl, I, Co and Se). Mature plants are Mineral distribution in animal body
low in minerals as most of the minerals may get The minerals are generally stored in bones,
accumulated in seeds due to translocation. muscles and other soft tissues which are primary
storage sites (Table 1). Most minerals are distrib-
Mineral needs for Animal uted more evenly in the body and exist in accor-
The mineral needs of the animals depend on dance with their function. Based on their tissue
the requirement and the availability of minerals. The concentration the minerals have been classified as
mineral requirement is related to animal output and major and micro minerals.
therefore providing minerals in the diet is particu-
larly important for high producing animals. For cal- Requirements
culating the mineral requirements, it is necessary to The mineral requirements can be expressed in
know the type of feed ingredients that are used in amounts per day or per unit of the product or as
the ration along with the accompanying roughage percentage of the dietary dry matter intake. The
source (grass / straws / stovers). The requirement Table 1. Mineral distribution in animal body
of minerals for different classes of livestock is dis- Element In body Primary storage
cussed subsequently.
Macrominerals, %
Several factors govern the uptake of minerals Calcium 1.4 Bones and soft tissues
from soil to plants and plants to animals and exist- Phosphorus 0.74 Bones and soft tissues
ence of soil-plant-animal interrelationship for some Magnesium 0.04 Bones, muscles
Sodium 0.18 Extra cellular fluids
trace elements has been reported. The status of Chlorine 0.11 Intracellular / extracellur
micronutrients in soil, plant and animals would be a fluids
useful tool in understanding the severity of the de- Pottasium 0.25 Skin, muscles and intra
cellur fluids
ficiency for providing cost effective supplementa- Sulphur 0.15 Liver, muscles, skin
tion for improving production, reproduction, and Micronutrients, ppm
profitability of livestock owners. Iron 70 Haemoglobin
Copper 2 All tissues
The surveys conducted under All India Coor- Zinc 30 Skin, hair, wool and other
dinated Research Project in different agro-climatic tissues
zones of the country suggest that nearly all forages Molybdenum Traces All tissues
are deficient in one or more minerals and that there Cobalt Traces Liver, bone, kidney
Iodine Traces Thyroid
is a widespread occurrence of the deficient levels Manganese Traces Liver, bone, pancreas,
of calcium, phosphorous, copper and zinc for rumi- kidney
nants grazing forages. In addition, trace mineral
concentrations in forages vary much more than do former is more accurate but the later is simpler and
protein and energy concentrations. This is further practical as long as there is no variation in the feed
complicated by the fact that the availability of min- intake. Where the dry matter intake varies consid-
erals may be affected by the distribution and form erably (particularly when straws and stovers are
of minerals in the feedstuff, as well as interactions fed), the expression in absolute amount may be
with other minerals or dietary components that in- more appropriate. Feeding low quality roughages
hibit absorption or utilization of a given mineral. The results in increased faecal endogenous losses of Ca
mineral deficiencies in ruminants fed forages often and P leading to increased requirements of these
result from low availability rather than low concen- minerals. Presence of certain antinutritional factors
tration of a given mineral. like oxalates, silicates and phytates beyond a par-
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ticular level may affect the utilization of certain min-
erals like Ca, P, Zn, Mn and Fe. Also the need to
supplement minerals may be more in animals with
parasitic infestation. Mineral requirement are highly
dependent on the level of productivity. Increased
growth rates and milk production will greatly in-
crease mineral requirements. Marginal mineral de-
ficiencies, under low levels of production become
more severe with increased levels of production.
Dairy animals producing more than 10 litters of milk
have a greater requirement of Ca & P as compared
to low yielder as milk contains high concentration
(0.11 - 0.13%) of these two elements.
Similarly the requirement for zinc for spermato-
genesis and testicular development in male sheep
are higher than for growth. Manganese requirement
is also lesser for growth than for fertility in sheep.
Important difference in mineral utilization can occur
due to breed variation and also the nutritional status
of the animals. The variation in the efficiency of
mineral absorption within breeds could be as high
as 5 - 30 % for magnesium, 40 - 80 % for phos-
phorus and 2 - 10 % for copper. When the energy
and protein supplies are adequate there is a higher
requirement for minerals with better utilization with
improved livestock performance. The micronutrient
requirement can be influenced by metabolic or nu-
tritional factors that result in other elements
complexing specific microelements rendering them
nutritionally unavailable to animals. Most of the
nutrient requirements have not accounted for rela-
tives' new information that describes the effect of
nutrition on immune function, and many of the re-
quirements have not been evaluated in terms of
optimal reproduction. There is reason to suggest
that optimal immune responsiveness and decrease
resistance and cobalt deficiencies have been shown
to alter various components of the immune system.
Requirements for copper can vary from 4 to 15
mg/kg depending largely on the concentration of di-
etary molybdenum and sulfur. The recommended con-
centration of copper in cattle diets is 10 mg Cu/kg
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diet. This amount provides adequate copper if the
diet does not exceed 0.25 percent sulfur and 2 mg
Mo/kg diet. Less than 10 mg Cu/kg diet may meet
requirements of feedlot cattle as copper is more avail-
able in concentrate diets than in forage diets. Copper
is believed to react with thiomolybdates in the rumen
to form poorly absorbed insoluble complexes.
Thiomolybdates can result in copper becoming tightly
bound to plasma albumin and unavailable for bio-
chemical functions. They also may directly inhibit cer-
tain copper-dependent enzymes. Sulfur reduces cop-
per absorption, perhaps via formation of copper sul-
fide in the rumen. High concentrations of iron and
zinc also reduce copper status, which may increase
copper requirements.
Sulfur in feedstuffs is largely a component of
protein. Dietary sulfur requirements may be higher
when diets high in rumen bypass protein are fed
because of sulfur's limitation for optimal ruminal fer-
mentation. Sulfur supplementation may be needed
when urea or other nonprotein nitrogen sources
replace natural preformed protein. Mature forages,
forages grown in sulfur-deficient soils, corn silage
and sorghum x sudangrass are low in sulfur. Sor-
ghum forages seem inherently low in sulfur relative
to other forages.
Trace minerals in production and reproduction
of ruminants
The mechanism of mineral-reproduction inter-
actions is not fully understood because of the com-
plexity of neuro-hormonal dialogue. Some minerals
act directly on the gonads, while others act through
hypophyseal - pituitary - gonadal axis. Elements
like Se once considered toxic, is known to improve
both male and female fertility when supplemented in
organic form as selenomethionine. During repro-
ductive events reactive metabolites of oxygen are
produced and are removed through antioxidant
process by Se and vitamin E and provide a conve-
nient environment for reproduction. Similarly other
trace elements like Cu, Zn, Mn, Cr and I also act
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
as co - factors or activate enzymes and helps in
hormone synthesis and hence influence biochemical
functions associated with reproduction.
Because of their role in the endocrine system
and in tissue integrity, minerals have a beneficial
role to play in resumption of follicular growth and
fertility in dairy cows and buffaloes. The potential
for minerals to play a significant role in herd fertility
is indisputable. The minerals that affect reproduc-
tion in ruminants are generally found within the trace
element group, although deficiencies of calcium and
phosphorous can also affect the fertility. Reproduc-
tive problems are frequently reported in association
with trace mineral deficiencies, particularly copper,
zinc, selenium and manganese.
Zinc deficiency in ruminants has been postulated
to weaken the skin and other stratified epithelia as well
as reducing the basal metabolic rate following infec-
tious challenge. Zinc is a co-factor for many proteins
and enzymes involved in acute phase response to in-
fection and inflammation. Because the mammary gland
is a skin gland, it is likely that zinc will have a positive
role in its protection. Skin integrity of the teat has been
shown to be specially linked with mastitis prevention.
Zinc activates several enzyme systems and is a com-
ponent of many metalloenzymes. It plays a vital role in
hormone secretion, especially related to growth, re-
production, immunocompetence and stress. Zinc is
also involved in the generation of keratin and in skin
nucleic acid and collagen synthesis as well as in the
maintenance of normal vitamin A concentration in
plasma and in ovarian function. Many animals there-
fore require supplemental zinc in the diet for normal
body function because of either low levels in the di-
etary ingredients or the presence of antagonistic fac-
tors, which decrease the bioavailability of the element.
Antagonism might be due to metals ion interactions
such as iron or copper. Source of fibre has also been
reported to decrease the availability of zinc.
Manganese (Mn) is involved in the activities of
several enzyme systems including hydrolases, kinases,
decarboxylases and transferases as well as Fe-con-
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
taining enzymes which require Mn in their activity. It
is therefore involved in carbohydrate, lipid and pro-
tein metabolism. It is also needed for bone growth
and maintenance of connective and skeletal tissue.
Mn also plays a role in reproduction and in immuno-
logical function. Mn deficiency results in abnormal
skeletal growth, increased fat deposition, reproduc-
tive problems and reduced milk production.
Selenium (Se) is a semi-metal that is very simi-
lar to sulfur in its chemical properties. It is an es-
sential component of glutathione enzyme system,
and a deficiency of selenium will leave the cell vul-
nerable to oxidation and increase the requirement
of vitamin E. It has therefore been usual to supple-
ment in the diets of all classes of animals, because
of its antioxidant properties.
Sulfur is a component of the amino acids me-
thionine, cysteine and cystine; the B-vitamins, thia-
min and biotin; as well as a number of the organic
compounds. Sulfate, a component of sulfated mu-
copolysaccharides, also functions in certain detoxi-
fication reactions. All sulfur-containing compounds,
with the exception of biotin and thiamin, can be
synthesized from methionine. Ruminal microorgan-
isms are capable of synthesizing all required organic
sulfur-containing compounds from inorganic sulfur.
Sulfur is also required by ruminal microorganisms
for their growth and normal cellular metabolism.
Cobalt is an essential trace element in ruminant
diets for the production of vitamin B12, which has
4% cobalt in its chemical structure, by the rumen
microbes to meet the vitamin B12 requirements of
both the ruminal bacteria and the host animal. This
means that a cobalt deficiency is really a vitamin
B12 deficiency. The NRC recommends the dietary
requirement of dairy cattle for Co as 0.11 mg/kg;
however, ruminal synthesis of B12 increased nearly
20-fold in sheep when dietary Co was increased
from 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg. In the ruminant, the effi-
ciency of production of vitamin B12 from Co is
low, only about 3%; however, efficiency increases
to about 13% when Co intake is low. So, the
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
measurements of the amount of dietary cobalt con-
verted to vitamin B12 in the rumen have ranged
from 3 to 13 percent of intake. The relative pro-
duction of cobalamin and the cobalamin analogs,
which have no B12 activity is affected by the diet.
In general, diets that are largely composed of rough-
ages tend to promote greater production of cobal-
amin, and diets containing larger amounts of con-
centrates tend to reduce cobalamin production and
to lower the ratio of cobalamin to the various ana-
logues of vitamin B12.
Mineral deficiency
Mineral deficiencies occur more often when
animals are confined within a given area and are
closely dependent on soil profile and plant structure
in that limited area. Deficiencies of minerals are more
common in tropical countries where poor quality
straws / stovers are the major roughages. Calcium
deficiency can occur in soil in humid regions under
conditions in which rainfall exceeds evapotranspira-
tion and where bases have been depleted and soil
acidity has developed. Calcium deficiency has been
widely reported from many parts of the world and
in India. However, the lower incidence of calcium
than phosphorus disorders is attributable to three
major factors (a) higher concentration of Ca than of
P in the leaves and stems of most plant species; P
is concentrated in seeds, (b) a wider distribution of
P-deficient than Ca-deficient soils and (c) a lesser
decline in the concentration of Ca than of P with
advancing maturation of the plant. Further, inclusion
of bran and oil cakes in ruminant diets at higher
levels impairs the Ca :P ratio, thus affecting the
mineral utilization Most naturally occurring mineral
deficiencies in ruminants are associated with spe-
cific geographic regions.
Tropical animal husbandry is mostly semi-in-
tensive. The small holding livestock system is de-
pendent mainly on grazing and crop residues as
source of dry matter. Mineral imbalances are quite
common in this system and there have been evi-
dences of trace mineral deficiency/excess in differ-
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ent regions of the country. Many recent studies have
indicated the deficiency of Cu and Zn in most fod-
ders available in different regions and the level of
Fe and Mn in most feeds and fodders was quite
high. There are incidences of low reproductive ef-
ficiency in livestock in most regions, which is often
attributed to the deficiency of Cu, Zn, or Mn. The
trace mineral deficiency in livestock in industrial areas
due to more lead and cadmium also has been re-
ported. The areas of high rainfall and hilly regions
are likely to be deficient in iodine and selenium,
which needs much investigation.
Diagnosis and assessment of mineral deficiency
The diagnosis and assessment and thus preven-
tion of trace mineral deficiency need a thorough un-
derstanding of the factors like age of animal, season,
clinical signs, soil profile, plant mineral content and
feeding practices. Based on these preliminary infor-
mation, further biological diagnostic tests can be fol-
lowed for confirmation. In general mineral deficiency
is diagnosed by observing the clinical symptoms. But
mineral deficiency signs are often confusing as the
observed symptoms can be associated with more than
one mineral and can be combined with the effects of
protein and/ or energy inadequacy, various types of
parasitism, toxic plants, infectious diseases or with
deficiency of other micronutrients. Except for charac-
teristic signs like goiter in iodine deficiency or white
muscle disease in selenium deficiency, most trace el-
ement deficiencies produce non-specific signs such as
loss of appetite, retarded growth, unthriftiness or re-
productive problems, and hence clinical / pathological
examination of biological materials is required. Some
mineral like Ca, Mg and P are stored in body tissues
and their deficiency symptoms are exhibited only after
a period of time. Calcium and phosphorous deficiency
can be observed more quickly, particularly in high
producing animals and fast growing calves. Critical
values of certain minerals in soil, plant and animals are
provided in Table 2, which will be of much use in
ascertaining the mineral deficiency. Certain naturally
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

occurring mineral deficiency / toxicity is directly re-
lated to soil characteristics as in case of fluoride, Se
and Mo, but the level of mineral in soil does not nec-
essarily indicate its availability to plants growing on the
soil. Other limitation of plant mineral analysis is the
biological availability and factors influencing the utili-
zation like chelating agents, mineral antagonism etc.
Analysis of mineral content in body tissues is a better
indicator of the mineral adequacy because mineral
deficiency result in subnormal concentration of the
element and will usually be associated with clinical
signs, however for certain minerals due to homeo-
static mechanisms the levels may remain normal even
during deficiency, but will respond positively to supple-
mentation. Research is being conducted for using bio-
chemical markers like specific enzymes / tissues to
assess the mineral status more precisely.
Commonly used indices of mineral element
status in animals
There are numerous measures of essential
mineral element status, including growth rate, tissue
and physiological fluids concentrations, enzyme con-
centrations and activities, chemical balance and
mobilizable stores. Blood and its specific nutrient
concentrations provide a useful but frequently inad-
equate index. The first limiting biochemical system
should provide the most valid index, but in many
cases it is not known or not readily measured.
Chemical balance and mobilizable stores provide
valid measures but are difficult to determine. Two
indices are infinitely more valuable than one and
should be determined if possible. More research is
needed to establish valid indicators of nutritional
status for mineral elements.
Indices used for mineral element adequacy are:
l Growth rate
l Blood and plasma concentrations
l Hair concentrations,
l Biopsy tissue concentration
l Enzyme concentrations and activities,
l Physiological functions
l Chemical balance
l Mobilizable stores

Table 2. Critical values of trace minerals (ppm) for assessment of status

Element Soil Feed/fodder Animal body
Normal level (serum) Deficient
Fe 2.5 50 1-2 <1
<40 (liver-wet weight)
Cu 0.3 8 0.65-1.2 < 0.2 - 0.6
125-600 (liver, DM) < 33 - 125 (liver-wet weight)
Zn 1 30 1-2 < 0.6-0.8
25-200 (liver DM) <25-40 (liver DM)
Mn 5 40 6-70 ppb < 5 ppb
> 13 (liver DM) < 7 (liver, DM)
I - 0.1-0.2 0.1 - 0.4 total I < 0.05-0.10 I
0.04 - 0.13 (Proteinbound) < 0.03-0.05
20-100 ppb T 4 (protein bound)
< 7-30 ppb T 4
Co - 0.08-0.1 - < 0.5 ng/ml (rumen fluid)
< 0.05 (liver)
Vit B12 < 0.1-0.2 ppb
Mo - 0.5 - -
Se - 0.1 0.2-1.2 (whole blood), < 0.2 -0.5 (liver, DM)
1.2-2.5 (liver DM) < 0.06-0.2 (whole blood)
< 0.03
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
l Immune competence and
l Behaviour and appearance
Subclinical mineral deficiencies are thought to
be very widespread and are likely to be of more
economic significance than are easily recognized
cases. With inadequate mineral intakes, animals may
have lower milk production, growth and reproduc-
tive efficiency without recognizable signs. So, it is
utmost important to diagnose the mineral inadequate
animals at marginal or sub optimum levels. The
current study at National Institute and Animal Nu-
trition and Physiology (NIANP), Bangalore is pro-
posed to investigate the response of several putitive
indices of Cu and Zn status, including, ceruloplas-
min, Cu/Zn-Super oxide dismutase, plasma con-
centrations, tissue and wool concentrations to Cu
and Zn supplementation in sheep. Data emanating
from the study indicated the potential of these indi-
ces as indicators of sub optimal Cu and Zn status
in healthy sheep population.
Amelioration of mineral deficiency
Strategic approach for mineral supplemen-
tation: Performance of livestock in the tropics is
mainly governed by the quality and quantity of nu-
trients provided in the diet. In most of the devel-
oped countries, the principal means by which cattle
producers try to meet the requirement is through
use of free - choice dietary minerals. This is neither
practical nor cost effective in developing countries
where the livestock are fed on crop residues and
concentrate by products. Where compounded con-
centrate diets are not fed, it is necessary to rely on
both indirect and direct methods of providing min-
erals.
Indirect methods of Mineral supplementation
Enrichment of soil with essential minerals
through fertilization: Indirect provision of minerals
to grazing livestock includes, mineral fertilization of
pasture and altering soil pH, however this may not
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be always feasible due to complex soil - plant -
animal interrelationship. In the indirect approach,
soil treatment of deficient minerals would make these
elements accumulate in plants. For instance soil
treatment of cobalt and selenium will improve their
concentration in plants without having any effect on
plant yield. This effect may be neutralized in high
alkaline or calcareous soils, as the uptake of cobalt
by plants in such soils would be affected. Copper
application makes it more available to plants in soils
low in molybdenum content, but will not be effec-
tive when soils contain high molybdenum. High
application of NPK fertilizers reduces the calcium,
magnesium and sodium availability to plants. So
the approach to enrich the soil through micronutri-
ent supplementation may not be very cost effective
and also may not yield the desired results due to
the variation in soil profile in different zones. Trace
element intakes that can be improved by fertiliza-
tion include selenium, cobalt, copper, zinc, boron,
and possibly nickel.
Direct methods of mineral supplementation
In India the livestock farmers provide some
quantity of cakes, bran, rice polish and husk as
concentrate supplement to productive animals. Un-
productive animals are generally allowed to graze.
Except in some parts of Punjab, Haryana and Uttar
Pradesh green fodder is not fed to the animals.
Some quantity of greens are offered during rainy
season which are grown on the bunds in the field.
The animals do not receive any mineral supplement
and even salt is not being fed. The possible reasons
would be the high cost involved and lack of aware-
ness. The direct approach of supplementing micro-
nutrients in the diet of cattle depending on the se-
verity of deficiency may be a more practical method.
The most efficient method of providing trace min-
erals is through mineral mixture mixed with concen-
trate feed ingredients. This assures an adequate intake
of mineral elements by each animal. This procedure
represents an ideal system for providing supple-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
mental minerals but it cannot be used with grazing
cattle, which receive little concentrates and depend
on forages or where concentrates are not fed. Use
of mineral supplements in the form of mineral mix-
ture or mineral licks and premixes are most com-
monly used methods. Supplementation can also be
achieved through feeding compound feeds, oral
drenching or dosing or by administering slow re-
leasing mineral boluses which are retained in the gut
and in the form of injectable preparations. Heavy
pellets of the mineral or soluble glass which has the
specific mineral impregnated into it are lodged in
reticulo - rumen are useful in steady supply of
specific minerals continuously for long periods. This
approach is useful during peak period of milk pro-
duction to overcome certain metabolic disorders
like milk fever and grass tetany.
Supplementation of area-specific mineral salts
Feeding of 'free - choice' mineral supplements
could be the easiest way of supplementing minerals.
Alternatively providing area - specific mineral salts
based on the deficiency of minerals in soil, plant
and animals in different agro-climatic zones are most
appropriate and cost effective method of mineral
supplementation. The former approach could some-
times lead to deleterious effect, as some of the
minerals may be available in excess than require-
ments/needs affecting utilization of other minerals.
For example, excess of calcium disturbing the Ca -
P ratio, excess of selenium affecting sulphur utiliza-
tion, excess of molybdenium and sulphur reducing
copper absorption and excess of iron disturbing
copper metabolism. More practical method is of
supplementing only the deficient minerals through
area specific mineral salts by assessing the mineral
status in soil, feeds and fodders and in animals in
different agro-climatic zones. This approach has been
found to improve the reproductive efficiency in cross-
bred cattle under field conditions and this technol-
ogy has been successfully implemented at Co-
operative milk union feed manufacturing plants. In
order to achieve this there is a need to have a
160
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
comprehensive data on the micronutrients status of
different agro-climatic zones of the country.
Supplementation through locally available min-
eral rich natural feed resources
One of the other cost effective method of
mineral supplementation is to provide feed and plant
sources rich in the specific micronutrient, which are
commonly being fed / grown in that particular re-
gion. For example cakes, brans & rice polish are
rich sources of phosphorus. Similarly top feeds /
tree leaves and legumes are good sources of cal-
cium, copper and zinc. Some of the unconven-
tional feed resources are also rich in certain miner-
als. In general legume fodders, cultivated green
fodders and tree leaves are good sources of Ca,
Fe, Zn, Cu, Co and Mn and oil cakes and bran are
good sources of P, Zn, Cu and Mn. The details are
presented in Table 3.
Supplementation of more bioavailable form of
mineral salts (chelated minerals)
Efficient production and reproduction in do-
mestic animals require that the essential nutrients in
a diet be provided in appropriate amounts and in
forms that are most biologically useful. Of late there
is a growing interest in the use of organic or che-
lated minerals due to the better bioavailability, im-
proved reproductive performance, immune re-
sponse, decrease in the incidences of mastitis and
carcass quality. Organic forms of Zn and Cu as
Zn-methionine or Cu-lysine bypass the rumen and
are available at intestine, thus protecting the essen-
tial amino acids from degradation and make them
available for absorption in the gut. Zn-methionine
supplementation in cattle has improved disease re-
sistance and prevented foot rot and hoof problems.
Copper in chelated form would have an advantage
over an inorganic form when Mo level is high, as it
may escape the complexing. A mixture of Zn, Mn,
Cu, Co, Se in organic forms may stimulate feed
intake and growth during stress period. The asso-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Table 3. Categorization of common tropical feeds based on mineral content

Mineral Mineral Good sources Mineral Moderate sources

content % content %
Ca 1.5-2.0% Legumes, tree leaves 0.5-0.7% Cultivated grasses
P 2-3 % Wheat / rice bran, rice 0.3-0.5% Green fodders, local grasses
polish, oil cakes
Mg 0.3-0.5% Green fodders, legumes 0.1-0.3% Local grasses
Fe 1000-5000 Legume fodders, cultivated 500-1000 Cereal green fodders,
ppm green fodders, mixed local ppm oil cakes and brans,
grasses, oil seed cakes, tree tree leaves and dry fodders.
leaves, meat meal and top feeds.
Cu 30-70 ppm Legume fodders, cultivated 15-30 ppm Local grasses, oil cakes,
green fodders, tree leaves, cereal by products,
castor cake, groundnut haulms. top feeds.
Zn 150-300 ppm Legume fodders, oil seed cakes, 50-150 ppm Cultivated green fodders,
bran, meat meal. cereal green fodder, top feeds,
unconventional feeds like
tapioca meal, coffee husk, rubber
seed cake, tree leaves like
glyrecidia, neem, jack, banana.
Mn 100-250 ppm Wheat bran, rice bran, paddy 40-100 ppm Green fodders, leafy vegetation.
and ragi straw, Lucerne fodder.
I 0.1-0.7 ppm Marine products, oil seed cakes, -
iodized salt, yeast.
Co 0.2-0.6 ppm Legume fodders, animal proteins, -
fermented products.
Mo 0.5-1.5 ppm Legumes, green grasses. -

ciation of Se was known only to glutathione peroxi-
dase . But recently it has been known that Se is a
part of at least 25 selenoproteins and Se research
and its practical applications are fast developing
and are very promising. The use of Se- enriched
yeast appears to become a reality in dairy cattle
nutrition replacing the traditional inorganic Se. The
organic form of these minerals also has an antioxi-
dant property, thereby improving the feed efficiency
and immunity of animals. These chelated minerals
can be of much use in areas of severe deficiency of
trace minerals like tropical feeding systems, but the
cost benefit ratio need to be established.
Mineral biofortification of plants:
One sustainable agricultural approach to re-
ducing the mineral deficiencies in livestock animals
is to enrich major staple food crops (rice, wheat,
maize) with minerals through plant breeding strate-
161
161
161
gies. Biofortification of plants with minerals may be
a promising and cost-effective intervention. The
idea is to breed food crops for higher micronutrient
content, which can be done through crossbreeding
or genetic engineering. It is time to move forward
with a strong program to develop nutrient-rich crop
varieties, demonstrate their impact on human and
animal nutrition. So, finding the appropriate answers
on future mineral research requires the coordinated
efforts of soil scientists, plant scientists and animal
nutritionists.
Conclusions
Minerals play a significant role in production
and reproduction either singly or in combination.
Overcoming the deficiency or imbalance of min-
erals improves the productive efficiency of live-
stock to great extent. Hence minerals are to be
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
considered in tropical feeding system not in iso-
lation but as a part of total nutrient management
system. The emphasis should be on ways of
mineral supplementation cost-effectively based on
prevailing livestock farming system and available
resources. Bioavailability of minerals should be
given emphasis while supplementing and better
bioavailable inorganic salts or organic / chelated
form of trace minerals are to be used for enhancing
the efficiency of utilization. While suggesting the
mineral requirement for livestock, the level of dry
matter intake, physiological status and mineral
content of feed / fodder are to be considered.
Though trace elements have not received much
attention in formulating diets, their long term prac-
tical impact on production, reproduction and im-
munity should not be ignored.
Future areas of research
l Mineral mapping of areas of maximum risk
based on their content in soil, plant and live-
stock and overcoming the mineral imbalance
through strategic measures using local resources
and location specific mineral mixtures.
l Better understanding the impact of trace ele-
ments on reproductive events and enhance-
ment of fertility.
162
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TROPNUTRICON - 2007
l Measures for enhancing the bioavailability of
minerals and suggesting requirement based on
bioavailability and use of organic / chelated
minerals.
l Suggesting mineral requirement for different
physiological functions like growth, lactation,
immunity and reproduction.
l Detailed studies on newer trace elements for
establishing their essentiality.
l Long term measure of genetic improvement of
both plant and animals for enhancing mineral
availability and utilization.
l Antioxidant potential of minerals and their che-
lates.
l Biofortification of plants for micronutrients and
their impact on animal production.
Further Reading :
1. Lyons, M.P., Papazyan, T.T. and Surai, P.F.
(2007) Asian - Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 20: 1135.
2. Spears, J.W. (2003) J. Nutr. 133 (suppl) :
1506-1509.
3. Kincaid, R.L. 1999. Proc. Am. Soc. Anim.
Sci. 1-8.
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
Strategic supplementation of minerals to livestock:
An Indian perspective
Tapan K. Ghosh and Sudipto Haldar
Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary & Animal Sciences
West Bengal University of Animal & Fishery Sciences, Kolkata-700037, India
Nutritional inadequacies occur in almost all parts
of the world especially in livestock reared under
unorganized farming system. Grazing ruminants are
the most likely species to suffer from a condition of
such under nutrition due to insufficient supply of
nutrients through the forage they graze upon. In the
tropics under-nutrition is cited to be one of the
major constraints towards efficient animal produc-
tion and inadequate mineral nutrition is perhaps a
more limiting factor in this regard compared to the
deficiency of energy and protein. Grazing livestock
usually does not receive mineral supplementation,
except for common salt, and must depend largely
on forages to supply their mineral requirements.
However, only rarely, can forages completely sat-
isfy all mineral requirements for livestock. There-
fore, mineral supplementation, when dictated by local
conditions, can be a low cost input to the improve-
ment of livestock production. However, mineral
supplementation beyond the need of the animals
may yield only diminishing returns and hence, to
elicit the maximum benefit out of the supplementa-
tion a specific strategy must be chalked out prior to
the start of the mineral supplementation. In this paper
an attempt has been made to discuss about these
strategies which include the knowledge about the
natural sources of mineral elements, the soil-plant
and soil-plant-animal interrelationship and the need
for mineral supplementation under different feeding
and management regime.
Natural sources of minerals
Farm animals derive a high proportion of their
mineral nutrients from the feeds and forage they
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consume. Hence, factors determining the mineral
content of the plants are also the factors which
basically determine the mineral intake of livestock.
The mineral concentration of forage crops depends
on four basic factors:
i) the variety of the crop
ii) the soil type on which the plants grow
iii) seasonal condition and climate during the plant
growth
iv) stage of maturity of the forage crops
Besides, some human factors like soil treat-
ment and application of fertilizers, plant breeding
and selection of high yielding cultivars may signifi-
cantly amend the mineral composition of the result-
ant crops from the varieties they supplant
(Underwood and Suttle, 1999).
Mineral concentrations in plants generally re-
flect the adequacy with which the soil can supply
absorbable minerals to their roots. However, plant-
availability is a factor that determines the accumu-
lation of the soil mineral into the plant species and
the primary reason for the existence of areas defi-
cient in some minerals like phosphorus (P), sodium
(Na), cobalt (Co) and selenium (Se), is that the
soils of the areas are inherently low in plant-avail-
able supplies of these minerals (Underwood and
Suttle, 1999).
Factors affecting concentrations of minerals in
soil and forage crops.
Physicochemical factors: Mineral uptake by plants
and hence their mineral composition are greatly in-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
fluenced by soil pH. For example, molybdenum (Mo)
uptake by plants increases as soil pH rises and,
therefore, Mo induced copper (Cu) deficiency in
grazing livestock is likely to occur in areas having
alkaline soil pH. Liming, used commonly to im-
prove the quality of soil, therefore, may induce Cu
deficiency in grazing livestock by increasing pasture
Mo concentration. Water logging on the other hand,
greatly increases Co, Mo and manganese (Mn)
contents of pasture plants (Adams and Honeysett,
1964). Thus, soil conditions greatly influence the
value of the forage plants as sources of minerals for
grazing livestock.
Human factors: Application of fertilizers to
amend the quality of soil greatly influences the qual-
ity of soil as a supplier of minerals to the forage
crops. Most soil in the tropics supply insufficient P
for maximum crop or pasture growth, and yields
can be increased by applying P fertilizers (Jones,
1990). Super-phosphate applications to pastures,
over and above those required for maximum plant
growth responses, can result in herbage of improved
palatability and digestibility but expected responses
may not always materialize (Winks, 1990). Heavy
applications of potassium (K) fertilizers can raise
herbage yields and K contents, while at the same
time depressing herbage magnesium (Mg) and Na.
Similarly, application of nitrogenous fertilizers has
versatile effects on soil mineral contents. Nitrogen
(N) fertilizers in general increases the risk of min-
eral deficiencies occurring in grazing livestock es-
pecially in areas where the availability of the miner-
als is towards a lower side (Hopkins et al., 1994).
The widely held view towards the relationship be-
tween the applications of N fertilizers and the min-
eral contents of plants is that the use of such fertil-
izers increases yield of forage and thus by exporting
the minerals increases the risk of their deficiency at
subsequent times.
Ambience and plant factors: External factors,
notably climate and season, which can be modified
by irrigation and management practices, have pro-
found effect on soil mineral profile (Underwood and
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Suttle, 1999). Forage concentration of Cu is posi-
tively proportional and that of Se is inversely pro-
portional to rainfall. The P and K contents of crop
and forage decline markedly with advancing matu-
rity and season affects the concentration of P more
in legumes than in grasses (Coates et al., 1990).
The concentration of Mg, zinc (Zn), Cu, Mn Co,
Mo and iron (Fe) fall as the plants mature. De-
crease in mineral concentrations with advancing age
are usually reflections of increases in proportion of
stem to leaf and old to new leaves, stems and old
leaves having lower mineral concentrations that
young leaves (Minson, 1990).
The availability of minerals to animals
The evaluation of feeds and feed supplements
as sources of minerals depends not only on the
total mineral content or concentration but also on
how much can be absorbed from the gut and used
by the animals' cells and tissues. This in turn, de-
pends on:
i) the age and species of the animals
ii) the intake of the mineral relative to the need
iii) the chemical form in which the mineral is in-
gested
iv) the amounts and proportions of other dietary
components with which it interacts metaboli-
cally
v) environmental factors like the accessibility and
intensity of sunlight (Ammerman et al., 1995)
Accurate measurement of the availability of a
particular mineral element is not possible to deter-
mine in livestock without involving the radio-iso-
tope study (for detail review see Underwood and
Suttle, 1999).
The net flow of utilizable mineral to the grazing
animal, in particular, is likely to vary widely from
season to season and from year to year. Where
mineral nutrients in herbage are marginal in respect
of animal requirements, changes in concentrations,
brought about by atmospheric, climatic or seasonal
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
influence and by plant maturity and seed shedding,
can obviously be significant factors in the incidence
of severity of deficiency states in livestock wholly
or largely dependent on those plants. Hence, it is
important to appreciate the cyclical nature of min-
eral nutrition before breaking the problem down
into smaller compartments, and there is a need to
frequently reassess the adequacy of mineral sup-
plies experienced by the animals, especially the
grazing ones.
Detection of mineral imbalance in animals
The detection of a mineral imbalance is usually
based on clinical, pathological and biochemical ex-
aminations of the animal tissues and body fluids.
Soil mineral analyses may also have some diagnos-
tic values. Analysis of the mineral contents of the
plant materials and the concentrate is yet another
tool to be explored. However, the information ob-
tained from any one of these sources alone is rarely
conclusive and the ultimate criterion of any mineral
inadequacy, imbalance or excess is the improve-
ment in growth, health, fertility or productivity that
occurs in response to appropriate changes in the
intake or utilization of the mineral(s) in question
(Phillippo, 1983).
Significance of soil mineral: Soils that are ab-
normal in a given mineral tend to produce plants
that are abnormal in that mineral. On a broad geo-
graphical basis, areas where some mineral imbal-
ances are likely to occur can be predicted by
mapping techniques. However, prediction of a min-
eral imbalance from the data obtained by soil analy-
ses is far from simple for the following reasons:
i) the yield of the plant as well its mineral con-
tents is affected by soil mineral status
ii) different species and strains of plants can vary
greatly in mineral composition even when grow-
ing on the same soil
iii) climatic and seasonal conditions, as well as the
stage of growth, affect the mineral composi-
tion of plants
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iv) chemical form of the mineral, soil pH and other
physicochemical properties of soil may affect
the uptake of mineral from soil
The concentration of mineral in soil is thus an
uncertain guide to its concentration in the crop.
Pasture and feed mineral concentrations: An
initial assessment of the actual or likely occurrence
of a dietary mineral inadequacy or excess can be
made by comparing the mineral composition of the
diet with appropriate standards. However, the de-
tection and diagnosis of mineral disorders of dietary
origin based entirely on mineral analysis of the feed
can be misleading due to the following reasons:
i) In foraging situations, the diet sample collected
may not represent the material actually eaten
by the animal because of selective grazing and
soil contamination in the field especially where
there is a mixture of pasture and browse ma-
terials (Fordyce et al., 1996).
ii) Estimates of mineral intake take no account
of differences in absorption or utilization by
the animal. For example, a particular dietary
level of total P may be adequate for poultry if
it is an inorganic or non phytin form but inad-
equate when it is present as phytate P. The
adequacy of a particular dietary concentration
of calcium (Ca) varies with the vitamin D sta-
tus of the animal. Similarly, certain concentra-
tions of Cu can be inadequate when Mo and
sulphur (S) intakes are high but adequate or
even excessive when dietary Mo and S are
low.
Nevertheless, measurement of the total con-
centration of a mineral in the pasture or ration can-
not always detect or predict inadequacy or toxicity
of that mineral in the animal.
Clinical and pathological changes in the animal:
All mineral deficiencies and excesses are manifested
by clinical and pathological disturbances. However,
differential diagnosis is important. Mild deficiency
or excess is especially difficult to identify because
their effects are indistinguishable from those result-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

ing from semi-starvation or underfeeding, protein
deficiency or intestinal parasitism. Numerically and
economically, mild abnormalities exceed severe ab-
normalities in importance (Arthur, 1992).
A dietary deficiency of a mineral is sooner or
later reflected in subnormal concentrations of the
mineral in certain of the animals' tissues and fluids,
and a dietary excess of a mineral is similarly re-
flected in above-normal concentrations. Moreover,
both deficiencies and toxicities are usually accom-
panied by significant tissue or fluid changes in the
concentrations of particular enzymes, metabolites
or organic compounds with which the mineral in
question is functionally associated. Many of these
changes can be detected before the onset of clini-
cally obvious signs of deficiency or excess in the
animal (Underwood and Suttle, 1999).
Soil-plant-interrelationship
Macro-minerals: The soil-plant-animal interre-
lationship with regards to mineral concentrations has
a profound influence on the mineral status of grazing
livestock. The understanding of the soil-plant-animal
interrelationship is necessary because grazing live-
stock hardly receive any mineral supplement except
for common salt, and must depend largely on for-
ages to meet their mineral requirements though for-
ages rarely meet this requirement owing to moderate
to severe deficiency of mineral elements existing in
soil, especially in tropical climatic conditions (Valdes
Table 1. Macro-mineral concentration (ppm) in tropical agro-climatic conditions in relation to soil pH
Element Critical value Indonesia1
pH 5.8-6.0
Aluminum 1215-1247
Calcium <71 652-1065
Potassium <62 156-178
Magnesium <30 329-364
Phosphorus <17 13-18
1
Prabowo et al., 1990; 2Morillo et al., 1989; 3Pastrana et al., 1991; 4ICAR Net Work Project on Micronutrients in
Animal Nutrition and Production (1999); 5Gowda et al., 2002
et al., 1988). It has been stated earlier that soil pH
is one of the key factors governing the concentration
of minerals in soil. A strongly acid condition usually
causes a decline in solubility of soil macro-minerals
while a strongly alkaline pH affects absorption of
anions like Mn. The maximum rate of mineral ab-
sorption occurs at a pH ranging from 5 to 7. Hence,
soil pH measurement is important while studying the
soil-plant-animal inter relationship before chalking
out the strategy for mineral supplementation.
Comprehensive studies in this regard are lack-
ing in Indian conditions. Nevertheless, studies con-
ducted abroad on similar soil and climatic condi-
tions revealed (Table 1) that P is perhaps the most
limiting macro-mineral in soil. Aluminum (Al) induced
aggravation of soil P deficiency occurs when soil
pH falls below 5.5 (Prabowo et al., 1990). Based
on the criterion of adequacy Ca in soil may be
described as adequate, Mg as moderately adequate
and K as variable and dependent on climatic fac-
tors with higher incidence of deficiency being re-
corded in the rainy season compared to the dry
season (Morillo et al., 1989). A further fact with
regards to the importance of soil aluminum concen-
tration comes into light from the data presented in
Table 1. Acidic conditions of soil may lower the pH
of soil below 5.5 and increases the extractable Al
concentration in soil. An increased soil Al may re-
duce the available P content in soil and reduce P
uptake by plants grown on such soils. The Venezu-
Venezuela2 United States3 India
Kerala4 Karnataka5
4.03-4.8 4.8-5.5 5.2-7.2 (6.5) 5.93-7.04
181-336 93-575
86-100 2.5-17.3 30-90 (61.8) 30-350
40-45.9 2.3-108
189-199 13.2-193 6-60 (29.7) 10-90
4.98-9.34 252-960 48.4-120.5 (78.1) 9.92-55.97
166
166
166
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

elan data is an ideal example of the effects of soil

pH on soil Al and P concentration.

Fig. 2 (b) Concentration (mg/dl) of calcium and phospho-

rus in serum samples of grazing cattle in Karnataka
(source: Gawda et al., 2002)
Fig. 1 Factors influencing the flow of an element but not in the green forage. Paddy straw constitutes
from soil to the grazing animal. (Underwood the bulk of the ration and hence the P deficiency ob-
and Suttle, 1999) served in paddy straw was perhaps reflected in the
Extensive studies to determine the soil-plant- serum concentration as well. It is noteworthy that the
animal interrelationship with regards to different trace compounded feed mixtures hardly exhibited any de-
ficiency with regards to the concerned macro-ele-
elements particularly Cu, Mn, Fe and Zn have been
ments. However, wide variation in Ca:P ratio was
undertaken in India especially under the aegis of the
observed in the bran which perhaps aggravated the
Net Work Project on Micro-Nutrients in Animal
P deficiency in the animals. This was in contrary to
Nutrition and Production of the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research. The findings of this project 1 0the distribution of Mn which, despite being marginal
ELEMENT IN SOIL
8in the green and dry roughages, did not exhibit a de-
have well depicted the micro-nutrient status of In- ‘Availability’ depends on:
6ficient concentration in the serum of the cattle
Geochemistry, grazing
pH drainage
dian soil, plants and that of the animals reared on Stocking rate, rainfall
4over such pasture [Figure ELEMENT 2 (c) & 2 (d)]. The defi-
IN PLANT
those soil and plants.
2ciency of one orAbsorptive moreAvailability
number of major and micro
Appetite
capacity Selective grazing
0elements notwithstanding, critical deficiency symp-
0 .8 ELEMENT IN ANIMAL
Soiltoms
ingestionwere not
C a apparent in the animal
Availability’
P population.
0 .6
However, every C r i t i c apossibility
Initial
l v a l ureserves
e Dremains o n e ofthat
r y zStage sub clinical
development
Rate of production Environment
0 .4 deficiency conditions, especially with regards to re-
0 .2 productive and immune systemsSUPPLY?
A SUFFICIENT would remain to af-
0 fect the performance level of these animals.
Ca P

C r itic a l v a lu e S tr a w G r r e n fo d d e r Minerals : The need for strategic supplemen-

Fig. 2 (a) Concentration (% dry matter) of calcium
and phosphorus in composite straw (paddy and
bajra) and green fodder in Karnataka (source:
Gawda et al., 2002)
Figures 2 (a) & 2 (b) depicts the status of Ca
and P in the composite straw and green roughage as
well as that of the serum in the cattle grazing over
such pasture. P deficiency was ubiquitous in straw
167
167
167
tation
Mineral supplementation is needed to correct defi-
ciencies in animal diets. Supplementation of miner-
als is considered to be the least cost way for aug-
menting productivity especially in grazing ruminants.
Organized farming systems make use of compound
feeds which contain mineral supplements and hence,
do seldom suffer from mineral inadequacy. Samples
of compound feeds collected from different states
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

tions indicate that the grazing ruminants are most

Fig. 2 (c) Concentration (ppm) of trace elements in
composite straw (paddy and bajra) and green fodder
in Karnataka (source: Gawda et al., 2002)
Fig. 2 (d) Concentration (µg/ml) of trace elements in
serum samples of grazing cattle in Karnataka (source:
mm l
prone to deficiency of one or more mineral ele-
ments since the forage they graze on hardly supply
an adequate amount of minerals the animals require
for different productive and reproductive purposes.
The situation gets confounded and rather aggra-
vated because of the supplementation strategy
adopted by the animal owners and interestingly the
situation is almost similar across the country.
The economic criterion of the farmers in India
is one of the major factors driving their animals
towards a mineral deficient or sufficient feeding regi-
men. Studies conducted in various states in India
revealed that farmers do adopt almost a uniform
feeding regime of their animals cutting across the
state boundaries. The landless and the marginal
farmers keep their animals on grazing and supple-
ment straw (paddy, wheat, bajra or maize depend-
ing on the availability and locality) as the basal
roughage. This practice is common even a farmer
belongs to a better economic niche. Nevertheless,
feeding home made concentrate mixture is the prac-
2 .57 0
tice followed only by a small fraction of the farm-
2 .06 0
ers.50
It is noteworthy that feeding cultivated green
1 .5
fodder is seldom practiced in most of the states.

40
Gawda et al., 2002) 1 .0
pµpg/

This3 0 is obvious because land has become limited

0 .52 0
and analyzed in various laboratories in India would for fodder cultivation. However, in some states like
0 .01 0
support this statement (Table 2). This is also the Rajasthan
0
and Gujarat green fodder availability is
Cu M n Fe
reason for not experiencing mineral deficiency dis- limited because C u of extreme climatic M n condition and
orders in most of the poultry and swine operations. frequent drought. C r i tTree
i c a l vleaves
a l u e constitutes
Seru m an alter-
Nevertheless, the discussion in the previous sec- native
C r i t i c a lsource
v a l u e ofS tgreen
ra w fodder.
G r e e n fo d d e r B ra n

Table 2. Concentration of some major (%) and trace elements (ppm) in compound livestock feed in India

State Ca P Ca:P Mg Cu Zn Fe Mn
Critical level <0.3 <0.25 2:1 <0.2 <8.0 <30.0 <50.0 <40.0
Assam1 0.76 - - 0.47 5.6 22.6 93 38.6
Gujarat2 0.66 1.34 - 0.67 20.5 79.2 1032 146.1
Himachal Pradesh 0.93 1.00 0.93 - 13.9 51.6 - -
Karnataka3 0.98 1.51 0.65 0.68 12.6 39.4 508 -
Kerala4 0.98 0.92 1.06 0.58 16.3 49.3 828 -
Rajasthan5 0.76 1.11 0.68 0.64 25.9 106.1 829 105.9
West Bengal6 1.4 0.9 1.7 - 5.4 25.9 431 87.1
Source: 1 Buragohain et al., 2006; 2 Garg et al., 2003; 3 Gowda et al., 2002; 4 ICAR Net Work Project on Micronutrients
in Animal Nutrition and Production, Trissur Center, Kerala (1999); 5 Garg et al., 2005; 6 ICAR Net Work Project on
Micronutrients in Animal Nutrition and Production, Kolkata Center, West Bengal (2004)
168
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Table 3. Major (%) and trace (ppm) element concentration in dry and green roughages in India

Ca P Ca:P Mg Cu Zn Fe Mn
Critical level <0.3 0.25 2:1 <0.2 8.0 <30 <50 <40
Mineral content of straw (include paddy, maize and bajra straw)
Assam 0.63 - - 0.44 7.2 21.4 122.3 43.6
Kerala 0.26 0.09 2.9 0.21 10.0 55.0 866.4 -
Himachal Pradesh 0.09 0.03 3.0 - 1.9 15.8 - -
Rajasthan 0.28 0.09 3.1 0.21 6.0 28.6 356.4 168.2
Haryana 0.31 0.12 2.6 - 26.0 14.5 176.0 16.5
West Bengal
Coastal soil 0.12 0.06 2.0 - 7.4 29.0 226.4 272.8
Laterite soil 0.15 0.04 3.8 - 10.6 32.3 262.5 22.3
Alluvial soil 0.13 0.06 2.2 - 8.3 41.1 224.4 23.9
Calculated mean 0.25 0.06 2.43 0.28 9.7 29.7 319.2 91.2
Mineral content of green roughage (include pasture grass and non leguminous cultivated fodder)
Assam 0.6 - - 0.06 24.3 24.3 330.8 109.9
Kerala 0.3 0.2 1.4 0.22 10.2 48.6 627.2 -
Himachal Pradesh 0.53 0.19 2.8 0.19 10.8 30.4 365 60.8
Rajasthan 0.87 0.22 4.0 0.62 11.5 30.4 422 92.3
Haryana 1.56 0.19 8.2 - 28.5 24.1 342 38.0
West Bengal
Coastal soil 0.42 0.17 2.5 - 53.01 42.63 403.53 35.66
Laterite soil 0.49 0.21 2.3 - 6.2 22.7 323.1 71.8
Alluvial soil 0.42 0.26 1.6 - 4.9 24.9 297.8 78.9
Calculated mean 0.65 0.18 2.85 0.27 18.7 31.0 388.9 69.6
120 C ritic a l le v e l
Z one 1
100
The data presented in Table 3 is a clear rev- 80
To assess how the mineral statusZ oof
n e 2feeds and

elation of macro and micro mineral status of the dry fodder

60
affect the mineral balance in grazing rumi-
PPM

and green roughages in Indian condition. The data nants

40
Das et al. (2003) conducted a survey in two
are almost a national representation and are col- different
20 agro-climatic regions of West Bengal and
lected across the country from different agro cli- the 0findings are summarized in Figure 3.
Zn Cu Mn
matic and soil conditions. Interestingly, the data is
not too widely dispersed and the coefficient of
variation (not shown) is found to be insignificant.
The table brings into fore the following facts:
l There exists almost moderate to severe defi-
ciency of Ca and P in dry roughage
l Moderate deficiency with regards to P is there
in green roughage
l Trace elements are adequate in dry and green Fig. 3 Liver concentrations of trace elements in cattle
roughage though Cu is just marginal in the dry grazing over red laterite (Zone 1) and new alluvial
roughages in most of the samples in the sur- (Zone 2) soil of West Bengal (Das et al., 2003)
veyed areas Liver biopsy study in the said agro-climatic
l Fe concentration is much above the minimum regions indicated that the grazing cattle were defi-
critical level and its supplementation seems to cient in Cu and had just a marginal status with re-
be unnecessary gards to Mn. Apart from a severe deficiency of Ca
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
and P in dry roughage, the green fodder were lim-
iting in Cu and Zn which was reflected in the liver
concentrations of the concerned trace elements. It
is noteworthy that blood levels of the said elements
did not reveal any such deficiency perhaps because
of the homeostatic mechanism that operates for all
the nutrients in animal systems.
Need for the region specific mineral supple-
mentation
It has already been emphasized repeatedly that
it is the ruminants that depend predominantly on
forages do require mineral supplementation as they
seldom receive adequate supplies of particular min-
erals because of moderate to sever deficiencies of
one or more mineral elements in dry and green
roughages. The problem is not so drastic in the
organized farm sector or in the poultry and swine
operations (McDowell, 1985) and hence, our dis-
cussion will focus on the need of the grazing rumi-
nants (Table 4).
Prior to opt for the supplementation a few points
need to be assessed and assured.
l The distribution of the mineral elements in the
soil and local feed resources
l The existence of the practice of mineral supple-
mentation in the area concerned
l The average productivity of animals in the said
area
l Calculation of the mineral requirement of the
animals
l Formulation of the mineral mixture containing
all the elements needed by the animals
l Finally, fortification of the diet with the said
mineral mixture
The dietary mineral level that will just promote
optimal response is the minimum requirement. The
optimal allowances permit animals to achieve their
full genetic potential for optimal performance. Be-
yond the optimal zone, mineral concentrations range
170
170
170
TROPNUTRICON - 2007
from levels still safe, but uneconomical, to concen-
trations that cause toxicity and death. It is important
to note that there is no single exact requirement for
a mineral element and neither is there a single safe
or maximum level at which a mineral can be toler-
ated without adverse effect.
Table 4. A good free choice mineral supplements: an In-
dian picture
1. Contains a minimum of 6-8% total P. In areas where
forages are consistently lower than 0.2 % P, mineral
supplements in the 8-10 % P range are preferred.
2. Has a Ca:P ratio not substantially over 2:1
3. Provides a significant proportion (i.e. about 50%) of
the trace element requirements for Co, Cu, I, Mn, Zn
and Se if required. Fe is not needed in most circum-
stances.
4. Is sufficiently palatable to allow close to adequate
consumption in relation to requirements.
5. Has an acceptable particle size that will allow ad-
equate mixing without smaller size particles settling
out.
6. Is formulated for the area involved, the level of
animal productivity, and the environment in which it
will be fed and is as economical as possible.
Adopted from: McDowell (1985)
Free Choice mineral supplement: Free-choice
mineral supplements are generally considered only
for livestock that do not have access to concen-
trates, as minerals for those receiving concentrates
are generally provided as part of the concentrate
mixture. As a low-cost insurance complete mineral
supplements should be available to grazing livestock
free choice (McDowell 1985). A "good" free choice
mineral supplement should have the following char-
acteristic features:
Fortification of diet with mineral supplements:
The main consideration for animals receiving miner-
als as part of their concentrate diet is whether each
animal consumes an adequate amount of the con-
centrate mixture to provide the correct calculated
intake of each mineral. Assuming the correct level
of biologically available mineral is prepared in a
mineral premix, the important question remains,
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Table 5. Relative bioavailability of some major and trace elements

Element Source Reference compound Relative bioavailability %
Calcium Ca carbonate - 40-57
Bone meal Ca carbonate 63-138
Ca chloride Ca carbonate 71-132
Calcite Ca carbonate 49
Di calcium phosphate Ca carbonate 56-126
Phosphorus Bone meal Di calcium phosphate 30
Di calcium phosphate - 33-85
Rock phosphate Di calcium phosphate 17-54
Defluorinated phosphate Di calcium phosphate 29-85
Zinc Zinc sulfate Zinc oxide 100
Zinc chloride Zinc oxide 42
Zinc carbonate Zinc oxide 58
Zinc methionine Zinc oxide 103-133
Manganese Manganese carbonate Mn sulfate 20-46
Manganese oxide Mn sulfate 25-39
Manganese methionine Mn sulfate 102-157
Source: Ammerman et al. (1995)

whether the correct amount was added and prop-
erly mixed in the concentrate mixture. The proper
concentration in the final concentrate mixture should
periodically be confirmed by analysis of the more
critical mineral elements.
It is virtually impossible to measure the actual
dry matter intake of livestock on pasture though the
requirements are based on dry matter intake. Ac-
tual dry matter consumption often becomes a great
factor to be judged for calculating the actual amount
of an element to be supplemented in the diet. It is
generally assumed that the dry matter intake ranges
between 7-10 kg for adult grazing cattle and a 2%
body weight is considered a rough estimate of for-
age dry matter intake by cattle.
Biological availability of an element, which
implies the availability of that element to some or-
ganism for use, is yet another factor that governs
supplementation strategy.
Organic minerals: A new age supplementa-
tion strategy: The key to the effectiveness of a mineral
supplement is not necessarily its biological availabil-
ity, but its biological activity. Traditionally, inorganic
salts such as oxides, sulfates and carbonates have
been added to the diet to provide the desired amount
171
171
171
to meet the requirements of the animals. These are
broken down to varying extents during digestion to
'free' ions' and are then absorbed. However, they
may also complex to other dietary molecules and
become difficult to absorb or, if completely
complexed, totally unavailable to the animal. Thus,
the availability of the element may vary substantially.
Because of these uncertainties, the levels provided
in the diet are often higher than the minimum amount
required for the optimum performance, often result-
ing in over-supply and unnecessary wastage with
obvious environmental impact. In this regard the
organically complexed mineral elements have dis-
cernible edge over their inorganic counterparts. The
chelated or the proteinate forms of the minerals may
utilize the peptide or amino acid uptake pathways
of absorption in the small intestine and hence, can
avoid the mineral-mineral interaction for the same
absorptive pathway. Thus, the organically complexed
minerals are not only more bio-available but also
more bio-active.
Economic aspects of chelated and protein-
ate forms of trace elements: Economic response
is the key concern. Chelated minerals cost 10 to 15
times more per milligram of mineral compared to
inorganic sources. Commercial chelated mineral pro-
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

grams cost range from 4 cents to 18 cents per cow Table 6. Trace elements in an adequate supplement
per day (depending on the combination and level of Element Estimated Minerals in mixture (%) for
chelated minerals selected). Two approaches are maximum each percent of the
listed below: requirement requirementa
ppm 25 50 100
1. Supplement one-third of selected trace miner-
Cobalt 0.1 0.0005 0.001 0.002
als as chelated mineral (400 g of zinc as or- Copper 10 0.05 0.10 0.20
ganic zinc) and two-thirds as inorganic mineral Iodine 0.8 0.004 0.008 0.016
(800 g of zinc as zinc sulfate for example). Manganese 25 0.125 0.25 0.5
Zinc 50 0.25 0.50 1.0
2. Feed recommended levels (Table 5) as inor- Iron 50 0.25 0.50 1.0
ganic minerals (1200 g as zinc as zinc sulfate) Selenium 0.2 0.001 0.002 0.004
plus an additional 25 percent as chelated zinc a
This assumes for cattle an average consumption of 50g/
(300 g of zinc as organic zinc for example). d of mineral mixture and 10 kg/day of total dry matter.
It has been observed that instead of total re- The above table illustrates the estimated trace
placement of inorganic minerals with organically element requirements and percentages of each ele-
complexed mineral elements, it will always be a ment required in a cattle mineral mixture to meet
more prudent approach to opt for a partial replace- 25, 50 or 100 % of the requirement, based on an
ment of the conventional inorganic forms of supple- estimated daily consumption of 50 g. With less
mental minerals with the respective organic forms. consumption, the mineral supplement should con-
This will save the economy of the farmers and will tain a higher percentage of each mineral, and a
promote the productivity at the same time. lower intake of dry matter would reduce the per-
Concentration of an element in the min- centage of minerals required in the mixture.
eral mixture: The concentration of each element Supplementation strategy
in a mineral mixture is yet another factor which Supplementation strategy for mineral elements
needs to be considered. After evaluating the will depend on the status of the animal and the
bioavailability of the mineral mixture, the daily in- economic condition of the farmers. The latter factor
take of mineral mixture and that of total dry matter, is important since it is the economy that ultimately
the concentration of each element can be used to governs the overall husbandry practice of livestock
calculate the amount of each element that will be and hence their feeding regimen. Nevertheless, min-
furnished per animal, expressed as a percentage or eral supplementation for livestock is considered to
parts per million of total DM intake. This can be be the least cost insurance for a better productivity
compared to the total requirement of that element and hence, can be recommended for the farmers
to determine whether a significant amount is being belonging to economically lower social strata.
furnished. It is difficult to determine what consti- Animals that do not receive concentrates are less
tutes a significant portion of the requirement for likely to receive an adequate mineral supply and
each mineral that should be supplied by the mineral free choice mineral mixtures described above would
mixture, but it is generally believed the figure should be the ideal for such animals. However, free choice
be 25-50% for the trace elements. In zones known minerals are not palatable enough to ensure suffi-
to have a trace element deficiency, 100% of cient consumption and are, therefore, consumed ir-
the requirements for these elements should be pro- regularly. Since consumption of the free choice
vided. minerals are highly variable intake may not be ad-

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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
equate to meet the mineral deficiency in the for-
ages.
While formulating the supplementation strategy
some factors need to be remembered:
Plant maturity: As plants mature, mineral con-
tents decline and hence the need for mineral supple-
mentation increases when a dry or drought condi-
tion prevails for a while in a year.
Energy-protein supplements: Protein and en-
ergy supplements that also provide minerals de-
crease both the need and desire for free choice
minerals.
Individual requirements: The level of pro-
ductivity and the physiological condition like gesta-
tion and lactation of an animal influence the mineral
need.
Supplementation strategy for grazing ru-
minants receiving no concentrate: Animals that
primarily depend on pasture have different supple-
mentation needs than those receiving concentrates.
Free choice mineral mixture or a mineral lick is the
preferred option to supplement these animals. A
urea-molasses-mineral block would be an effective
strategy to supplement a protein substitute and the
mineral simultaneously especially when the quality
of the forage is poor. P is generally limiting and
hence a free choice mineral mixture containing ad-
equate Ca, P, common salt and selected trace el-
ements is needed to be supplied. Fe is always an
excess in most of the agro-climatic zones of India
and need not to be supplemented. Areas having
deficient Se require its supplementation while those
(like the northern plains encompassing Punjab,
Haryana, upper Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan) show-
ing toxic levels of Se need sulfur in the mineral
premix as the antagonist of Se.
Supplementation strategy for grazing ru-
minants receiving concentrate: The best means
of providing minerals to ruminants receiving con-
centrates would be to combine the minerals with
the concentrate diet, including Ca, P, and a trace
173
173
173
TROPNUTRICON - 2007
mineralized salt (NaCl plus Co, Cu, I, Mn, Se and
Zn depending on local need). Fe may be included
if condition deserves for. The less dietary forage
intake, the higher level of Ca and P is required. S
may be added to the premix if non-protein nitrogen
is added to the concentrate. The balance of indi-
vidual minerals is important in this regard to ensure
proper absorption and utilization of the minerals.
In organized farming sector as well, the most
common method to deliver trace minerals to dairy
cattle has been trace mineralized salt. Feed tags
must be carefully reviewed to determine the level
(mg per day) that is being offered and if the mineral
form is biologically available. Customized trace
mineral premixtures are becoming more common
because they can be formulated to balance mineral
profiles and meet mineral needs depending on the
farm condition. Forage testing is recommended for
Zn, Cu and Mn and if conditions desire then Fe as
well on an annual basis to establish herd micro-
mineral profiles, evaluate feed changes, and avoid/
correct mineral imbalances.
Mineral supplementation - A practical approach
It is essential to exploit the enormous scope of
mineral supplementation for augmenting the produc-
tive performance of grazing ruminants. Supplemen-
tation of minerals not only bolsters the overall meta-
bolic responses of the animals but at the same time
increases the overall availability of organic nutrients
by augmenting the latter's bioavailability. However,
comprehensive strategy should be there to address
the local need first which can later be broad based
by describing the requirements on the basis of the
agro-climatic zones or soil type. As an initiation to
this approach a study was conducted in the red and
laterite agro climatic zone of West Bengal to ascer-
tain the actual status of mineral supplementation in
the red and laterite soil of West Bengal (Kundu
2004). The survey revealed that the feeding regi-
men, which may be categorized as follows, de-
pends largely on the economic criteria of the farm-
ers (Table 7).
 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

Table 7. Feeding regimen of cattle vis-à-vis the economic prone to mineral deficiency which could be revealed
criterion of the farmers (n = 510 farmers) in from the data presented in Table 8.
the red and laterite agro-climatic zones of West
Bengal The study revealed that the animals suffered
from severe deficiency of Ca and Zn while the in-
Land Feeding regime of Percentage
holding animals take of P was just marginal. Intake of Cu was
(acre) adequate and that of Fe and Mn was well above
the respective requirement levels. A closer scrutiny
Landless Only grazing 1.8
of the mineral concentration of the locally available
1-2 Grazing + paddy straw 18.8
feeds and fodder fed to the animals would help
6-7 Grazing + limited
further to explain these observations.
amount of a single
unit concentrate 40.2 The study revealed that the existing feeding
3-4 Grazing + paddy regimen could fulfill the requirements for mainte-
straw + single unit nance of the animals only and not for any additional
concentrate (mustard productive purpose.
oil cake) 18.0
A digestibility trial under field captivity was con-
8-10 Grazing + compounded
feed) + paddy straw + ducted in which 12 animals were fed with a control
mineral mixture 1.2 diet simulating the feeding regimen followed by the
category IV farmers (Table 7) and a similar number
It appears from the above table that the farm- of animals were fed with the same diet but were
ers, except those belonging to Category V, followed supplemented with 75 mg elemental Cu, 202.5 mg
the traditional feeding system based on grazing and elemental Zn, 150 mg elemental Mn, 10.6 g Ca and
paddy straw for their cattle. These animals hardly 8.2 g P. The trace elements were supplemented as
received any supplemental mineral and, hence, were sulfated salts while Ca and P were supplemented as
Table 8. Intake of dry matter (kg), macro (%) and micro (ppm) elements in cows grazing on the red and laterite soil
(n = 274)
Body weight Dry matter Ca P Cu Fe Zn Mn
Maximum estimated requirement
0.43-0.60 0.31-0.40 8.0 50.0 40.0 40.0
<120 3.47 0.28 0.36 11.3 492 22.8 205.5
121-140 3.55 0.29 0.35 11.7 496 23.8 212.4
141-160 3.47 0.31 0.39 12.3 531 25.3 224.1
160-180 3.64 0.35 0.35 11.5 486 23.5 207.3
Mean 3.53 0.29 0.36 11.7 501 23.9 212.4

Table 9. Macro (%) and micro (ppm) mineral status of feed stuffs in the red and laterite agro-climatic zone of West
Bengal†
Feed/fodder Ca P Mg Cu Fe Zn Mn
Paddy straw 0.27 (57.1) 0.08 (100) 0.17 (71.4) 7.94 (64.3) 188.9 17.3 (92.9) 136
Pasture grass 0.37 (39) 0.58 0.32 (15) 18.3 904 31.7 (39) 312
Rice husk 0.17 (86) 0.57 0.301 8.68 (92.9) 550 23.6 (92.9) 223
Mustard cake 0.53 1.00 0.51 15.4 285 37.8 113
Tree leaves 0.72 0.44 (16.6) 0.44 19.9 (16.6) 314 9.45 (66.6) 162
† The figures in parenthesis indicate the percentage of samples showing concentrations below the minimum critical
level (minimum sample size n = 30)
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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India TROPNUTRICON - 2007

di-calcium phosphate. The cows were fed in stalls
with rice husk, mustard oil cake, paddy straw and
freshly cut pasture grass for a period of 6 months.
Before formulating the supplementation strategy the
bioavailability of the mineral elements from the feed
sources were not considered. The mixture was top
dressed on the concentrate mixture every day.
The digestibility coefficient of dry matter, or-
ganic matter and crude protein increased signifi-
cantly (P<0.05) due to the supplementation of the
mineral combination. Intake of digestible crude pro-
tein increased by 140 g/animal/day and that of TDN
increased by 420 g/animal/day in the cows receiv-
ing the supplemental mineral mixture. Interestingly,
intake of dry matter and other nutrients per se did
not vary due to mineral supplementation which sug-
gests that a strategic supplementation regimen of
minerals could effectively enhance the bio-availabil-
ity of the organic nutrients without appreciably in-
creasing the nutrient intake. This in turn, may lead
to an increased feed utilization efficiency and ensure
a positive energy balance. It may be noted that Fe
was not supplemented in the diet owing to its high
concentration in the feeds and the fodder. Mn was
supplemented to counter a possible antagonism in
tation strategy was the improvement in the repro-
ductive performance of the animals (Table 9) which
is suggestive of the beneficial impact the mineral
supplementation do impart on the reproductive
performance of the anestrous dairy cows and heif-
ers. All the animals selected for the above study
were suffering from anestrous with no apparent ab-
normality in the reproductive system from the ana-
tomical and pathological point of view. Under nu-
trition causes failure or cessation of estrus cycle
and may delay sexual maturity in heifers. The present
study reveals that a judicious supplementation of
mineral elements may improve the physiological and
reproductive performance of the indigenous cattle
population very much prone to nutritional deficiency
due to feeding regimens highly skewed towards
grazing and paddy straw with little supplementation
of concentrates and practically no mineral elements
added in the diet.
Table 10. Reproductive performance of cows and heifers
maintained under semi intensive management
system in the red and laterite agro-climatic
0.8
0.7 zone of West Bengal supplemented with spe-
0.6 cific major and trace elements*
0.5
0.4 Variable Cow Heifer
0.3

the gut that may take place due to the higher Fe 0.2 n 55 51
0.1
ingestion and Cu was supplemented just as a sort 0 Age, yr. 7.5 4.4***
of a "top up" strategy. BodyDry
weight,
matter kg 137.2 Crude protein120.4
Organic matter

Calf per cow -'(#) 2.4

supplement +' supplement -
Animals showing 40 (72.7) 34 (66.7)
estrus (#)
Days to estrus 87.3 91.6
Animals 37 (67.3) 25 (49)
conceived (#)
Service per 1.56 1.49
conception (#)
*The values represent the cumulative observation of a
period spanning over 6 months. All the animals had
been suffering from a condition of anestrous of non-
Fig. 4 Digestibility coefficients of nutrients in cows specific etiology. The reproductive system did not show
receiving specific major and trace element any anatomical or pathological abnormality. Figures in
supplementation parenthesis indicate the percentage of total number of
animals with estrus or pregnancy.
The most intriguing aspect of the supplemen-

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 Silver Jubilee Year of Animal Nutrition Society of India
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