Documentos de Académico
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UNIT I
Unit: m3 / kg.
2. Name the devices that are used to measure the pressure of a fluid. [N/D-14]
The Device used to measuring Fluid Pressure, by the Gauges is,
Piezometer Tube
.Manometer.
3. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of 1 litre of liquid which
weighs 7 N. [A/M-15]
Solution:
Given V 1litre m
W=7N
Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments
used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit are called pressure gauges or vacuum
gauges. A manometer is a good example as it uses a column of liquid to both measure and
indicate pressure. Likewise the widely used Bourdon gauge is a mechanical device which both
measures and indicates, and is probably the best known type of gauge.
A vacuum gauge is an absolute pressure gauge used to measure the pressures lower than the
ambient atmospheric pressure.
Other methods of pressure measurement involve sensors which can transmit the pressure reading
to a remote indicator or control system.
5. Define Centre of Pressure [M/J-16]
The center of pressure is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing
a force to act through that point. The total force vector acting at the center of pressure is the value of
the integrated vectorial pressure field. The resultant force and center of pressure location produce
equivalent force and moment on the body as the original pressure field. Pressure fields occur in both
static and dynamic fluid mechanics.
Diameter D = 0.5 m
du = 2.62 m/s
dy = 1mm = 0.001 m
(4)
A Newtonian fluid's viscosity remains constant, no matter the amount of shear applied for a constant
temperature.. These fluids have a linear relationship between viscosity and shear stress.
Non-Newtonian fluids
You can probably guess that non-Newtonian fluids are the opposite of Newtonian fluids. When shear is
applied to non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity of the fluid changes.
If V is the fluid velocity on a small element of a defined curve, and dl is a vector representing
the differential length of that small element, the contribution of that differential length to circulation
is dΓ:
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the time rate of change of momentum of a fluid mass in
any direction is equal to the sum of all the external forces in that direction, i.e.,
F = d(M V)/dt
where F is the force, M is the mass and V is the velocity.
3. Write the continuity equation in three dimensional differential form for compressible
fluids [A/M-15]
Conservation of mass is the basis for continuity equation. Mass can neither be created nor
destroyed. In a given control volume, the net mass rate of inflow into the control volume is equal to
the rate of change of mass.
Streamlines are a family of curves that are instantaneously tangent to the velocity vector of the flow.
These show the direction in which a massless fluid element will travel at any point in time.
Streak lines are the loci of points of all the fluid particles that have passed continuously through a
particular spatial point in the past. Dye steadily injected into the fluid at a fixed point extends along a
streak line.
1. In a two – two dimensional incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are given by
u = x – 4y and v= - y – 4x. Show that velocity potential exists and determine its form. Find also
the stream function. [N/D-14]
2. A ventrimeter of inlet diameter 300 mm and throat diameter 150 mm is inserted in vertical pipe
carrying water flowing in the upward direction. A differential mercury manometer connected to the
inlet and throat gives a reading of 200 mm. Find the discharge if the co-efficient of discharge of
meter is 0.98. [N/D-14]
3. Find the density of a metallic body which floats at the interface of mercury of sp. Gr 13.6 and
water such that 40% of its volume is sub-merged in mercury and 60% in water. [A/M-15]
4. An oil of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through a horizontal venturimeter having a inlet diameter
200 mm and throat diameter 100 mm. The oil – mercury differential manometer shows a reading of
250 mm, calculate the discharge of oil through the venturimeter. Take Cd = 0.98.
[A/M-15]
5. (a) Water flows through a pipe AB 1.2m diameter at 3m/s and then passes through a pipe BC 1.5m
diameter. At C, the pipe branches. Branch CD is 0.8m in diameter and carries one- third of the flow
in AB. The flow velocity in branch CE is 2.5m/s. Find the volume rate of flow in AB, the velocity in
BC, the velocity in CD and diameter of CE. [M/J-16]
6. (b)State Bernoulli’s theorem for steady flow of an incompressible fluid. Derive an expression for
Bernoulli’s equation from first principle and state the assumptions made for such a derivation.
[M/J-16]
UNIT III
1. Sketch the shear stress and velocity distribution for laminar flow across a pipe
section.[N/D-14]
A flow is said to be laminar if Reynolds number is less than 2000 for pipe flow.
Laminar flow is possible only at low velocities and high viscous fluids. In laminar
type of flow, fluid particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the
adjacent layer.
2. List the major and minor losses encountered in pipe flow. [N/D-14]
There are two types of energy losses in flow through pipes:
Major energy loss due to frictional resistance offered by the pipe; and
Minor energy losses due to sudden expansion or contraction of the pipe, bend, pipe fittings, etc.
Minor losses are very small in magnitude compared to major losses.
3. Distinguish between hydraulic gradient and energy gradient [A/M-15]
If a piezometer tube is introduced at a section in a pipe flow carrying a liquid, the liquid will rise to a
height equivalent to the pressure head at that section. The sum of pressure head and potential head
is termed as hydraulic or piezometric head. The line joining the points of hydraulic head at various
sections is termed as hydraulic grade line.
H =P/ρg+v2/2g+zP/ρg+v2/2g+z,
where,
H= total head ,
Now subtract the kinetic head from the total energy (H) , then the lines you would get are Hydraulic
Gradient lines (you can also say that these lines contains piezometric head )
4. What are the causes of major and minor losses in pipes [A/M-15]
There will be resistance to the fluid motion due to viscous effects of the fluid as well as due to the
internal surface roughnous of the pipe. This resistance has to be overcome for the flow to be
sustained and hence there will be energy losses taking place in a pipe flows.
5. What is hydraulic gradient line? State its applications. [M/J-16]
If a piezometer tube is introduced at a section in a pipe flow carrying a liquid, the liquid will rise to a
height equivalent to the pressure head at that section. The sum of pressure head and potential head
is termed as hydraulic or piezometric head. The line joining the points of hydraulic head at various
sections is termed as hydraulic grade line.
1. What are the different methods of preventing the separation of boundary layers?[N/D-14]
The total drag on a body is attributed to form drag and skin friction drag. In some flow
configurations, the contribution of form drag becomes significant.
In order to reduce the form drag, the boundary layer separation should be prevented or delayed so
that better pressure recovery takes place and the form drag is reduced considerably. There are
some popular methods for this purpose which are stated as follows.
1. This has an elongated shape in the rear part to reduce the magnitude of the pressure gradient.
2. The optimum contour for a streamlined body is the one for which the wake zone is very narrow
and the form drag is minimum.
ii. The injection of fluid through porous wall can also control the boundary layer separation. This is
generally accomplished by blowing high energy fluid particles tangentially from the location where
separation would have taken place otherwise.
The reduction in form drag is quite significant and increase in skin friction drag can be ignored.
It is defined as ratio of the shear stress τo to the quantity ρU2/2, which is denoted by CD*
as:
CD* = τo/(ρU2/2)
where τo is shear stress;
ρ is density of the fluid;
and U is main stream velocity.
4. State the boundary conditions for the velocity profiles in a boundary layer. (A/M - 15)
The following are boundary conditions, which must be satisfied by any velocity profile
whether it is laminar or turbulent boundary layer.
Reynold’s number is defined as the ratio between the inertial forces of the flowing fluid and the
viscous forces of the fluid. Mathematically, it is given as:
Re = Fi/Fv = ρ V L/ µ
Forces encountered in flowing fluids include those due to inertia, viscosity, pressure,
gravity, surface tension and compressibility. These forces can be written as follows;
Inertia force: m.a V (dV/dt) V L 2 2
Flow Similarity
In order to achieve similarity between model and prototype behavior, all the
corresponding pi terms must be equated to satisfy the following conditions.
Geometric similarity: A model and prototype are geometric similar if and only if all
body dimensions in all three coordinates have the same linear-scale ratio. In order to
have geometric similarity between the model and prototype, the model and the
prototype should be of the same shape, all the linear dimensions of the model can be
related to corresponding dimensions of the prototype by a constant scale factor.
Usually, one or more of these pi terms will involve ratios of important lengths, which
are purely geometrical in nature.
Kinematic similarity: The motions of two systems are kinematically similar if
homogeneous particles lie at same points at same times. In a specific sense, the
velocities at corresponding points are in the same direction (i.e. same streamline
patterns) and are related in magnitude by a constant scale factor.
Dynamic similarity: When two flows have force distributions such that identical types
of forces are parallel and are related in magnitude by a constant scale factor at all
corresponding points, then the flows are dynamic similar. For a model and prototype,
the dynamic similarity exists, when both of them have same length-scale ratio, timescale
ratio and force-scale (or mass-scale ratio).
In order to have complete similarity between the model and prototype, all the
similarity flow conditions must be maintained. This will automatically follow if all
the important variables are included in the dimensional analysis and if all the
similarity requirements based on the resulting pi terms are satisfied. For example, in
compressible flows, the model and prototype should have same Reynolds number,
Mach number and specific heat ratio etc. If the flow is incompressible (without free
surface), then same Reynolds numbers for model and prototype can satisfy the
complete similarity.
5. A prototype gate valve which will control the flow in a pipe system conveying paraffin is to
be studied in a model. List the significant variables on which the pressure drop across the
valve would depend. Perform dimensional analysis to obtain the relevant non-dimensional
groups.
A 1/5 scale model is built to determine the pressure drop across the valve with water as the
working fluid.
(a) For a particular opening, when the velocity of paraffin in the prototype is 3.0 m s–1 what
should be the velocity of water in the model for dynamic similarity?
(b) What is the ratio of the quantities of flow in prototype and model?
(c) Find the pressure drop in the prototype if it is 60 kPa in the model.
(The density and viscosity of paraffin are 800 kg m–3 and 0.002 kg m–1 s–1 respectively. Take
–6 m2 s–1). [M/J-16]
6. A ship model of scale 1/50 is towed through sea water at a speed of 1 m/s. A force of 2 N is
required to tow the model. Determine the speed of the ship and the propulsive force on the ship. If
the prototype is subjected to wave resistance only. [M/J-16]